ADDITIONAL NOTES - Midterms

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
Combustion is defined as the process of rapid oxidation or burning of a substance with simultaneous
evolution of heat and, usually, light. Combustion of solid or liquid fuel takes place above the fuel
surface in a region of vapors created by heating the fuel surface. The heat can come from the
ambient conditions, from the presence of an ignition source or from exposure to an existing fire.
ASPECTS OF COMBUSTION
Consider a simple model of combustion: burning wood. Once the fire is burning, heat must be
transferred efficiently to the wood to vaporize reactants. Heat transfer is also needed to ensure that
energy of activation is overcome, and the reaction is self-sustaining. Specifically, the activation
energy must be sufficient to form free radicals, the heart of combustion reaction mechanisms.
Oxygen must move into the reaction zone via mass transfer, and the rate of this transfer directly
affects the reaction. Think of blowing across a smoldering fire, an action that increases the efficiency
of mass transport of oxygen and speeds the reaction by supplying more oxidizing agent. The kinetic
(speed) of combustion depends on the rate of formation of free radicals in the flame flickering above
the wood. The reaction speed also depends on multiple rate constants and reactant concentrations in
multiple connected chain-reaction pathways. The heat evolved, favored pathways, and the balance of
products will all depend on thermodynamic considerations, including stoichiometric ratios and
equilibria. Thus, all interact to control and define the complex process of combustion.
1. Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between
heat, work, temperature, and energy. It studies how these quantities behave under
various circumstances and how they interact with each other.
 The fundamental concepts of thermodynamics are encapsulated in its four laws, which
govern the principles of energy conversion and heat transfer.
2. Kinetics of Combustion
 Kinetics is the study of the speed of reactions and their mechanisms. Combustion is a
complex free-radical process in which many reactions can occur and in which a
complex mixture of products forms.
 Combustion does not involve simple single-step collisions between a fuel molecule and
an oxidant. Rather, the reactions that occur during combustion are based on free
radicals. In a free-radical mechanism, three generic steps take place:
1. INITIATION, in which the first free radicals are formed
2. PROPAGATION, in which reactions among radicals produce more radicals
3. TERMINATION, which results from the combination of two free radicals to form a
neutral species
3. Heat transfer
 Heat transfer is the process by which thermal energy moves from one object or
substance to another. It occurs through three primary mechanisms: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
4. Mass Transfer
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 Mass transfer is the movement of mass from one location to another in physical
systems, driven by concentration gradients, pressure gradients, or other forces.
 In cases involving a poured liquid accelerant, mass transport of the fuel occurs in a
lateral direction, controlled by the characteristics of the surface. Gasoline on a
nonporous surface like concrete will diffuse easily, whereas gasoline on a porous
surface like wood or carpet will tend to be absorbed. As a result, porous and
semiporous surfaces should be sampled in depth, since the chances of finding residual
accelerants is increased in such cases.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE SPREAD OF FIRE

Fire Spread
Fire spread refers to the process by which a fire propagates from its point of origin to
surrounding areas. It involves the movement of flames, heat, and combustion products through
different mechanisms and is influenced by a variety of factors. Understanding fire spread is critical for
effective firefighting, fire prevention, and safety engineering.
Rate of Spread
The fastest rate of spread (ROS) is the
forward ROS at the head of the fire. The backing
ROS is much less, the flanking ROS is
intermediate. The behavior of a backing or
flanking fire can, however, change quickly with a
shift in the wind. A 90° wind shift can change a
long, slow-spreading flanking fire into a fast-
spreading head fire.
Note: The head is the fastest spreading part of a
fire's perimeter.
Anatomy of Fire

Key aspects of fire spread:
1. Ignition:
 The starting point of any fire spread is ignition. This can result from various sources such as
open flames, electrical faults, or human activities.
2. Fuel Types:
 The type of fuel plays a significant role in fire spread. Different materials have varying
combustion properties, affecting the rate and intensity of the fire.
 Different materials have varying flammability and energy content. For example, dry grass
ignites and spreads fire more quickly than hardwood.
3. Fuel Arrangement:
 The arrangement of fuel sources influences the fire spread. Dense and continuous fuel
arrangements can facilitate rapid fire spread.
4. Weather Conditions:
 Wind speed, humidity, and temperature significantly influence fire behavior. Wind can carry
embers, accelerating the spread, while low humidity can dry out vegetation, making it more
susceptible to ignition.
 Topography : The slope and terrain features influence fire behavior. Fires tend to spread faster
uphill due to the preheating of fuels above the fire. Valleys and canyons can channel wind and
accelerate fire spread.
5. Rate of Heat Release:

 The rate at which a fire releases heat is a critical factor in its spread. Intense fires generate
more heat, potentially preheating nearby fuels and causing them to ignite more readily.
6. Radiant Heat:
 Radiant heat from a fire can ignite combustible materials at a distance. This is a significant
factor in the spread of wildfires.
7. Ember Showers:
 Wind can carry embers away from the main fire, causing spot fires and facilitating the spread
over larger distances.
8. Building Design and Urban Interface:

 In urban areas, building design and proximity can contribute to fire spread. Ignition of one
building can lead to the spread to adjacent structures.
9. Firebreaks and Defensible Space:

 Creating firebreaks, clearings, and defensible space can help slow down or stop the spread of
wildfires by interrupting the continuity of fuel.
10. Firefighting Strategies:

 Firefighters use various strategies to control and contain fires, such as backburning, creating
firebreaks, and using water or fire-retardant chemicals.
11. Predictive Modeling:

• Advances in technology allow for the development of predictive models that simulate fire
spread under different conditions. These models help in planning and managing wildfires.
12. Human Factors:

 Human activities, intentional or unintentional, can contribute to fire spread. Arson, discarded
cigarettes, and unattended campfires are common causes.
Fire Intensity
 Fire intensity refers to the rate at which a fire produces heat energy. It is typically
measured in terms of energy output per unit length of the fire front per unit time.
Flame Length
 Flame length is the distance from the base of the flame to its tip. It is an important
indicator of fire behavior, especially in relation to fire suppression and safety.

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FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE SPREAD OF FIRE

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5. Rate of Heat Release:

8. Building Design and Urban Interface:

9. Firebreaks and Defensible Space:

10. Firefighting Strategies:

11. Predictive Modeling:

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12. Human Factors:

4|Fire Protection and Arson Investigation

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