Schools of Indian Philosophy

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Indian Philosophy
Nasadiya Sukta also called as Hymn of Creation in Rigveda was the
first evidence of Aryan people questioning existence of creation. Hymn
"not the non-existent", also known as the Hymn of Creation, is the 129th
hymn of the 10th mandala of the Rigveda. It is concerned
with cosmology and the origin of the universe.
“Then even nothingness was not, nor existence, There was no air
then, nor the heavens beyond it. What covered it? Where was it? In
whose keeping?Was there then cosmic water, in depths unfathomed?
Then there was neither death nor immortality nor was there then the
torch of night and day.”
सष्ृ टिसेपहलेसतनह ींथा, असतभीनह ीं, अींतरिक्षभीनह ीं, आकाशभीनह ींथा,
छिपाथाक्या, कहााँककसनेढकाथा, सपलतोअगमअतलजलभीकहाींथा, नह थीमत्ृ यु ,
जीअमिताभीनह , नह थादिन, िातभीनह , हवाभीनह .
To find answer to these questions of existence led to ancient Aryans India
forming Concept of Puruṣārtha that is “Object of Human Pursuit" under
Indian Philosophy. It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four
proper goals or aims of a human life.
The our puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values)
Artha (prosperity, economic values),Kama (pleasure, love, psychological
values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values).
All four Purushartha’s are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is
considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy
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Moksha is considered the ultimate ideal of human life.
At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many
have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one
should exist.
Systems of Indian Philosophy used Pramanas (Proofs) to attain the
knowledge and derive their understanding about Purusharths and
philosophy. Six well knownPramana’s are Pratyaksha: Perception;
Anumana: Inference; Upmana: Comparison; Sabda: Testimony; Arthapatti:
Derivation; Anupalabdhi: Negative Proof.
The Indian philosophical system has been divided into two
classes that is Astik and Nastik. The word Astik literally
means theist or a believer in God while the word Nastik
means an atheist or one who does not believe in God.
However, in Indian philosophy these words represent concept
of believer and non believer respectively in the testimony of
the Vedas. Astik system of Indian philosophy that believes in
the testimony of Vedas; includes Mimamsa, Vedanta,
Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaiseshika.
The Lokayata/charvakas, Niyativada/Fatalism, Jainism and
Budhism systems fall under Nastik class as they do not believe
in the testimony of the Vedas.
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Theistic Schools of Indian Philosophy
• Samkhya Philosophy:
• Kapila is the earliest proponent of this philosophy. According to this
philosophy, world owes its creation and evolution to nature or prakriti.
Early versions of Samkhya did not find presence of divine agency
necessary for creation of world. Thus, Samkhya provided a rational and
scientific view of world. Around 4th century AD purusha or
consciousness was added as an element necessary for creation of world,
shifting the materialistic tone to spiritualistic one.Hence, it’s a dualist
philosophy; believing in combination of prakriti and purush. In
contrast to western dualist tradition between mind and body. According
to Samkhya school a person can attain salvation/Liberation through
acquisition of real knowledge that the soul and the dispositions of
matter (steadiness, activity and dullness) are different.
• Real knowledge is knowing that jiva is formed as a result of bondage of
purusha with prakriti. One must strive to break this bondage to achieve
liberation.This knowledge can be attained through- Pratyaksha
(perception), Anumana (Inference) and Sabda(Testimony). Use of these 3
pramanas makes Samkhya a scientific system of enquiry.
• Yoga Philosophy:
• Person can attain salvation through meditation and physical exercise.
Practice of control over pleasure senses and bodily organs is central to
this system.Pranayama or breathing exercise and asana or physical
posture are important not only because they presuppose development in
physiology and anatomy in ancient times but also because they
discourage running away from worldly difficulties.Patanjaliwas one of
the chief proponents of yoga and wrote the famous Yogasutra.
• In Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, the eightfold path is called ashtanga, which
literally means "eight limbs" (ashta=eight, anga=limb). These eight steps
basically act as guidelines on how to live a meaningful and purposeful
life. They serve as a prescription for moral and ethical conduct and self-
discipline; they direct attention toward one's health; and they help us to
acknowledge the spiritual aspects of our nature.
• Nyaya philosophy:
• The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada

Gautama in the 2nd Century B.C. It Refers to rules, methods or
judgement. Nyaya or school of analysis developed as a system of
logic(Analytical Philosophy) that has subsequently been adopted by the
majority of the Indian schools, in much the same way as Aristotelian logic
has influenced Western philosophy. Salvation is to be attained through
knowledge which is acquired through reasoning. Its followers believe
that obtaining valid knowledge (the four sources of which
are perception, inference, comparison and testimony) is the only way to
gain release from suffering. Stress on logic in this particular school
influenced many Indian scholars into systematic thinking and reasoning.
(Analytical Philosophy).
• Vaisheshika Philosophy:
• This philosophy gives importance to discussion of dravya or matter. It
draws a line between particularities and their aggregates. It says that
earth, water, air and fire, when combined give rise to new obejcts.This
school propounded atom theory. Material objects are made of atoms or
anu which are indestructible. Thus, Vaisheshikaschool marked
beginning of physics in India.However, this school put its faith both in
heaven and salvation. Thus, scientific view was diluted with belief in god
and spiritualism.Salvation was to be achieved through recognition of
atomic nature of matter and its difference from the soul. It was founded
in 6th CE by Kanada.The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects
in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms,
and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that
causes consciousness in these atoms.
• PurvaMimansa Philosophy: The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa
school is to interpret and establish the authority of the Vedas. It requires
unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the
Vedic fire-sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. Principal
objective of this philosophy is to acquire heaven and salvation. Person
will enjoy bliss of heaven as long as his accumulated acts of virtue or
punya last. When his accumulated virtue is exhausted, he comes back to
earth. But if he attains salvation, he is freed from cycle of birth and death.
According to Mimansa school, Vedas contain eternal truth and hence it
strongly advocated performance of Vedic sacrifices. Hence, it gave more
emphasis to Brahmanas than vedasamhitas. Mimansa school propagated
strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Mimansa was seen as an
attempt by Brahmins to maintain their ritual authority and preserve
social hierarchy. Jaimini, who wrote Mimansasutra founded this school of
philosophy.
• Vedanta Philosophy: Uttara Mimamsa:
• Literally means end of vedas.The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school
concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (mystic or
spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than
the Brahmanas (instructions for ritual and sacrifice). The Vedanta focus
on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity, more than
traditional ritualism. Vedanta philosophy is traced to upnishadas which
occur at the end of Vedasamhitas.According to it, Brahma or supreme being
is reality and everything else is illusion or maya. Self or atman is identical
with Brahma. Both Brahma and Atma are eternal and indestructible.
However, the drawback here is that such a view promotes stability and
unchanging conditions.Meditation and reflection is how one can achieve
recognition that atman and brahma are one and the same.
• Vedanta Philosophy: Uttara Mimamsa:
• This self knowledge is called as Dnyanyoga. Theory of karma came to be
linked with Vedanta philosophy. Karma theory says that in present birth
one has to bear the consequences of actions performed in previous
birth.(This belief in rebirth or punarjanma became an important element
in Vedanta system but also in several other systems of Hindu
philosophy.)
• Brahmasutra written by Badarayana formed its basic text, on which two
famous commentaries were written, one by Shankaracharya in 9th
century and another by Ramanuja in 12th century.Shankaracharya
considered brahma to be without any attributes or to be nirguna but
Ramanuja’sbrahma is saguna or with attributes.
• Shankaracharya considered knowledge or dnyana as chief source of
salvation but Ramanuja’s road to salvation lay in practicing devotion or
loving faith.Vedanta school is considerably influenced by
BhagawadGeeta in addition to upnishadas and Brahmasutra.This school
is also known as Uttara Mimansa(later mimansa) while Mimansa school
is sometimes called as PurvaMimansa(early mimansa) since Vedanta
school believes in upnishadas which come after brahmanas (in which
Mimansa school believes) in a Vedasamhita. The school separated into six
sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its
own series of sub-commentaries:
Advaita; Visishtadvaita; Dvaita; Dvaitadvaita; Shuddhadvaita;
AcintyaBhedaAbheda.
• Advaita (the best-known, which holds that the soul and Brahman are one
and the same)
Visishtadvaita (which teaches that the Supreme Being has a definite
form, name - Vishnu - and attributes)
Dvaita (which espouses a belief in three separate realities: Vishnu, and
eternal soul and matter)
Dvaitadvaita (which holds that Brahman exists independently, while soul
and matter are dependent)
Shuddhadvaita (which believes that Krishna is the absolute form of
Brahman) and
AcintyaBhedaAbheda (which combines monism and dualism by stating
that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from Krishna, or God).
Heterodox/Atheistic
Schools of Philosophy
Buddhism
Jainism
Lokayata
Ajivika
• Buddhism:
It is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautma.
Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy whose tenets are not especially
concerned with the existence or non-existence of God. He was concerned
mainly with the problems of life. He avoided the discussion of
metaphysical question because they are ethically useless and
intellectually uncertain. He always discussed the most important
questions of suffering, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation.
Thus Buddha’s enlightenment which he tried to share with all fellow
beings has come to be known as the four Noble Truths.
• Four Noble truths are: There is suffering; There is cause of suffering;
There is cessation of suffering; There is a way to cessation of suffering.
•
• Buddhists philosophy of life to get ‘Nirvana’ from suffering is based on
the following eight principles or Eight Fold Path. The Eightfold Path
consists of eight practices: right view, right resolve, right speech, right
conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and
right samadhi ('meditative absorption or union').
•
• Jainism:
Jainism is independent of Buddhism yet it resembles it in several aspects,
such as in its repudiation of the authority of the Vedas, its pessimistic
outlook on life, and its refusal to believe in supreme God. The origin of
Jain philosophy traces back to the pre-historic time. It is said 24
tirthankars or liberated persons preached this truth which was handed
over one by one in course of time. The last of them was Vardhamana also
called Mahavira, a contemporary of Gautam Buddha. Metaphysically,
Jainism believes in plurality of souls and not in the existence of God. It
holds that there are as many souls as there are living beings. They also
accept the existence of souls even in animals and plants, with degrees of
difference in the level of consciousness.
• Jainism believe that every soul is capable of attaining infinite
conciousness, power and happiness by removing all ‘Karmas’ or
bondages. Infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite
bliss is the state of liberation. According to Jainism Nirvana or liberation
is obtained through three jewels : Right Philosophy, Right Knowledge
and Right Conduct. ( Tri-ratna) Right conduct implies 5 absinences : not
to lie, not to steal, not to strive for luxury and not to strive for
possessions, not to be unchaste and not to injure (Ahimsa). Ahimsa is
vital principle of Jainism. Jainism rejects the idea of creator of the world.
It believes reality to be many sided. Emphasizing the individualistic
aspect, Jainism emphasizes on the development of personality as the final
aim. Jaina teachings are social and tolerant and believes in happiness of
all.
• Comparison between Jainism and Buddhism:
• Similarities:
•
Both arose as a reaction to orthodox Brahmanism.
Hence both rejected Vedas and Vedic rites and advocated non-
violence as means of salvation.
Both originated in Eastern India where there was no sweeping
influence of Vedic culture.
Both religions preached in local languages instead of Sanskrit.
Both found tremendous support among mercantile class.
Both religions drew upon Samkhya and Upnishadic
philosophies.
Both were atheistic; denied god or first cause of creation.
• Differences between Jainism and Buddhism:
Did not attack caste system and Attacked caste system
did not cut ties with Hinduism. vehemently and cut itself off
Followers could employ a from Hinduism completely.
Brahmin priest.
Believed that all objects, animate Believed in anatma or non soul.
and inanimate had souls and Does not ascribe life to inanimate
possessed varying degrees of objects.
consciousness.
Advocated extreme non-violence, Suggested middle path. Opposed
extreme penance, asceticism and extreme penance and deprivation.
physical suffering. https://unacademy.com/user/AkshayDKadam
Sought to destroy evil effects of Believed that evil effects of
karma by penance. karma cannot be destroyed.
Focused upon destroying
impulses that produce karma.
Final objective was liberation of Final objective was to attain
soul or salvation; did not accept nirvana or enlightenment and not
concept of nirvana. salvation.
Did not exhibit missionary zeal that Displayed great missionary zeal.
was on par with that of Buddhism.
Existed prior to Buddhism. Gautam Buddha started a
VardhamanMahavira 24th completely new religion.
Tirthankara. https://unacademy.com/user/AkshayDKadam
• Sects of Buddhism:
• There are 3 major sects of Buddhism: Mahayana, Hinyana and Vajrayana.
Yana refers to a vehicle that takes a follower of Buddhism from
delusional shore to enlightened shore. Bodhisattva is the Sanskrit term
for anyone who has generated Bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and
compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient
beings. In early Buddhism, the term bodhisattva was primarily used to
refer specifically to Gautama Buddha (a contemporary of Mahavira) in his
former life. The Jataka tales, which are the stories of the Buddha's past
lives.
• Vajrayana/Tantric Buddhism: Vajrayana or diamond vehicle
incorporated Tantric practices in Buddhism for transcendent realisation.
Practiced in Tibet,Tawang,Ladakh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim.
• Comparison between Mahyana& Hinayana Buddhism:
Literally means the great vehicle. It Literally means the lesser
is the vehicle with great reliance on vehicle. There is no concept
Bodhisattva who acts as a saviour of of saviour. Each one attains
mankind; hence called the nirvana with own efforts;
Bodhisattva vehicle. hence called self serving
vehicle.
Personal as well as mass enlightenment. Enlightenment of sole

Bodhisattva waits for own practitioner through self
enlightenment till everybody else perfection and personal
achieved enlightenment. emancipation.
Worship of Bodhisattva in https://unacademy.com/user/AkshayDKadam
idol forms. No idol worship.
• Lokayata/Carvaka’s Philosophy:
• It is school of Indian Hedonistic Materialism. It rejects the existence of other
worldly entities such an immaterial soul or god and the after-life. Its primary
philosophical import comes by way of a scientific and naturalistic approach to
metaphysics. Thus, it rejects ethical systems that are grounded in super-
naturalistic cosmologies. The good is strictly associated with pleasure and the
only ethical obligation forwarded by the system is the maximization of one's own
pleasure. Indian Materialism has also been named Cārvāka after one of the two
founders of the school. Cārvāka and AjitaKesakambalinare said to have
established Indian Materialism as a formal philosophical system, but some still
hold that Bṛhaspati was its original founder. Bṛhaspati allegedly authored the
classic work on Indian Materialism, the BṛhaspatiSῡtra. Of the recognized means
of knowledge (pramana), the Charvaka recognized only direct perception
(anubhava). Sources critical of the school depict its followers as hedonists
advocating a policy of total opportunism.
• Ajivika Philosophy:
• It is a fatalist school promoting rigid, deterministic view of human
destiny. It believes in unchanging orderliness of the universe with
predetermined path for the soul. Affairs of the entire world are ordered
by a cosmic force called niyati. There’s total determinism in
transmigration of soul and series of rebirths, Hence personal efforts
would produce no result on change or would not accelerate improvement
towards spiritual destiny.Tenet of niyati developed into doctrine that all
change was illusionary and everything was eternally mobile. With this
stoic, melancholic view, Ajivikas practiced austerities rather than
pursuing any purposeful goal. Founder of this school is
MakkhaliGosala.Barabar caves in Bihar were used by Ajivikasect which
are the oldest surviving rock cut caves in India. These caves, carved out of
granite rock belong to Mauryan period. Ashoka’s father, Bindusarawas a
follower of Ajivika sect.
Alvars (Vaishnavite) & Nayanars (Shivite)
• Alvar Saints: The twelve Alvars were Tamil poet-saints, who lived
between 6th and 9th centuries AD and espoused ‘emotional devotion’ or
bhakti to Visnu-Krishna in their songs. The devotional songs of the
Alvars were created during the Early medieval period of Tamil history
and they can be called the pioneers of the Bhakti Movement in India. The
collection of their hymns is known as DivyaPrabandha. All the saints
were male except one named Andal.
Nayanar Saints: The 63 Nayanars saints were the Shiva devotional poets,
who lived between 5th and 10th centuries. One saint “Appar” is said to
have converted Pallava King Mahendravarman(Book
PrahasanMattVilas) to Saivism. The compilation of their poetry /
literature Tirumurai is also called “Tamil Veda”. The book of Nayanars is:
Tevaram.
• Advaita Vedanta Of Adi-Shankaracharya:
• AdiShankaracharya was born in 788AD. Shankara's masterpiece of
commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya, a fundamental text of
the Vedanta school of Hinduism. His works in Sanskrit discuss the unity
of the ātman and Nirguna Brahman "brahman without
attributes". AdiShankara is believed to be the organiser of
the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmatatradition
of worship. He introduced the Pañcāyatana form of worship, the
simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and
Devi. He established four Maṭhas with the headquarters at Dvārakā in
the West, JagannathaPuri in the East, Sringeri in the South
and Badrikashrama in the North.
• Brahman/ Universe is only ultimate reality. Universe/Brahman is origin
and end of all things, omnipresent divine essence for matter energy time
and space. Everything that exists is Brahman. Unity of soul and Brahman
is Moksha. No difference between Brahman and individual soul;
Individual soul is identical to universal spirit.
Brahman is without attributes.Nirguna Brahmana expresses itself as
Saguna Brahmana in various forms that we worship as Vishnu.
Due to Illusionary power, Maya, the individual soul appears as separate
soul. Moksha when Aatman becomes exactly equal to Brahman.
Maya can be removed by ignorance of fact, that Aatman is ultimately
same as Brahman. According to AdiShankara, the one unchanging entity
(Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute
existence.
• Vishishtadvaita Vedanta Of Ramanuja:
• Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE) was a Hindu theologian, philosopher, and one
of the most important exponents of the Sri
Vaishnavism tradition. Rāmānuja is famous as the chief proponent
of Vishishtadvaita subschool of Vedānta, Rāmānuja himself wrote
influential texts, such as bhāsya on the Brahma Sutras. Ramanuja Shrine
is located at Sri RanaganathSwamy temple, at Srirangam, at Tamil
Nadu.He advocated philosophy of Salvation through intense
devotion.VishishtadvaitaVedanta held position that whole universe is
body of god, which consists of 2 modes, finite souls and matter. We are
finite souls, and we are present in supreme soul and all of us depend on
Brahman for existence. Brhaman exist in all of us unrecognized and the
day we realize it we achieve Moksha.
• Day we realize it we achieve Moksha, and after achieving Moksha or
realizing divine nature, the soul remain distinct yet inseparable from
Brahman. Ramanuja did not believe we are ourselves are supreme truth
or only reality. World or matter is not simply the illusion, but is real and
part of Brahman and Brahman is inner controller(Sariri) and inner-
ruler(antaryamin). God can be one despite existence of attributes, and
attributes cannot exist alone, they are not independent entity.
Brahma or almighty is the only entity that is capable of existance on its
own, the other things which are classified into two categories-Soul (chit
or sentient) and achit (non-sentient) are made of the Almighty itself for its
lila, with the almighty itself remaining as their innermost soul. In
otherwords, the other two categories are not unreal in the practical world,
but will merge with the almighty under the special circumstances of
Moksha. This philosophy is called Visistaadvaitha.
• Shuddadvaita Vedanta of Vallabhacharya:
• Shuddadvaita ("pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy

propounded by Vallabhacharya (1479-1531 CE), the founding
philosopher and guru of the Vallabhāsampradāya("tradition of Vallabh")
or Puśtimārg ("The path of grace"), a Hindu Vaishnava tradition focused
on the worship of Krishna. Shuddhaadvaita believe Glorious Krishna in
Sachhidananda form is absolute Brhama.
As per this, both God and the individual self are the same, and not
different. However it differs from Shankara'sAdvaita, in that considers
the individual self as part of God who is the whole. It also states Maya is
not unreal, unlike Advaita, but a manifestation of God's power.
• Dvaitha Vedanta Of Madhavacharya:
• The Almighty and the things on earth are distinct real. They
can never become merged as one entity. Moksha is nothing
but the individual entities reaching the abode of the creator
through Bhakthi without loosing their individualities. This
philosophy is called Dvaitha.
• Dvaita-advaita Vedanta Of Nimbarkacharya:
Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a Vaishnava Philosopher who
hailed from AndhraRegion. Nimbarka’s philosophical position is known
as Dvaitadvaita(Bhedabheda vada). The categories of existence,
according to him, are three, i.e., cit, acit, and Isvara. Cit and acit are
different from Isvara, in the sense that they have attributes (Guna) and
capacities (Swabhaava), which are different from those of Isvara.
Isvara is independent and exists by Himself, while 'cit' and 'acit' have
existence dependent upon Him. So, at the same time 'cit' and 'acit' are not
different from Isvara, because they cannot exist independently of Him.
Here, difference means a kind of existence which is separate but
dependent, (para-tantra-satta-bhava) while non-difference means
impossibility of separate existence (svatantra-satta-bhava).
• Thus Nimbarkaequally emphasises both difference and non-difference,
as against Ramanuja, who makes difference subordinate to non-
difference, in as much as, for him cit and acit do not exist separately
from Brahman, but its body or attributes. Thus, according to Nimbarka,
the relation between Brahman, on the one hand, and the souls (cit) and
universe (acit) on the other, is a relation of natural difference-non-
difference (svabhavika-bhedabheda), just as the different kinds of
stones, though nothing but earth, are yet different from it, so the souls
and the universe, though nothing but Brahman (brahmatmaka), are
different from Him because of their own peculiar natures and attributes.
• Philosopher Basavanna:
• Basavanna was a 12th-century Hindu philosopher (1105 – 1167

CE), statesman, Kannada poet in the Shiva-focussed Bhakti
movement and a social reformer during the reign of the Kalachuri-
dynasty king Bijjala I in Karnataka, India. He spread social awareness
through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas; and
introduced Ishtalinga necklace, with an image of the Shiva Liṅga. As the
chief minister of his kingdom, he introduced new public institutions
such as the AnubhavaMantapa (or, the "hall of spiritual
experience"), which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic
backgrounds to discuss spiritual and mundane questions of life, in open.
• Philosopher AkkaMahadevi:
• AkkaMahadevi in search of her divine love, she left for the city of
Kalyana in the Bidar district of Karnataka and participated in the
Anubhavamantapa (the spiritual and socio-religious congregation)
which accepted only the spiritually enlightened. There, in the
‘AnubhavaMandapa’, a platform for open debate on various issues
including philosophy and social reform, Mahadevi spoke fearlessly. Her
conviction earned her the honorific title, ‘Akka’, meaning ‘elder
sister’. AkkaMahadevi’sexperiences , both spiritual and domestic, poured
out in the form of simple stanzas (vachanas) in Kannada. AkkaMahadevi
was one of the earliest feminists in the patriarchal society of India. She
was a seer-poet, mystic and social reformer. She lived and preached in the
12th century and in all wrote 430 vachanas in Kannada.
• In her vachanas, AkkaMahadeviexpressed her radical views on women’s
roles, Hindu ritualism, caste, etc. and offers a testimony to the spiritual
struggles faced by a female mystic in a patriarchal society.
Having considered ‘Chennamallikarjuna’(the god Shiva) as her husband
in what is understood as the ‘madhurya’ form of devotion or the
‘madhurabhava’, she ends her verses with her ‘ankita’ (signature)
calling Shiva as Chennamallikarjuna or as poetically translated by A. K.
Ramanujan, “Lord as White as Jasmine”.
• Philosopher Dnyaneshwar:
• Dnyaneshwar also referred to as Mauli (1275–1296)was a 13th-
century Marathisaint, poet, philosopher and yogi of the Nath tradition. In his
short life of 21 years, he authored Dnyaneshwari (a commentary on
the BhagavadGita) and Amrutanubhav.These are the oldest surviving literary
works in the Marathi language, under the patronage of the Yadava dynasty
of Devagiri, and these are considered to be milestones in Marathi
literature.Dnyaneshwar's ideas reflect the non-dualistic Advaita
Vedanta philosophy and an emphasis on Yoga and oneness
of Vishnu and Shiva. His legacy inspired saint-poets such as Eknathand Tukaram,
and he has been one of the foundations of the Varkari (Vithoba-Krishna) Bhakti
movement tradition of Hinduism in Maharashtra.Through the medium
of Dnyaneshwari, the divine knowledge trapped in Sanskrit was translated in the
common man ‘s Prakrit language and was made available to everyone.
• Dnyaneshwar penned his book Amrutanubhav sometime after he
completed Dnyaneshwari. It is quite complicated as compared to
Dnyaneshwari. It constitutes 10 chapters and 806 Ovis. The basis of this
book is AdvaitaSiddhanta (non dualism). This book is one of the most
highly respected books in Marathi literature.Dnyaneshwar entered
into Sanjeevan Samadhi, a yogic path to salvation at the age of 21 at
Alandi on the banks of River Indrayani.
• Philosopher Tukaram:
• Tukaram, aka Tukobaraya, was a 17th-century Hindu poet and sant of
the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra, India.He was part of the
egalitarian, personalized Varkaridevotionalism tradition. Tukaramis best
known for his devotional poetry called Abhanga and community-
oriented worship with spiritual songs known as kirtans. His poetry was
devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba, an avatar of Hindu
god Vishnu.The Mantra Gita, a translation of the BhagavadGita in the
abhanga form, is ascribed to Tukaram. It is an interpretation of the Gita
from a Bhakti perspective.Tukaram insisted that it was not possible to
combine both spiritual joy and the activity in the world. A person who
tries to achieve both in the end achieves neither.
• Philosopher Tukaram:
• Tukaram rejects ceremonies, Vedic sacrifices, visits to holy places,
worship of stones, putting on saints guise, fasts and other types of
austerities. He also tried to reconcile Hindu and Muslim faiths.Tukaram
was instrumental in creating idea of ‘Maharashtra Dharma’ and giving
people of Maharashtra Spiritual Unity; to which Political Unity was
conferred by The Great Shivaji with establishment of Swarajya.
• Philosopher Kabir:
• According to the Islam the meaning of the Kabir is The Great.
KabirPanth is the huge religious community which identifies the Kabir as
the originator of the Sant Mat sects. The members of KabirPanth are
known as the Kabirpanthis who had extended all over the over north and
central India. Some of the great writings of the Kabir Das are Bijak,
KabirGranthawali, Anurag Sagar, SakhiGranth etc. SantKabir was
prejudiced by the existing religious mood of that time like Hinduism,
Tantrism as well as the personal devotionalism mixed with the imageless
God of Islam. Kabir Das is the first Indian saint who has coordinated the
Hinduism and Islam by giving a universal path which could be
followed by both Hindus and Muslims. According to him every life has
relationship with two spiritual principles (Jivatma and Paramatma
• His views about the moksha that, it is the process of uniting these two
principles.His great writing Bijak has huge a collection of poems which
makes clear the Kabir’s general view of the spirituality. Kabir’s Hindi was
a dialect, simple like his philosophies. He simply followed the oneness
in the God. He has always rejected the murtipujan in Hinduism and
shown the clear confidence in bhakti and Sufi ideas.
The "simple union" with Divine Reality was independent both of ritual
and of bodily austerities; the God whom he proclaimed was "neither in
Kaaba nor in Kailash." Those who sought Him needed not to go far; for
He awaited discovery everywhere, more accessible to "the washerwoman
and the carpenter" than to the self-righteous holy man. Therefore, the
whole apparatus of piety, Hindu and Muslim alike—the temple and
mosque, idol and holy water, scriptures and priests—were denounced by
this clear-sighted poet as mere substitutes for reality.
• Philosopher Chaitanya Mahaprabhu:
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated (18 February 1486 – 14 June
1534), formally known as Shri Krishna Chaitanya was a Hindumystic,
saint, and the chief proponent of the AchintyaBhedaAbheda and
GaudiyaVaishnavism tradition within Hinduism. He also expounded
the Vaishnava school of Bhakti yoga (meaning loving devotion to God),
based on BhagavataPurana and BhagavadGita. He popularised the
chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra and composed
the Siksastakam (eight devotional prayers) in Sanskrit. Siksastaka the
eight verses created by Chaitanya are considered to contain the complete
philosophy of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in condensed form. In His youth,
Mahaprabhu started a Sanskrit academy in Navadvipa—one of India's
top centers of learning at the time—and earned a reputation as an
excellent scholar.
• Philosopher Chaitanya Mahaprabhu:
• But at age twenty-four he renounced everything to travel the
subcontinent, encouraging everyone he met to chant the Hare Krishna
mantra.He is considered by disciples, scholars and followers to be the
latest avatar of Krishna Himself, based on extensive evidence found
in Vedic literature. The International Society for Krishna
Consciousness, ISKCON, is a continuation of Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu's sankirtan movement.In the early 17th century
KalachandVidyalankar, a disciple of Chaitanya, made his preachings
popular in Bengal. He traveled throughout India popularizing the gospel
of anti-untouchability, social justice and mass education. He probably
initiated 'PanktiBhojon' and Krishna sankirtanin eastern part of Bengal.
Several schools (sampradaya) have been practicing it for hundreds of
years.
• Gaudiya Vaishnavism is a Vaishnava religious movement inspired
by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in India. "Gauḍīya" refers to the Gauḍa
region (present day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning
"the worship of Vishnu or Krishna". The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism
is the devotional worship (bhakti) of Radha and Krishna, and their many
divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God, SvayamBhagavan.
Most popularly, this worship takes the form of singing Radha and
Krishna's holy names, such as "Hare", "Krishna" and "Rama“. It classifies
itself as a monotheistic tradition, seeing the many forms of Vishnu or
Krishna as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme
God, adipurusha.
• Achintya – Bheda – Aabhed Philosophy: Achintya-Bheda-Abheda is a
school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of inconceivableone-ness
and difference. In Sanskrit achintya means
'inconceivable', bheda translates as 'difference', and abhedatranslates as
'non-difference‘. It can be understood as an integration of the strict dualist
(dvaita) theology of Madhvacharya and the qualified monism
(vishishtadvaita) of Ramanuja.
• Philosopher ShrimantShankaradev:
• He was a 15th–16th century Assamese saint-scholar, poet, playwright,
social-religious reformer and a figure of importance in the cultural and
religious history of Assam, India.
He is widely credited with building on past cultural relics and devising
new forms of music (Borgeet), theatrical performance (AnkiaNaat,
Bhaona), dance (Sattriya), literary language (Brajavali). Besides, he has
left an extensive literary list of trans-created scriptures (Bhagavat of
Sankardev), poetry and theological works written in Sanskrit, Assamese
and Brajavali.His literary and artistic contributions are living traditions in
Assam today. The religion he preached is practised by a large population,
and Sattras (monasteries) that he and his followers established continue
to flourish and sustain his legacy.
• He was not only a religious preceptor, but also a social reformer, who had
sanskritized the ethnic groups of the volatile North East India and
assimilated them with the national main-stream. He is considered as the
father of the modern Assamese race. He was a great messiah, who
rescued the people of Brahmaputra valley from the regressive medieval
practices like human sacrifice.
• SrimantaSankaradeva was a cultural maestro too. He created a classical
dance form known both as Sankari dance and Satriya dance. The
SangeetNâtakAkâdemi of India recognized it as a classical dance form in
2000 AD. SrimantaSankaradeva also evolved a school of classical music,
which is named after him. He created as many as 25 Râgas of his own.
• He observed that worship of innumerable deities acted as a hindrance
for attaining the final beatitude. Of course it helped sustain the priest
community.
• Srimanta Sankaradeva began preaching devotion to the one and only
God, lord Krishna or Vishnu.
He also suggested that this devotion could be within one’s heart, not
requiring any religious paraphernalia. Realization of God was an
internal matter, not external. So the external worship of icons was
redundant. He talked of universal love for all beings as God resided
within all beings. He gave a clarion call to all people to shun mutual
differences as there was no intrinsic difference between different ethnic
groups, all of them having the same soul within. Thus he talked of
universal brotherhood and advocated for integration of different ethnic
groups in the society.
• Mahapuruxiya Dharma/Ekasarana Dharma literally: 'Shelter-in-One
religion' is a panentheistic(belief that the divine pervades and
interpenetrates every part of the universe) form of Bhagavatic religious
movement of Hinduism. Movement influenced two medieval kingdoms--
-Koch and the Ahom kingdoms—and the assembly of devotees he
initiated evolved into Sattras(Institutional Centres/Monastries) over time.
His influence spread even to some kingdoms as the Matak Kingdom.
Satras are institutional centers associated with the Ekasarana tradition of
Vaishnavism, which continue to be important socio-religious institutions
in Assam and to a lesser extend in North Bengal.
• Philosopher GuruNanak:
• Guru Nanak (29 November 1469 – 22 September 1539) was the founder of
Sikhism and the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. Guru Nanak's words are
registered in the form of 974 poetic hymns in the holy text of Sikhism, the
Guru Granth Sahib, with some of the major prayers being the Japji Sahib,
the Asa di Var and the Sidh-Ghost. Both Sufism and Bhakti had
contributed to the development of Nanak’s religious philosophy. His
teachings were composite by nature comprising of the noblest principles
of Hinduism & Islam. Thus his teachings rested upon two themes—
praise of virtues and condemnation of vices. Moral conduct and
emphasis on moral values constituted the foundation of his
teachings.Like all Sufi saints Nanak was in favour of accepting a guru. In
his own words, “Without guru, nobody can attain God.
• Philosopher GuruNanak:
• Nanak was very practical in his outlook. He wanted to bring an end to
the conflict among various religions. That is why he vehemently rejected
the caste system, authority of the Vedas and the Quran and idolatry or
image-worship. He never laid any emphasis upon renunciation of the
world.
His teachings were included in the AdiGranth compiled by the fifth
Guru, Arjun Das. It was during the time of later Gurus that the followers
of Nanak began to be known as Sikhs – a distinct religious unit.The last
Guru, Gobind Singh, transformed Sikhism (corruption of the Sanskrit
word ‘shishya’ meaning disciple) into a military mission due to religious
prosecution by the Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb.
• Sufism Philosophy:
• Sufism implies that the ideal before an individual should be to be one
with God. For the attainment of this ideal, intense devotion for God is
needed in the individual. Devotion is reflected in love. This love for the
Almighty is expressed through three fold activities on the part of the
individual i.e. poetry of love towards God, music of love towards God
and dance of love towards God.The first epoch of Sufism is said to have
begun in the seventh century A.D. Sufism entered India in the 12th
century with Muslim invaders and became popular in the 13th
century.While the orthodox Muslims depend upon external conduct and
blind observance of religious rituals, the Sufi saints seek inner purity.
Along with Prophet Muhammad, they also attach great importance to
their ‘Murshid’ or ‘Pir’ (Guru).
• Sufism Philosophy:
• Devotion is more important than fast (Roza) or prayer (Namaz). It is
generally believed that Sufism is derived from two Arabic words i.e.
‘Saf’ and ‘Suf. The word ‘Saf means a carpet. Since the Sufis meditated
upon God on a carpet, Sufism took its birth i.e. pure people who
meditated on a carpet. The word ‘Sufi’ derives its name from another
Arabic word ‘Suf which means wool. The Muslim saints who wore
garments of coarse wool began to be called Sufi saints.
• Impact of Sufism:
• Religions impact: The efforts of Sufi saints helped to lessen religious
fanaticism in India. The tombs built after their death has continued to
become places of worship for the Muslims as well as the Hindus. Their
belief in unity of God helped to remove mutual differences.
Social Impact: Their stress on social welfare led to the establishment of
works of charitable nature i.e. opening of orphanages and women service
centres. The efforts of Sufi saints helped to promote equality and lessen
the evils of casteism. They also tried to infuse a spirit of piety and
morality.
Political Impact: Some of the renowned Sufi saints on account of their
virtuous and saintly life motivated some of the Delhi Sultans to follow a
liberal policy.
• Impact of Sufism:
• Cultural Impact: The sacred places built in the memory of the Sufi saints
clearly demonstrate the development of a new type of architecture. The
Dargah’ of Khawaja Muin-ud-Din Chisti at Ajmer and the Tomb of
Nizam-ud-Din Aulia at Delhi have a special place in architecture.
Sufi saints popularized devotional music and songs.
• Several Sufi saints composed literary works in vernacular languages.
• Important Sufi Philosophers of India:
• KhwajaQutbuddinBakhtiar Kaki (born 1173-died 1235) was a Muslim
Sufi mystic, saint and scholar of the Chishti Order from Delhi, in what is
now India. He was the disciple and the spiritual successor of Moinuddin
Chishti as head of the Chishti order, and the person to whom the
QutbMinar, Delhi is dedicated.
• KhawjaMoin-ud-Din Chisti (1143-1234 A.D.): He came to India towards

the close of the 12th century. He settled at Ajmer. On account of his pious
and simple life, people of different faiths looked upon him as their
spiritual teacher. His ‘dargah’ (tomb) at Ajmer (Ajmer Sharif) has become
a place of pilgrimage for the Muslims as well as the Hindus.
• Baba Farid-ud-Din Ganj-i-Shakar (13th century): His outlook was broad
and humane. Some of his devotional verses are found in ‘Adi-Granth’ of
the Sikhs. Thousands of his devotees visit his tomb at Faridkot in the
Punjab.
Nizam-ud-Din Aulia (14th century): His tomb at Nizam-ud-Din in Delhi
has become a place of pilgrimage for both Muslims and Hindus.It is
claimed by the 14th century historiographer ZiauddinBarani that his
influence on the Muslims of Delhi was such that a paradigm shift was
effected in their outlook towards worldly matters. People began to be
inclined towards mysticism and prayers and remaining aloof from the
world.
•
Salim Chishti (1478–1572) was a Sufi saint of the Chishti Order during
the Mughal Empire in India. The Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti is famed
as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during
the years 1580 and 1581, along with the imperial complex atFatehpurSikri
. The mausoleum was constructed by Akbar as a mark of his respect for
the Sufi saint.
Ethical Hedonism: LOKAYATA OF CARVAKA
• Maximize Physical/material pleasure, Minimize physical/material
pain:
• The word is derived from the Greek hedone (“pleasure”).
Hedonism claims that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and that
pain is the only intrinsic bad.
• For hedonists Pleasure/Happiness means only physical or
materialistic pleasures like Eating good stuff, Sex, drinking alcohol
etc. While for utilitarianism Pleasure/Happiness meant any form of
pleasure including physical pleasure like respect, Pride, awards,
honours, medals, intrinsic pleasure due to completion of goals,
enjoyment out of dance, drama, movies; reading novel etc.
More & more happier
• Utilitarianism recognize the existence of pleasures derived from fame
and reputation, from friendship and sympathy, from knowledge and
art. So utilitarian’s understanding of pleasure is much more broad
based and comprehensive than that of simply materialistic or bodily
pleasures.
• Indian Nastik School of philosophy Lokayata/Carvaka is considered
as school of Indian Hedonistic Materialism. Cārvāka and Ajita
Kesakambalin are said to have established Indian Materialism but
some still hold that Bṛhaspati was its original founder. Bṛhaspati
allegedly authored the classic work on Indian Materialism, the
Bṛhaspati Sῡtra. It rejects the existence of other worldly entities such
as immaterial soul or god and the after-life.
• Its primary philosophical import comes by way of a scientific
and naturalistic approach to metaphysics. Thus, it rejects ethical
systems that are grounded in super-naturalistic cosmologies.
• Of the recognized means of knowledge (pramana), the Charvaka
recognized only direct perception (anubhava). People criticized
followers of Charvaka as those advocating a policy of total
opportunism. (Provided intellectual climate in which a text such
as Kautilya’s Arthashastra (“The Science of Material Gain”) could be
written.)
Problems With Hedonistic Consequentialism:
• Sometimes Extreme pleasure is dangerous to life. (Alcoholism &
Drug Abuse).
• Desensitization of Pleasure: Intensity of pleasure weakens with time.
Repeatedly performing pleasurable activity weakens the pleasure
generated out of it. For ex Sex & Drugs.
• Sometimes pain can help preserve life.
• Bodily pleasures are Ephemeral and transient in Nature. Some
activities can take you in state of ecstatic pleasure but you don’t
remain in that state for long as pleasures are transient. For Ex
watching action movies.
• Seeking pleasure is animalistic behavior.

Schools of Indian Philosophy

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Systems ofhttps://unacademy.

• The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada

Personal as well as mass enlightenment. Enlightenment of sole

• Shuddadvaita ("pure non-dualism") is the "purely non-dual" philosophy

• Basavanna was a 12th-century Hindu philosopher (1105 – 1167

• KhawjaMoin-ud-Din Chisti (1143-1234 A.D.): He came to India towards

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