Land Degrad Dev - 2022 - Timsina - Tropical Surface Gold Mining A Review of Ecological Impacts and Restoration Strategies

Received: 9 December 2021 Revised: 2 June 2022 Accepted: 24 July 2022
DOI: 10.1002/ldr.4430
REVIEW ARTICLE
Tropical surface gold mining: A review of ecological impacts

and restoration strategies
Shrabya Timsina1 | Nora G. Hardy1 | David J. Woodbury1 |

1 2
Mark S. Ashton | Susan C. Cook-Patton | Rachel Pasternack3 |
4
Meredith P. Martin
1
The Forest School, School of the
Environment, Yale University, New Haven, Abstract
Connecticut, USA
Surface gold mining severely degrades landscapes, causing deforestation, soil erosion
2
Global Natural Climate Solutions Science
Team, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, and displacement, and toxic contamination. The prevalence of both large-scale and
Virginia, USA artisanal, small-scale surface gold mining in the tropics has risen over recent decades.
3
Natural Climate Solutions Team, The Nature
Restoration strategies developed for less-severe forms of degradation may not suffi-
Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA
4 ciently address the unique ecological conditions of former gold mines. In this review,
College of Natural Resources, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA we summarize biophysical challenges to the restoration and reforestation of large-
Correspondence
and small-scale gold mines in the tropics and synthesize the findings of studies that
Nora G. Hardy, The Forest School, School of test restoration strategies at these sites. Certain practices, such as the backfilling of
the Environment, Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut, USA
mined pits, topsoil conservation, and the preservation of local seed sources, emerge
Email: [email protected] from the literature as crucial for the timely and effective restoration of gold mines.
Funding information
However, because the severity of ecological degradation varies greatly within and
Nature Conservancy, Grant/Award Number: between individual mines, and given the relatively small number (n = 42) of published
P117456; Yale University; The Nature
tropical field studies found in our literature review, we highlight a clear need for con-
Conservancy
tinued research and development of restoration strategies specific to ecological con-
ditions of former gold mines in the tropics.
KEYWORDS
ASGM, gold, mine reclamation, reforestation, surface mining, tropical restoration
1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N et al., 2012), and leads to intense soil disturbance such as the displace-
ment of topsoil, loss of edaphic biological activity, heavy-metal con-
Restoration of degraded landscapes in the tropics has the potential to tamination, and nutrient-leaching (Ahirwal et al., 2016; Sheoran
conserve biodiversity, sequester carbon, and promote sustainable live- et al., 2010). Prevailing restoration methods are generally designed to
lihoods (Chazdon et al., 2009; Lamb et al., 2005; Poorter et al., 2016). recover landscapes after agriculture and logging and are often insuffi-
However, land-use history and extent of degradation significantly cient to address degradation due to surface mining (Ahirwal &
influence restoration's pace and trajectory (Chazdon, 2008). The most Pandey, 2020; Woodbury et al., 2020).
severe forms of anthropogenic land degradation, such as those caused Within the surface mining industry, the mining of gold through
by surface mining, present significant restoration challenges for practi- ecologically destructive techniques such as open-pit mining and
tioners and affected communities (Ahirwal & Pandey, 2020). Surface dredging (Haldar, 2013), represents a growing environmental threat in
mining causes 7% of deforestation in developing nations (Hosonuma the tropics. Regions such as the Guiana Shield, south-central
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3662 TIMSINA ET AL.
Amazonia, West Africa, and Western Australia all have significant contamination, and presenting grave health risks to affected rural
deposits of gold (Hammond et al., 2007), and data from 2018 indi- communities (Alvarez-Berríos & Aide, 2015; Betancur-Corredor
cated that tropical nations produced about 43% of the global gold et al., 2018; Gibb & O'Leary, 2014).
supply (Alexander et al., 2019). Consequently, surface gold mining is a Despite the severity and pervasiveness of the degradation caused
substantial driver of deforestation in heavily-mined areas such as by surface gold mining, this represents the first review analyzing the
French Guiana, the Madre de Dios region of Peru, the Antioquia ecological fate of former tropical gold mines and the restoration tech-
region of Colombia (Dezécache et al., 2017; Espejo et al., 2018), and niques available to rehabilitate or reclaim these converted landscapes.
western Ghana (Schueler et al., 2011). In recent decades, successive We summarize the biophysical effects of surface gold mining, noting
surges in the international price of gold have driven an unprecedented the differences between large-scale and artisanal, small-scale gold
expansion of both formal and clandestine gold mining, particularly mining (ASGM) operations. We examine the response of the natural
operations in Amazonia (Asner et al., 2013; Hammond et al., 2007) plant community after mine closure or abandonment and then assess
and equatorial Africa (Armah et al., 2013; Schueler et al., 2011). It is potential active restoration techniques. Although we focus on gold
becoming increasingly economically feasible to extract gold from low- mining here, many of the impacts and restoration options covered by
grade deposits, threatening protected tropical biodiversity hotspots our review apply to surface mines of other minerals in the tropics
and major waterways with physical degradation and chemical (e.g., bauxite, copper, and iron).
F I G U R E 1 Left—A large gold mining pit in Guyana (image by Michelle Kalamandeen). Right—An aerial photo of a large-scale opencast gold
mine in Namibia. In large-scale gold mining operations, vast areas of land are converted to construct access roads, mining pits, overburden heaps,
and tailings storage facilities (image by Hanspeter Baumeler) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
F I G U R E 2 Left—an isolated ASGM site in the Amazon (image by Sue Palminteri/Mongabay). Right—an aerial photo depicting the
considerable extent of ASGM operations in the Peruvian Amazon (image by Rhett A. Butler/Mongabay) [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
TIMSINA ET AL. 3663
2 | S C A L E S A N D M O D A L I T I E S OF involves the removal of the soil using machinery such as excavators to

O P E R A T I ON S dig open pits in floodplain deposits or suction pumps to dredge
streambed deposits. Operations increasingly feature pressurized
Throughout this review, we differentiate between the two spatial hydraulic jets to dislodge large volumes of deposits and wash them
scales of surface gold mining operations prevalent in the tropics: into sluices (flow-regulated channels where heavy metals are gravity-
large-scale surface mining, and ASGM (Figures 1 and 2). These two separated) (Byizigiro et al., 2015; Hammond et al., 2007).
scales of operations employ very different actors and use different If gravity separation methods cannot produce concentrates with
mining techniques (Hammond et al., 2007), meriting separate assess- over 20% gold—the level of purity required for the smelting process—
ments of both ecological impacts and restoration potential. then artisanal miners use a mercury amalgamation process. Mercury
forms an alloy (amalgam) with gold, chemically separating it from
other minerals (Hammond et al., 2007; Telmer & Veiga, 2009). ASGM
2.1 | Large-scale gold mining operations generally use mercury amalgamation rather than cyanida-
tion because it is more cost-efficient and accessible (Telmer &
National and transnational corporations operate large surface gold Veiga, 2009). Often, ASGM operations abandon open dumps of
mines and are part of the formal economy. These large mines produce mercury-contaminated tailings, allowing effluent to discharge into the
about 85% of the world's gold supply (Metcalf & Veiga, 2012). Although surrounding environment (Fashola et al., 2016).
the largest producers are in temperate zones, gold mining is on the rise
in the tropics: between 2018 and 2019, large mines in Indonesia, Mali,
the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burkina Faso, and Chile had the 3 | B I O P HY SI C A L D E GR A DA T I O N FROM
greatest increases in gold production (Alexander et al., 2019). S U R F A C E GO L D M I N I N G I N TH E T R O P I C S
A single large-scale surface gold mine typically employs hundreds
of workers, including skilled staff using advanced technologies We categorize degradation caused by large-scale gold mining and
(Bury, 2004), and processes over 500,000 Mg of ore annually ASGM into three main categories: deforestation, soil degradation, and
(Hammond et al., 2007) using open-cast techniques, in which gold ore toxic contamination (Table 1). We describe how these changes to the
deposits are extracted from deep and expansive open pits. The primary biotic and abiotic environment, and associated social conditions, pose
method of refining, utilized by formal industrial operations since the unique challenges to restoration efforts at former tropical gold mine
1880s, is ‘cyanidation’, in which the mined ore is soaked in a dilute sites.
solution of sodium cyanide (NaCN) to leach out gold (Hilson &
Monhemius, 2006). Remnants of processed and leached deposits, called
‘tailings’, are transported to tailings storage facilities for long-term stor- 3.1 | Deforestation
age (Lottermoser, 2010). Tailings solids are often piled to construct ‘tail-
ings dams’ which embank ‘tailings ponds’—large lagoons of effluents The degree of forest loss depends on the type and scale of mining
and slurry waste from the mining process (Festin et al., 2019) (Figure 1). methods employed. Large-scale projects typically involve signifi-
In most modern large-scale gold mining operations, over 99% of the cant deforestation at the operation level, removing vegetation to
originally mined ore eventually becomes tailings (Lottermoser, 2010). construct vast pits, tailings storage facilities, access roads, and
other infrastructure (Alvarez-Berríos & Aide, 2015). While global
estimates of deforestation due to surface gold mining are not avail-
2.2 | Artisanal and small-scale gold mining able, regional studies demonstrate the industry's impact. In
Colombia, for example, large gold mining operations cleared
As of 2009, an estimated 70 countries across the globe had a docu- 31,554 ha of forest between 2001 and 2018—a greater area than
mented presence of ASGM, 65 of which were nations in the tropics was deforested for any other mined mineral (González-González
and subtropics (Telmer & Veiga, 2009). Globally, ASGM operations et al., 2021). Particularly, in Antioquia, the Country's main gold-
produce around 350 Mg of gold per year, or about 15% of the global mining region, legal mining caused 24% of local deforestation in
gold supply (Metcalf & Veiga, 2012). Up to 15 million people across 2018 (González-González et al., 2021).
the globe directly practice ASGM (Metcalf & Veiga, 2012), while 80 to ASGM's contribution to deforestation is not well documented in
100 million people rely on ASGM for some portion of their livelihoods most regions, and is likely underestimated due to the small size and/or
(Armah et al., 2013). Many artisanal gold miners come from socially illegality of individual projects. Moreover, ASGM often occurs in eco-
and economically marginalized communities (Armah et al., 2013). logically sensitive old-growth forests, riparian zones, and wetlands
ASGM operations involve small groups of individuals, often from (Alvarez-Berríos & Aide, 2015; Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015). In
rural and immigrant communities, who process small volumes of ore well-documented ASGM hotspots in the Guiana Shield and the Madre
over small areas (Hammond et al., 2007)—in some cases, illegally de Dios region of Peru, small-scale gold mining is a primary driver of
(Fisher et al., 2018; Naughton, 1993). While ASGM traditionally land-use conversion, outpacing logging, agriculture, and ranching
evokes images of low-impact methods like panning, it now commonly (Peterson & Heemskerk, 2001; Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015).
3664 TIMSINA ET AL.
TABLE 1 Summarizes the main environmental and social challenges associated with ASGM and large-scale surface gold mine restoration in
the tropics
Challenges to
restoration Artisanal and small-scale Large-scale
Deforestation • Removal of smaller areas of riparian forest • Removal of large patches of forest for mining pits, access
roads, and housing for miners
Soil degradation • Pits usually left unfilled; topsoil not retained • Topsoil often lost or degraded during excavation, storage,
and backfilling processes
• Erosion of riverbank and riverbed, leading to • Erosion of tailings and overburden heaps; dam collapse
sedimentation and pollution of aquatic ecosystems can occur in the most severe cases
• Remnant substrate has lowered amounts of available • Remnant substrate has lowered amounts of available
nutrients, reduced biological activity, and is often more nutrients, reduced biological activity, and is often more
acidic acidic
Toxic byproducts • Mercury • Cyanide; Heavy metals; Acid Mine Drainage
Social challenges • Often illegal and/or poorly regulated; little incentive for • Laws requiring rehabilitation vary by region; enforcement
restoration is often haphazard
• Many miners live in poverty
Between 2010 and 2017, an estimated 57,000 ha of forest in the Gui- operations using heavy machinery can also dislodge significant vol-
ana Shield and 60,000 ha in Peru were lost due to gold mining, the umes of soil, often enough to destabilize riverbanks and hillsides, and
majority to small-scale operations (Espejo et al., 2018; Kalamandeen wash high loads of suspended solids into streams (Byizigiro
et al., 2020). et al., 2015; Moreno-Brush et al., 2016).
Extensive deforestation creates additional challenges to restora- Erosion continues to be a challenge for restoration efforts even
tion efforts beyond an immediate loss of vegetation. When limited after the mining process has ceased. Steeply-sloped stockpiles and
remnant forest patches are left to supply seeds to denuded land- tailings dams are prone to erosion by wind and overland flow, particu-
scapes, natural regeneration is much slower to occur, hindering the larly when left unvegetated (Blight, 1991; Nsiah & Schaaf, 2019a;
process of ecological succession and forest recovery; see Section 4.2 Windsor & Clements, 2001). Erosion depletes organic content and
on natural regeneration (Pollo et al., 2011; Valois-Cuesta et al., 2017). nutrient-holding clay-size particles in topsoil stockpiles, limiting the
Additionally, deforestation has a compounding effect on erosion, effectiveness of post-closure soil recapping and revegetation efforts,
accelerating soil loss and the spread of contaminants from the mining especially in tropical areas where mineral soils are naturally weathered
process throughout ecosystems (Diringer et al., 2020). and nutrient-poor (Ashton & Seidler, 2014; Jordan, 1985; Sousa
et al., 2008). The erosion of tailings dams can cause contaminants to
seep into the surrounding environment (Daniell et al., 2019; Festin
3.2 | Soil degradation et al., 2019) and in the most extreme cases, can lead to dam collapse,
endangering miners and neighboring communities (Hilson &
Both large-scale and ASGM operations involve significant mechanical Monhemius, 2006; Nsiah & Schaaf, 2019a).
and chemical manipulation of the earth during the extraction and pro-
cessing of gold ore. These processes result in chronic and acute forms
of soil degradation in both active and abandoned surface gold mines, 3.2.2 | Soil fertility
including soil erosion, infertility, and toxicity. This soil degradation
limits the rate and form of natural recolonization of abandoned sites In addition to erosion, surface mining reduces soil fertility by intermix-
by plants and soil biota. ing the nutrient- and organic matter-rich topsoil with newly exposed
rocky, nutrient-poor subsoils, and by producing infertile tailings
(Festin et al., 2019). Physically, remnant subsoils at both active and
3.2.1 | Soil dislodgement and erosion abandoned sites are typically gravelly and sandy (Eludoyin
et al., 2017; Guedron et al., 2009; Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015),
Surface gold mining involves soil dislodgement during the mining pro- while tailings are composed of fine sand and silt-sized particles
cess. In large-scale gold mining operations, immense quantities of (Orlekowsky et al., 2013; Rossouw et al., 2009), and lacking clay. The
overlying soil and waste rock (called ‘overburden’) are unearthed to lack of organic matter and clay in remnant subsoils and tailings results
extract gold deposits. At the Geita Gold Mine in Tanzania, for exam- in poor cohesion and limited capacity to retain moisture and nutrients.
3
ple, a single open-pit operation excavated over 81 million m of over- Some remnant substrates may also become highly compacted by the
burden, altering local topography enough to divert streams nearly use of heavy machinery (Peláez et al., 2013), limiting plant
3 km away from their original channels (Emel et al., 2014). ASGM establishment.
TIMSINA ET AL. 3665
Chemically, remnant substrates and tailings typically have lower 3.3.1 | Acid mine drainage
nutrient levels, including organic C (dos Santos et al., 2013; Eludoyin
et al., 2017; Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015), total N (Mulligan Gold-bearing ore and surrounding rock often contain high concentra-
et al., 2006; Sheoran et al., 2010) and available P, Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, and tions of heavy metal sulfides, particularly pyrite (FeS2)
Na+ (Eludoyin et al., 2017). With lower cation exchange capacity than (Lottermoser, 2010). When heavy metal sulfides previously bound in
nearby forest and agricultural lands (Eludoyin et al., 2017; Orlekowsky rock are brought to the surface during ore excavation, they react with
et al., 2013), these substrates often do not hold onto essential nutri- oxygen in air and water to create sulfuric acid. This oxidation process
ents in plant-available forms. These substrates are typically acidic leads to acid mine drainage (AMD), which exacerbates the leaching of
(Eludoyin et al., 2017), leading to higher levels of bioavailable toxic heavy metals into surrounding ecosystems and acidifies streams
metals and metalloids (Bruce et al., 2003). However, tailings dams can (Fashola et al., 2016). AMD disrupts aquatic food webs from the
have a wide variation in pH and may even be alkaline depending on bottom-up, destroying habitat and food access as streambeds become
the chemical reagents involved in mining and the substrates' position coated with solid precipitates (Kefeni et al., 2017; Naicker et al., 2003;
on the dam slope (Mulligan et al., 2006; Rossouw et al., 2009). Oberholster et al., 2013). AMD can affect expansive areas surround-
Gold mining can also have negative impacts on soil biology. For- ing gold mines; in South Africa, for example, groundwater over 10 km
mer gold mine sites in Brazil had significantly lower soil microbial bio- from a gold mining area was found to be contaminated by AMD
mass than an unmined reference site (dos Santos et al., 2013). (Naicker et al., 2003).
Microbial community composition also shifts, with more autotrophic
and fewer heterotrophic organisms present at gold mines, slowing
nutrient cycling (Prasetyo et al., 2010; Rosario et al., 2007). However, 3.3.2 | Mercury
there is a need for more research on how these changes to the soil
microbiome will impact restoration efforts. Mercury used to refine gold in ASGM operations represents the larg-
est global source of anthropogenic mercury emissions (US EPA, 2014),
released into both the atmosphere and lithosphere (Telmer &
3.3 | Toxicity and contamination Veiga, 2009). While miners are directly exposed to mercury vapor dur-
ing amalgamation, neighboring communities that consume fish from
Contaminants from the gold mining process can enter surrounding contaminated rivers are also affected (Fréry et al., 2001; Gibb &
ecosystems through purposeful dumping, gradual leaching, and tail- O'Leary, 2014). In acidic, organic matter-rich river sediments, elemen-
ings dam collapses, degrading adjacent soils, polluting waterways, and tal mercury used in ASGM undergoes abiotic and biotic (bacteria-
poisoning organisms (Hilson & Monhemius, 2006; Miserendino mediated) methylation reactions to form methylmercury, a toxic
et al., 2013). During the ore excavation process, heavy metals previ- organic compound that is readily absorbed by aquatic organisms and
ously bound in underlying rocks are released into surface soils and biomagnifies at higher trophic levels (Veiga, 1997). Chronic and acute
waterways. Elevated levels of heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, exposure to methylmercury harms the central nervous system, and
zinc, and copper have been documented in the remnant substrates of can irreversibly damage neurodevelopment of fetuses in utero (Poulin
former ASGM sites (Eludoyin et al., 2017; Salami et al., 2003), while et al., 2008). Despite the risks of mercury accumulation in humans
high concentrations of arsenic, nickel, and cobalt are often present in and animals from ASGM, concentrations in river water and sediment
wastes from large-scale operations (Antwi et al., 2017; Bruce at ASGM sites are often variable, and difficult to distinguish from
et al., 2003; Fashola et al., 2016; Orlekowsky et al., 2013). After exca- background mercury levels from natural emission sources (Howard
vation, ore purification processes introduce further contaminants: et al., 2011; Moreno-Brush et al., 2016; Pfeiffer et al., 1989), though
mercury is primarily used in ASGM, and cyanide in large-scale opera- recent advances in isotopic analyses promise more accurate tracking
tions. Contamination from gold mines can be far-reaching; at a large- of ASGM-associated mercury movement through aquatic ecosystems
scale operation in Tanzania, for example, streams carrying contami- (Schudel et al., 2019). Depending on local hydrology, downstream
nants have affected up to 37 km2 of cultivated land throughout the areas may experience higher levels of contamination than mined sites
surrounding watershed (Emel et al., 2014). (Marrugo-Negrete et al., 2015; Miserendino et al., 2013).
Rainfall patterns can influence the spread and severity of contam-
ination from gold mines. For instance, intense rainfall increases the
erosion of contaminant-bearing surfaces and the dispersion of toxins 3.3.3 | Cyanide
(Winde & Jacobus van der Walt, 2004; Zaidi et al., 2012). Gold mines
in areas of the wet tropics that receive high levels of year-round rain- Cyanide is used to extract gold from ore in large-scale mining opera-
fall, therefore, may be at higher risk of contaminant spread compared tions and is often present in tailings and leached ore
to drier tropical and temperate regions. However, hourly changes in (Lottermoser, 2010). Cyanide is toxic to all animal life and can be
precipitation can affect the delivery of contaminants into streams, absorbed through the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes, preventing
with very heavy rainfall events temporarily diluting contaminant con- cellular oxygen utilization (Kulig & Ballantyne, 1991). While most con-
centrations (Davies et al., 2011). taminants present in gold mines are heavy metals or metalloids,
3666 TIMSINA ET AL.
cyanide is a notable exception. In contrast to these other contami- ASGM makes it difficult to regulate at the national level (Miserendino
nants, cyanide is capable of being degraded into non-toxic compo- et al., 2013; Sousa, Veiga, Van Zyl, et al., 2011). Additionally, mining
nents by acclimatized microbiota (Akcil et al., 2003). While cyanide communities tend to experience high rates of extreme poverty, vio-
can be lethal to plants when present in high concentrations, at lower lent crime, and disease (Betancur-Corredor et al., 2018) and have few
doses, some plants can metabolize cyanide into an amino acid, aspara- alternative sources of income (Schueler et al., 2011). Alternative gold
gine (Trapp & Christiansen, 2003). Despite its lesser persistence in the refining methods often require knowledge, technology, and invest-
environment, the management of cyanide-laden waste is very impor- ment that is not accessible to miners (Hilson, 2006; Veiga, 1997).
tant, because breaches and failures in tailings dams can release high
concentrations of cyanide into adjacent soils and waterways, which
can be lethal to wildlife and people (Hilson & Monhemius, 2006). Ani- 3.4.2 | Social challenges to large-scale gold mine
mals that come in contact with unnetted cyanide-containing tailings restoration
ponds are also at risk of poisoning and death (Donato et al., 2007;
Eisler & Wiemeyer, 2004). In many regions, laws require large mining companies to rehabilitate
mine sites after closure. However, legal requirements vary greatly
between nations, enforcement may be haphazard, and successional
3.3.4 | Contamination and plant growth trajectories may not be headed towards the proposed reference eco-
systems (Ahirwal & Pandey, 2020; Hayati et al., 2021; Woodbury
The impact of contamination on plant growth is of particular concern et al., 2020). Many developing nations in the tropics have weaker
for restoration projects. At low concentrations, common gold mine environmental legislation and enforcement, and in some cases, cor-
contaminants like mercury and cyanide appear to have a negligible ruption within governing bodies limits the effectiveness of mine recla-
effect on terrestrial plant growth (Ekyastuti et al., 2016; Kalamandeen mation policy (Hayati et al., 2021; Holden & Jacobson, 2008). In
et al., 2020; Trapp & Christiansen, 2003). However, higher concentra- Brazil, for example, mining companies are required to restore ecosys-
tions of some forms of cyanide can be lethal to plants, while a build- tems to as close to pre-mine conditions as possible, but the current
up of mercury in soil and water can reduce germination rates, root legal structure provides limited guidance on appropriate restoration
development, and aboveground growth of plants (Patra & targets and techniques (Gastauer et al., 2019), and environmental
Sharma, 2000; Trapp & Christiansen, 2003). High concentrations of fines for noncompliance are rarely enforced (Volckhausen, 2020). In
other heavy metals can also directly limit plant establishment and Cameroon and Ghana, enforcement of mine rehabilitation policy is
growth, or indirectly affect vegetation productivity by making soils also inconsistent, and illegal ASGM often continues even after large
inhospitable to the soil microbiota supplying nutrients to plants (dos mines are officially closed (Essapo & Ekedi, 2020; Owusu-Nimo
Santos et al., 2013). Even when not at phytotoxic levels, the presence et al., 2018). In Australia, most large-scale mines can be held indefi-
of contaminants can still limit the range of feasible restoration nitely in a ‘care and maintenance’ phase, where active mining has
approaches. For example, establishing agroforestry projects on con- ceased, but the land has not been fully rehabilitated (Vivoda
taminated soils can endanger human and livestock health when there et al., 2019). In Indonesia, despite legislation, restoration of mined
is significant biomagnification in harvested plant parts (Marrugo- lands is rarely enforced by government officials, and corruption in the
Negrete et al., 2015; Terán-Mita et al., 2013). Management activities mine licensing process has been documented (Hayati et al., 2021).
such as prescribed fires also have to be carefully planned, because Inconsistency in mine rehabilitation policy and enforcement further
they can re-release contaminants already absorbed by vegetation hinders attempts to restore these landscapes.
(Abraham et al., 2018).
4 | RE ST OR ATI ON A ND R E H A BIL I T A TIO N

3.4 | Social challenges O F G O L D - M I N I N G SI T E S I N T H E T R O P I C S
3.4.1 | Social challenges to ASGM restoration Due to the extensive environmental impacts of large-scale and ASGM
operations, standard forest restoration techniques, developed to
In 2013, the Minamata Convention on Mercury was signed by more recover the land after agriculture, ranching, or logging, may not be suf-
than 130 nations with the goal of limiting anthropogenic mercury ficient for mined areas. We identified 42 tropical, field-based studies
emissions. The trade of mercury for gold processing was not banned that specifically examined gold mine restoration techniques (see
by the Convention, but signing nations were required to develop Annex A: Literature Review Methods). These were primarily from
action plans to reduce mercury use (Kessler, 2013). However, South America (n = 15) and Africa (n = 18), with far fewer in Asia
attempts to regulate the ASGM sector and educate communities on (n = 4) and Australasia (n = 5) (Figure 3). Overall, more field studies
the dangers of mercury use have been largely ineffective were conducted at large-scale gold mines (n = 26), than at ASGM
(Hilson, 2006; Jønsson et al., 2013; Miserendino et al., 2013; (n = 15); one study examined mines of both scales. Most studies in
Puluhulawa & Harun, 2019). The informal and remote nature of South America and Asia were conducted at ASGM sites. In Africa and
TIMSINA ET AL. 3667
F I G U R E 3 Map of gold-mining production and research around the world. The yellow highlights indicate tropical countries where ASGM has
been documented (Telmer & Veiga, 2009). The gray shading indicates global gold production levels for all tropical countries producing more than
10 mg of gold (World Gold Council, 2021). The numbers in boxes show the number of field-based studies of gold mine restoration in each
country out of the 42 studies that we assessed in this review [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Australasia, most studies focused on large-scale gold mines. All studies particularly crucial in the tropics, where soil already tends to be natu-
from Asia took place in Indonesia, and all Australasian studies took rally weathered, with limited available nutrients (Ashton &
place in Australia (Figure 3). While most studies we found to occur in Seidler, 2014; Jordan, 1985; Sousa et al., 2008). In addition to its
countries with both documented ASGM and large-scale mining, many nutrient content, conserved topsoil also contains mycorrhizae, soil
gold-producing countries in the tropics lack any published field-based microbes and fauna, and plant propagules (present in the buried seed
restoration research (Figure 3). Additionally, the restoration goals of bank) that help native plants to spontaneously establish under favor-
these studies varied. In some cases, the goal was rapid revegetation able moisture and light regimes (Sousa et al., 2008).
for sediment and contaminant control rather than restoration to natu- Stockpiling topsoil for re-application after mine closure is the
ral forest conditions (Weiersbye et al., 2006). Other projects had fur- most common and feasible conservation method. However, biological
ther objectives involving agriculture or agroforestry (Tetteh, Logah, activity and restoration utility—including nutrient availability, the
et al., 2015), silviculture (Sousa et al., 2008; Tetteh, Ampofo, & abundance of soil microbes, and the viability of buried seeds—wanes
Logah, 2015), or livestock production (Bruce et al., 2003). In this sec- with long-term (over 1-year) stockpiling, due to erosion and anaerobic
tion, we summarize the findings to examine the effectiveness of vari- conditions at the center of the stockpile (Block et al., 2020;
ous site preparation, natural regeneration, and tree-planting methods. Ghose, 2001; Parrotta & Knowles, 2001; Valliere et al., 2022). These
We also briefly discuss phytoremediation, a strategy for restoring impacts can be mitigated by including biomass, such as tree roots and
heavily contaminated landscapes. stumps, in the stockpiles to retain more organic content (Nsiah &
Schaaf, 2019b), and by establishing vegetation on stockpile surfaces
(Windsor & Clements, 2001) to help facilitative soil microbes persist
4.1 | Basic site preparation: Backfilling and topsoil until mine closure (Bell et al., 2003). Steeply-sloped stockpiles can also
conservation be protected from erosion by contouring and grading down their
slopes (Windsor & Clements, 2001) and covering their surface with
Surface mine restoration is significantly more feasible and effective biogeotextiles (Nsiah & Schaaf, 2019a).
when planning occurs well before mining even begins. Basic site prep- After mine closure, filling open pits with waste rock and subsoils
aration steps can greatly improve restoration trajectories, including excavated during mining is an essential step to promote the restora-
(1) conserving topsoil removed during the mining processes, (2) back- tion of these sites. While backfilling is already a common practice at
filling mining pits and contouring steeply sloped areas, and large mine sites, ASGM pits are often left unfilled, which slows and
(3) promptly re-spreading conserved topsoil at the site (Ahirwal prevents the establishment of woody species (Ramkat, 2017). Unfilled
et al., 2016; Parrotta & Knowles, 2001). Topsoil conservation is pits typically have gravelly bottoms and often accumulate standing
3668 TIMSINA ET AL.
water, preventing seedlings from taking root (Peterson & 4.2.2 | Natural regeneration with topsoil
Heemskerk, 2001). Refilling improves the likelihood of natural regen- conservation
eration, particularly at small ASGM sites surrounded by a rich forest
seed source (Salami et al., 2003). Few field studies examine the impact of backfilling and topsoil conser-
Some areas may require additional site preparation steps. Very vation practices on natural regeneration at former gold mines in the
compacted surfaces may require plowing to allow plant establishment tropics. However, such landscaping efforts can restore drainage and
and root development (Peláez et al., 2013), while sites with poor soil fertility to conditions more favorable to tree regeneration, particularly
aggregate stability may have to be treated with binding agents like when seed sources are also nearby. The studies we assessed found
oxides (Tetteh, Ampofo, & Logah, 2015). Highly contaminated areas, that backfilling and topsoil conservation at gold mine sites near forest
such as tailings storage facilities, will need additional site preparation fragments had faster and more diverse natural regeneration of trees
steps, such as the installation of impermeable liners, to contain runoff (Rodrigues et al., 2004; Sousa et al., 2008) and higher soil microbial
and leachate (see Annex B: Treatments for Tailings Dams - Contain- activity (Schimann et al., 2012) than in areas without these site prepa-
ment Strategies). ration steps. While these preliminary findings suggest that backfilling
and topsoil conservation can improve natural regeneration success,
more field-based experimentation is needed.
4.2 | Restoration using natural regeneration
4.2.1 | Natural regeneration without topsoil 4.3 | Restoration using planting approaches
conservation
Because of the slow and limited natural regeneration process at most
Studies indicate that without topsoil conservation, natural regener- abandoned tropical gold mines, it may take decades or longer to
ation at former gold mines is significantly delayed (Ekyastuti achieve desired ecosystem functions or species compositions without
et al., 2016; Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015; Sousa et al., 2008) active planting (Baez et al., 2022; Couic et al., 2018; Rossouw
compared to sites abandoned after less severe land conversions, et al., 2009). Restoration approaches involving tree planting vary
such as agriculture. Tailings, eroded waste rock, and pit bottoms widely in level of intensity, ranging from lower-input enrichment
can remain unvegetated or hold standing water for years, if not planting techniques (Haimbili et al., 2016; Pollo et al., 2011; Román-
decades, in both large-scale (Mulligan et al., 2006; Okereafor Dañobeytia et al., 2015) to the creation of exclusive plantations of
et al., 2020; Rossouw et al., 2009) and ASGM sites (Peterson & desired species (Schimann et al., 2007; Tetteh, Ampofo, &
Heemskerk, 2001; Schimann et al., 2012). The sparse recolonizing Logah, 2015; Tetteh, Logah, et al., 2015). Overall, most tree planting
vegetation is often entirely herbaceous (Haagner et al., 2008; studies on mine sites tended to focus on a mix of exotic and native
Salami et al., 2003; Weiersbye et al., 2006) and includes fewer legumes (in the Fabaceae family; see Section 4.3.2). Non-woody
woody species seedlings than nearby forest floors (Eludoyin plants, such as grasses and herbaceous groundcovers can also be
et al., 2017; Peterson & Heemskerk, 2001). In some cases, trees incorporated into planting strategies, but are not discussed in-depth
may not regenerate even when surrounded by seed sources from in this section (see Annex D for a complete list of species planted in
adjacent forests due to stalled tree root establishment from poor tropical field experiments).
drainage, subsurface compaction, and soil infertility (Peterson & As with natural regeneration approaches, soil management plays
Heemskerk, 2001). Natural regeneration is even less vigorous and a crucial role in determining the success of tree-planting efforts
more transient on rapidly eroding, steep slopes of heaped overbur- (Nsiah & Schaaf, 2019b; Parrotta & Knowles, 2001; Sousa
den and tailings (Weiersbye et al., 2006). et al., 2008). Sites without conserved topsoil need to ameliorate poor
When operations dig small pits (e.g., around 1.5 m2) and leave nutrient content and coarse soil texture. The application of fertilizer
good seed sources, the natural regeneration of trees is more likely or organic amendments is one approach to improve the growth and
(Adesipo et al., 2020; Eludoyin et al., 2017; Salami et al., 2003). The survival of tree plantings in some field studies (Ekyastuti et al., 2016;
unexcavated areas around pits may support the regeneration of some Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015; Sousa et al., 2008), while plantings of
pioneer species, but often these are non-native species as natives are leguminous, nitrogen-fixing tree species capable of growing in a poor
excluded by soil and water pollution (Adesipo et al., 2020; Eludoyin substrate is another commonly-studied approach.
et al., 2017; Salami et al., 2003). Thus, even when natural regeneration
occurs, the complete recovery of species diversity may take decades
or longer (Baez et al., 2022; Valois-Cuesta et al., 2017). Furthermore, 4.3.1 | Leguminous tree planting
trees are still less speciose and abundant at such sites, with most of
the vegetation dominated by herbs, climbers, creepers, and tuber Leguminous (Fabaceae) trees are commonly planted to counteract the
plants, unlike adjacent reference forests that mostly feature trees, deficiency of nutrients in mined substrates, particularly at sites with-
shrubs, and ferns (Haagner et al., 2008; Salami et al., 2003; Weiersbye out topsoil conservation practices (Sheoran et al., 2010; Woodbury
et al., 2006). et al., 2020). In general, leguminous trees have relatively high survival
TIMSINA ET AL. 3669
rates, even in the least fertile substrates of former gold mine sites, planted trees. However, many introduced woody species cannot sur-
though there is variability based on site conditions and species (Baez vive long-term in these environments without continued amelioration,
et al., 2022; Haimbili et al., 2016; Mulligan et al., 2006; Tetteh, and in particularly unsteady surfaces, perennial herbs and shrubs may
Ampofo, & Logah, 2015). For example, after one year, planted Acacia be more effective than trees at stabilizing these systems (Assis
seedlings had a survival rate of about 45% in unamended tailings in et al., 2011; Rossouw et al., 2009) (see Annex B: Treatments for Tail-
one field experiment (Haimbili et al., 2016), whereas up to 100% of ings Dams).
Acacia and Mimosa seedlings still survived five years after being
planted on fertilized and limed overburden in another study (Assis
et al., 2011) (see Annex D for summaries of field-based planting 4.3.4 | Phytoremediation
experiments). Plantings of legumes can improve mine substrates by
fixing nitrogen into the soil, and may also serve as a sustained source Phytoremediation is a restoration approach that uses living plants to
of organic matter by providing leaf litter (Peláez et al., 2013; Schimann immobilize, metabolize, and extract contaminants from water and soil
et al., 2012; Thomas, 2014). Established plants also improve soil qual- (Salt et al., 1998). It is rapidly emerging as a cost-effective method of
ity by increasing soil pH, soil organic carbon, available phosphorus, ameliorating mine substrate, particularly tailings (Wang et al., 2017). In
exchangeable potassium (Peláez et al., 2013; Tetteh, Logah, some phytoremediation approaches, plants that metabolize or immo-
et al., 2015), cation exchange capacity, microbial activity (Couic bilize toxins may be planted and indefinitely left on-site to help pre-
et al., 2018; Schimann et al., 2007; Velásquez Ramírez et al., 2021) vent the spread of contaminants throughout the site. In other cases,
and aggregate stability (Peláez et al., 2013). Plantings of leguminous plants that hyperaccumulate contaminants, often heavy metals, are
trees can also increase soil biomass and microbial activity (dos Santos planted and then removed from the site to prevent the reentry of con-
et al., 2013), although their impact may be higher in clay-based soils taminants into the ecosystem through decomposition, or consumption
than in sandier ones (Schimann et al., 2007). by people and wildlife.
While phytoremediation species can sometimes naturally regen-
erate in contaminated sites, their growth may be too sparse for them
4.3.2 | Non-leguminous tree planting to stabilize and effectively remediate the soil (Okereafor et al., 2020),
and therefore usually need to be actively planted to achieve desired
While leguminous species dominate tree-planting studies, a few densities. However, we found very few field-based planting trials of
field studies also tested plantings of non-leguminous trees. At potential phytoremediator species (see Annex C for species used in
large-scale gold mines, backfilled and topsoil-capped pits can sup- gold mine phytoremediation).
port the establishment and growth of non-leguminous native trees
(Pollo et al., 2011). Similarly, ASGM sites restored with topsoil
reapplication and organic amendments can support mixed-species 4.4 | Restoration pathways for former gold mines
plantations of native species and commercial timber species in the tropics
(Ekyastuti et al., 2016; Sousa et al., 2008). When topsoil is reap-
plied, rehabilitated surfaces may not even require organic amend- Field-based experimentation at former gold mines in the tropics is
ments to achieve good survivorship of non-leguminous plantings still limited, but studies conducted at these sites reveal important
(Nsiah & Schaaf, 2019b). However, without topsoil application, findings for restoration. In the diagram below (Figure 4), we high-
non-leguminous native trees may grow slowly, even with organic light that restoring these landscapes depends greatly on the degree
amendments (Román-Dañobeytia et al., 2015). Overall, more of degradation present at a particular site, particularly the quality
research is needed to identify native, non-leguminous tree species of growing substrate and availability of local seed sources. If min-
and effective soil amelioration techniques appropriate for tropical ing companies and small-scale miners plan ahead and complete
gold mine restoration. integral site preparation steps before mine closure, including back-
filling and topsoil conservation, lower-input revegetation strate-
gies, such as natural regeneration and enrichment planting, become
4.3.3 | Tree planting on overburden and tailings much more feasible. However, at sites where substrate is highly
contaminated and few seed sources remain, more intensive, multi-
Woody species may not readily establish on the steeply sloped, partic- step approaches will often be necessary to recuperate the fertility
ularly infertile growing substrate of tailings dams and overburden of the substrate and kickstart reforestation. These potential path-
heaps. Initial fertilization (Mulligan et al., 2006; Nsiah & Schaaf, 2020; ways are not intended to be prescriptive or all-encompassing; res-
Weiersbye et al., 2006), irrigation, and transplantation of nursery- toration options will depend on the goals, budget, and timeline of a
hardened containerized (rather than bare-root) seedlings (Mulligan given project. Ultimately, surface gold mining, even in its less-
et al., 2006; Weiersbye et al., 2006), liming (Assis et al., 2011), and the severe forms, degrades tropical ecosystems, and forest recovery in
incorporation of B-horizon subsoils into the growing substrate (Assis these landscapes will likely be slower and require much more active
et al., 2011; Nsiah & Schaaf, 2020) can all improve the survival of restoration intervention than in unmined areas.
3670 TIMSINA ET AL.
strong need to develop sequential, longer-term restoration treatments

to determine the best methods for transitioning these landscapes
from mine closure to recovery. Field studies indicate that restoration
to pre-mine species composition may not be possible at more
degraded former gold mine sites, at least not without a lengthy and
costly series of plantings, soil amendments, and monitoring.
Given the evident difficulties involved in reforesting former sur-
face gold mines in the tropics—and the importance of proper planning
and site preparation for effective restoration—governing agencies,
land managers, miners, and local communities need to understand the
challenge and monetary expense involved in such efforts. Tropical
gold mine restoration is unlikely to succeed without more active
involvement from mining communities (Antwi et al., 2017; Betancur-
Corredor et al., 2018), the incentivization and enforcement of small-
scale mine restoration (Ramkat, 2017; Sousa, Veiga, Meech,
et al., 2011), and more in-depth and long-term monitoring of large-
scale mine restoration projects (Betancur-Corredor et al., 2018). While
this review focuses on strategies for restoring mined landscapes,
slowing the spread of tropical gold mining, or modifying some of the
more harmful practices involved in operations, is essential for limiting
long-term forest loss and ecological degradation. Along with contin-
ued field-based research, a combination of increased outreach to min-
ing communities, governmental regulation of rehabilitation projects,
and consumer education on the ethical and environmental impact of
F I G U R E 4 Restoration options at former mine sites are gold can all play a role in improving restoration outcomes.
influenced by initial site conditions. Sites with plentiful local seed
sources and well-conserved growing substrates are the best
candidates for natural regeneration methods. Sites with more AUTHOR CONTRIBU TIONS
degraded substrate and few seed sources may require active Conceptualization (Co-first authors), Shrabya Timsina, Nora G. Hardy;
restoration efforts, including basic site preparation, substrate Methodology, Shrabya Timsina, Nora G. Hardy; Investigation, Shrabya
amelioration, and plantings. The most degraded sites, such as tailings Timsina, Nora G. Hardy, Meredith P. Martin, David J. Woodbury;
storage facilities, may also require additional steps to sequester or
Writing—Original Draft, Shrabya Timsina, Nora G. Hardy; Writing—
remove contaminants. However, it is important to note that more
Review & Edition, Susan C. Cook-Patton, Mark S. Ashton, David
active restoration methods could still be applied to sites with less
degraded conditions, depending on specific restoration objectives, J. Woodbury, Rachel Pasternack, Meredith P. Martin; Visualization—
budgets, and timelines. Options flow top to bottom from most to least David J. Woodbury, Nora G. Hardy; Supervision, Mark S. Ashton, Mere-
degraded initial site condition, and most to least resources dith P. Martin; Funding Acquisition, Mark S. Ashton, Rachel Pasternack.
(e.g., money, labor, etc.) required
AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S

Funding for this work was provided by The Nature Conservancy (GLT
5 | CONCLUSIONS AND Global Forestry and Wood Products) to Yale University under grant
RECOMMENDATIONS number P117456. We would like to thank Mark Wishnie for his work
in securing funding for this project. S.C.C-P's time on this project was
While the ecological impacts of tropical surface gold mining are well- funded by The Bezos Earth Fund.
documented, we see a clear need for more field-based experimenta-
tion to develop a methodology for restoring these degraded land- CONFLIC T OF INT ER E ST
scapes. The continued identification of suitable woody species The authors declare no competing interests.
(in particular, a greater diversity of non-leguminous native species)
and effective substrate amelioration processes are essential. Many DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
earlier rehabilitation efforts wasted substantial resources by tempo- Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were cre-
rarily altering mine land substrates for species of plants that failed to ated or analyzed in this study.
persist beyond the initial years of tending (Weiersbye et al., 2006).
Long-term establishment of self-sustaining vegetation requires a care- OR CID
ful and adaptive selection of species that can persist in the often harsh Shrabya Timsina https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0512-2587
conditions of former mine sites (Ahirwal & Pandey, 2020). There is a Nora G. Hardy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8181-633X
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Received: 9 December 2021 Revised: 2 June 2022 Accepted: 24 July 2022

Tropical surface gold mining: A review of ecological impacts

Shrabya Timsina1 | Nora G. Hardy1 | David J. Woodbury1 |

Land Degrad Dev. 2022;33:3661–3674. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ldr 3661

2 | S C A L E S A N D M O D A L I T I E S OF involves the removal of the soil using machinery such as excavators to

4 | RE ST OR ATI ON A ND R E H A BIL I T A TIO N

strong need to develop sequential, longer-term restoration treatments

AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S

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