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CHAPTER 6
Chapter Objectives
Opening Essay
Explain why brown fat is important to small mammals, including newborn humans.
Lecture Outline
Introduction
• Oxygen is a reactant in cellular respiration, the process that breaks down sugar and other
food molecules and generates ATP, the energy currency in cells, and heat.
• Brown fat has a “short circuit” in its cellular respiration, which generates only heat, not
ATP.
• Brown fat is important for heat production in small mammals, including humans.
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy
6.1 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life
• Life requires energy.
• In almost all ecosystems, energy ultimately comes from the sun.
• In photosynthesis,
• some of the energy in sunlight is captured by chloroplasts,
• atoms of carbon dioxide and water are rearranged, and
• sugar and oxygen are produced.
• In cellular respiration,
• sugar is broken down to carbon dioxide and water and
• the cell captures some of the released energy to make ATP.
6.2 Breathing supplies O2 for use in cellular respiration and removes CO2
• Respiration, as it relates to breathing, and cellular respiration are not the same.
• Respiration in the breathing sense refers to an exchange of gases.
• Cellular respiration is the aerobic (oxygen-requiring) harvesting of energy from food
molecules by cells.
6.3 Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP molecules
• Cellular respiration
• is an exergonic (energy-releasing) process that transfers energy from glucose to form
ATP,
• can produce up to 32 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule,
• uses about 34% of the energy originally stored in glucose with the rest of the energy
lost as heat.
6.4 CONNECTION: The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities
• Your body requires a continuous supply of energy.
• Cellular respiration provides energy for body maintenance and voluntary activities.
• A balance of energy intake and expenditure is required to maintain a healthy weight.
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy 57
6.5 Cells capture energy from electrons “falling” from organic fuels to oxygen
• How do your cells extract energy from fuel molecules? The answer involves the transfer
of electrons in chemical reactions.
• Electrons removed from fuel molecules (oxidation) are transferred to NAD+ (reduction).
• NADH passes electrons to an electron transport chain. Energy is released as electrons
“fall” from carrier to carrier and finally to O2.
Stages of Cellular Respiration
6.6 Overview: Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages
• Stage 1: Glycolysis
• occurs in the cytosol,
• begins cellular respiration, and
• breaks down glucose into two molecules of a three-carbon compound called pyruvate.
• Stage 2: Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
• take place in mitochondria,
• oxidize pyruvate to a two-carbon compound, and
• supply the third stage with electrons.
• Stage 3: Oxidative phosphorylation involves electron transport and chemiosmosis.
• NADH and a related electron carrier, FADH2, shuttle electrons to electron transport
chains embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
• Most of the ATP produced by cellular respiration is generated by oxidative
phosphorylation.
• The electrons are finally passed to oxygen, which becomes reduced to H2O.
6.7 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
• ATP is used to prime a glucose molecule, which is split in two.
• These three-carbon intermediates are oxidized to two molecules of pyruvate, yielding a
net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
• ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation, in which a phosphate group is
transferred from an organic molecule to ADP.
6.8 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of
organic molecules
• The oxidation of pyruvate yields acetyl CoA, CO2, and NADH.
• For each turn of the citric acid cycle,
• two carbons from acetyl CoA are added,
• 2 CO2 are released, and
• 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are produced.
6.9 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Most ATP production occurs by oxidative
phosphorylation
• In mitochondria, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed down the electron
transport chain to O2, which picks up H+ to form water.
• Energy released by these redox reactions is used to pump H+ into the intermembrane
space.
• In chemiosmosis, the H+ gradient drives H+ back through the enzyme complex ATP
synthase in the inner membrane, synthesizing ATP.
58 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
6.10 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Scientists have discovered heat-producing, calorie-burning
brown fat in adults
• Mitochondria in brown fat can burn fuel and produce heat without making ATP.
• Ion channels spanning the inner mitochondrial membrane
• allow H+ to flow freely across the membrane and
• dissipate the H+ gradient that the electron transport chain produced, which does not
allow ATP synthase to make ATP.
• Until recently, brown fat in humans was thought to disappear after infancy.
• Recent research indicates that brown fat may be present in most people, and, when
activated by cold, the brown fat of lean individuals is more active (burns more calories).
6.11 Review: Each molecule of glucose yields many molecules of ATP
• Substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation produce up to 32 ATP
molecules for every glucose molecule oxidized in cellular respiration.
Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy
6.12 Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen
• Fermentation is a way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen.
• Under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeasts, and certain bacteria produce ATP by
glycolysis.
• NAD+ is recycled from NADH as pyruvate is reduced to
• lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or
• alcohol and CO2 (alcohol fermentation).
6.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Glycolysis evolved early in the history of life on Earth
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cells of nearly all organisms and is thought to
have evolved in ancient prokaryotes.
Connections Between Metabolic Pathways
6.14 Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration
• You obtain most of your calories as
• carbohydrates (such as sucrose and other disaccharide sugars and starch, a
polysaccharide),
• fats, and
• proteins.
• A cell can use these three types of molecules to make ATP.
6.15 Organic molecules from food provide raw materials for biosynthesis
• Cells use intermediates from cellular respiration and ATP for biosynthesis of other
organic molecules.
• Metabolic pathways are often regulated by feedback inhibition.
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy 59
Chapter Guide to Teaching Resources
Teaching Tips
• You might wish to elaborate on the amount of solar energy striking Earth. Every day Earth
is bombarded with solar radiation equal to the energy of 100 million atomic bombs. Of the
tiny fraction of light that reaches photosynthetic organisms, only about 1% is converted to
chemical energy by photosynthesis. (6.1)
• Energy coupling at the cellular level may be new to many students, but it is a familiar
concept when related to the use of money in our society. Students might be discouraged if
the only benefit of work was the ability to make purchases from the employer. (We all
might soon tire of a fast-food job that only paid employees in food!) Money permits the
coupling of a generation of value (a paycheck, analogous to an energy-releasing reaction)
to an energy-consuming reaction (money, which allows us to make purchases in distant
locations). This idea of earning and spending is a common concept we all know well.
(6.1–6.3)
• During cellular respiration, our cells convert about 34% of our food energy to useful work
(Module 6.3). The other 66% of the energy is heat. We use this heat to maintain a
relatively steady body temperature near 37°C (98°–99°F). This is about the same amount
of heat generated by a 75-watt incandescent light bulb. If you choose to include a
discussion of heat generation from aerobic metabolism, consider the following Teaching
Tip. (6.3)
• Share this calculation with your students. Depending on a person’s size and level of
activity, a human might burn 2,000 dietary calories (kilocalories) a day. This is enough
energy to raise the temperature of 20 liters of liquid water from 0° to 100°C. This is
something to think about the next time you heat water on the stove! (Note: Consider
bringing a 2-liter bottle as a visual aid, or ten 2-liter bottles to make the point above. It
takes 100 calories to raise 1 liter of water 100°C; it takes much more energy to melt ice or
evaporate water as steam.) (6.3)
• You might share with your students that it takes about 10 million ATP molecules per
second to power one active muscle cell. (6.4)
60 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The use of the word “falling” when discussing the movement of electrons in a redox
reaction can be confusing. Consider explaining the use of the term “falling” in reference to
potential energy of a falling object. (6.5)
Teaching Tips
• The production of NADH and FADH2 through glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, as
compared with the direct production of ATP, can get confusing for students. Help students
understand that these molecules have value to be cashed in by the electron transport chain.
The NADH and FADH2 can therefore be thought of as casino chips, accumulated along the
way to be cashed in at the electron transport cashier. (6.6–6.11)
• The function of the inner mitochondrial membrane is like a dam. A “reservoir” of
hydrogen ions is built up between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, like a
dam holding water. As the hydrogen ions move down their concentration gradient, they
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy 61
“spin” the ATP synthase, which helps generate ATP. In a dam, water rushing downhill
turns giant turbines, which generate electricity. (6.9)
• As the authors note in Module 6.11, the ATP yield of up to 32 ATP per glucose molecule
is only a potential. The complex chemistry of aerobic metabolism can yield this amount
only under ideal conditions, when every substrate and enzyme is immediately available.
Such circumstances may occur only rarely in a working cell. (6.11)
Teaching Tips
• The text notes that some microbes are useful in the dairy industry because they produce
lactic acid. However, the impact of acids on milk may not be obvious to many students.
Consider a simple demonstration mixing about equal portions of milk (skim or 2%) with
some acid (vinegar will work). Notice the accumulation of strands of milk curd (protein)
on the side of the container and stirring device. (6.12)
• Dry wines are produced when the yeast cells use up all or most of the sugar available.
Sweet wines result when the alcohol accumulates enough to inhibit fermentation before the
sugar is depleted. (6.12)
• Exposing fermenting yeast to oxygen will slow or stop the process, because the yeast will
switch back to aerobic respiration. When fermentation is rapid, the carbon dioxide
produced drives away the oxygen immediately above the wine. However, as fermentation
slows down, the wine must be sealed to prevent oxygen exposure and permit the
fermentation process to finish. (6.12)
• The widespread occurrence of glycolysis, which takes place in the cytosol and independent
of organelles, suggests that this process had an early evolutionary origin. Since
atmospheric oxygen was not available in significant amounts during the early stages of
Earth’s history, and glycolysis does not require oxygen, it is likely that this chemical
pathway was used by the prokaryotes in existence at that time. Students focused on the
evolution of large, readily apparent structures such as wings and teeth may have never
considered the evolution of cellular chemistry. (6.13)
62 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Connections Between Metabolic Pathways (6.14–6.15)
Student Misconceptions and Concerns
• Some students may only view nutrients as sources of calories. As noted in Module 6.15,
the building blocks in many nutrients are recycled into biosynthetic pathways of organic
molecules. (6.15)
Teaching Tips
• Figure 6.14 is an important visual synthesis of the diverse fuels that can enter into cellular
respiration and the various stages of this process. Figures such as this can serve as a visual
anchor to integrate the many aspects of this chapter. (6.14)
• The final modules in this chapter may raise questions about obesity and proper diet. The
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpao/index.
html, discusses many aspects of nutrition, obesity, and general physical fitness and is a
useful reference for teachers and students. (6.14–6.15)
Key Terms
acetyl CoA (acetyl coenzyme A)
alcohol fermentation
ATP synthase
cellular respiration
chemiosmosis
citric acid cycle
electron transport chain
glycolysis
intermediate
kilocalories (kcal)
lactic acid fermentation
NAD+
oxidation
oxidative phosphorylation
photosynthesis
pyruvate oxidation
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 6 How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy 63
redox reaction
reduction
substrate-level phosphorylation
Word Roots
aero- = air (aerobic: using oxygen)
chemi- = chemical (chemiosmosis: the production of ATP using the energy of hydrogen ion
gradients across membranes to phosphorylate ADP)
de- = without; -hydro = water (dehydrogenase: an enzyme that removes water when catalyzing a
chemical reaction)
glyco- = sweet; -lysis = split (glycolysis: the multistep chemical breakdown of a molecule of
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate)
64 INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL FOR CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
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