BONES

The human skeleton has a number of functions, such as protection and supporting weight.
Different types of bones have differing shapes related to their particular function.

1. Flat Bones

There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the
thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis). The function of flat
bones is to protect internal organs such as the brain, heart, and pelvic organs. Flat bones are
somewhat flattened, and can provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can also provide large
areas of attachment for muscles.

2. Long Bones
The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur (the longest bone in the body) as
well as relatively small bones in the fingers. Long bones function to support the weight of the
body and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and
include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones
in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).

3. Short Bones Are Cube-shaped

Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the wrist and ankle joints, short bones
provide stability and some movement. The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral,
hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus,
talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are
examples of short bones.

4. Irregular Bones Have Complex Shapes

Vertebra and pelvis, examples of irregular bones of the human body
Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat,
short, long, or sesamoid). They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect internal
organs. For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal
cord. The irregular bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic
cavity.

5. Sesamoid Bones Reinforce Tendons

Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are commonly found
in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from
stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid
bone.

MUSCLE

Muscle is a soft tissue found in both animals and humans. The cells of the muscles comprise
protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, which produces contraction and
changes both the length and the shape of the cell.

The term muscle is derived from the Latin word “musculus” which refers to a little mouse, which
is due to the shape of certain muscles or the contraction of muscles that look like a moving
mouse.

In humans, muscles function by producing force and motion and are primarily responsible for:

1. Locomotion.
2. Maintaining and changing body posture.
 3. Circulation of blood cells throughout the body.
4. Movement of internal organs, such as the contraction of the heart and the movement of
food through the digestive system via peristalsis.

The human muscular system includes more than 600 muscles, which make up about 40 to 50 per
cent of the total body weight. These muscles are attached to bones, blood vessels and other
internal organs of our body and are mainly composed of skeletal muscles, tissue, tendons, and
nerves. The muscles of the human muscular system are composed of a kind of elastic tissue.

Every movement in our body is the result of muscle contraction and is found in every organ,
including the blood vessels, heart, digestive organs, etc. In these organs, muscles function by
transferring substances throughout the body. There are three types of muscle and are mainly
classified based on their movements and structures.

The energy required for the functioning of muscles is predominantly powered by the oxidation of
fats and carbohydrates particularly and from the stored energy molecules adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).

Types of Muscles

There are three types of muscles

1. Skeletal or striated muscles

2. Cardiac muscles
3. Smooth muscles

Based on the muscle action, muscles are further classified into:

1. Voluntary muscles
2. Involuntary muscles

Skeletal muscles

Skeletal muscle is a muscle tissue that is attached to the bones and is involved in the functioning
of different parts of the body. These muscles are also called voluntary muscles as they come
under the control of the central nervous system in the body.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle is a series of muscle fibres composed of muscle cells, which are long and
multinucleated.

Skeletal muscles are cylindrically shaped with branched cells attached to the bones by an elastic
tissue or collagen fibres called tendons, which are composed of connective tissues.

The end of each skeletal muscle has a tendon, which connects the muscle to bone and connects
directly to the collagenous, the outer covering of skeletal muscle.

There is a group of muscle fibres, present below the epimysium, which are collectively called the
fascicles. These muscle fibres are surrounded by another protective shield formed from collagen.

The perimysium, a sheath of connective tissue surrounding the muscle fibres allows nerve and
blood vessels to make their way through the muscle.

Functions of Skeletal Muscle

 It maintains body posture.

 It regulates body temperature.

 It connects to and controls the motions of the skeleton.

 It is responsible for performing muscular involuntary movements.

 It is responsible for body movements such as breathing, extending the arm, typing,
writing, etc.

 It is responsible for the erect posture of the body. The sartorius muscles in the thighs are
responsible for body movement.

 The skeletal muscles protect the internal organs and tissues from any injury and also
provide support to these delicate organs and tissues.

 These also support the entry and exit points of the body.

For example-The sphincter muscles present:

1. Around the mouth – These muscles reduce the size of the openings by the contraction of
the muscles and facilitate the swallowing of food.
 2. Around the urinary tract- These muscles control urination by the contraction of the
muscles in the urethra.
3. Around the anus- These muscles reduce the size of the openings by the contraction of the
muscles and facilitate defecation.

Cardiac muscles

Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart and are self-stimulating, which has an intermediate
speed of contraction and energy requirement. This muscle is not part of the musculoskeletal
system.

Cardiac muscles are striated muscles, which are responsible for keeping our heart functioning by
pumping and circulating blood throughout the body and performing muscular involuntary
movements. They are involved in continuous rhythmic contraction and relaxation. The
interconnected muscle cells or fibres provide strength and flexibility to the cardiac muscle tissue.

Structure of a cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle exists only within the human heart. It is a specialized form of muscle evolved
to continuously and repeatedly contract, providing circulation of blood throughout the body.
Cardiac muscle has a regular pattern of fibres similar to that of smooth muscles. These muscles
comprise the cylindrical, branched fibres and a centrally located nucleus. The T-tubules or
transverse tubules are rich in ion channels and are found in the atrial muscle cells.

These muscles are striated muscles with cylindrical-shaped cells, which include intercalated
discs and join neighbouring fibres.

Functions of a cardiac muscle

The primary function of the cardiac muscle is to regulate the functioning of the heart by the
relaxation and contraction of the heart muscles. Other functions of cardiac muscles include:

 The cardiac muscles function as the involuntary muscle.

 The cardiac muscles are also involved in the movement or the locomotion.
  The cardiac muscles work without stopping, day and night. They work automatically and
make the heart contract so that the heart can squeeze the blood vessels and release them
so that the heart can fill up with blood again.

 The heart comprises a specialized type of cardiac tissue, which consists of “pacemaker”
cells. These contract and expand in response to electrical impulses from the nervous
system.

Smooth muscles

Smooth muscles are non-striated, involuntary muscles, which are controlled by the Autonomous
Nervous System (ANS). These muscles are found almost in all organ such as the stomach,
bladder, blood vessels, bile ducts, the eye, the sphincters, the uterus, etc.

The smooth muscles function by stimulating the contractility of the digestive, urinary,
reproductive systems, blood vessels, and airways. These smooth muscles are spindle-shaped with
a single nucleus. They are under involuntary control, therefore you cannot move these muscles
with conscious thought.

Structure of smooth muscles

The smooth muscles of the human muscular system are spindle-shaped muscle fibres with a
single nucleus. The thickness of the smooth muscles ranges between 3-10 µm and their length
ranges between 20 to 200 μm, which are shorter compared to the skeletal muscle. These muscles
lack filaments, special protein, actin and myosin and produce their own connective tissue.

Functions of a cardiac muscle

Like all other types of muscles, smooth muscles are also involved in contraction and relaxation.
Other functions of smooth muscles include:

 It is involved in the sealing of orifices.

 It produces connective tissue proteins such as collagen and elastin.

 Transports chyme (a pulpy acidic fluid) for the contractions of the intestinal tube.

 Smooth muscle plays a vital role in the circulatory system by maintaining and controlling
the blood pressure and flow of oxygen throughout the body.
  Smooth muscles are also responsible for:

1. Contracting the irises.

2. Raising the small hairs on your arm.
3. Contracting the sphincters in our body.
4. In the movement of the fluids through organs.
5. It is much more useful for providing consistent and elastic tension.

Based on the muscle action, muscles are further classified into:

 Voluntary muscles.

Voluntary muscles are long, multinucleated cells, containing sarcomeres arranged into bundles.
These muscles are composed of cylindrical fibres and are usually attached to bones and the skin.
They play an important role in allowing the body to move by contracting and relaxing and their
actions are mainly under the control of the somatosensory nervous system. These voluntary
muscles include skeletal muscles.

 Involuntary muscles

Involuntary muscles are striated and branched in the case of cardiac muscle. The actions of
involuntary muscles are mainly controlled by the autonomic nervous system in the body. These
involuntary muscles include smooth muscles and cardiac muscles.

Summary of Muscles

The human muscular system is composed of the muscles and the tendons that connect them to
the skeleton.

All muscle types are capable of receiving and responding to stimulation from nerves and are
capable of contracting.

Each type of muscle also has its own special role that it performs within our bodies

The roles of the three muscle types are summarised below:

 Skeletal Muscles
These muscles are located beneath the layers of skin and are connected to tendons and bones.
They are responsible for creating movement and are under voluntary control.

 Cardiac Muscles

This muscle is only found in the heart. It is responsible for contracting and relaxing the pumping
of the blood around your body. The cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle.

 Smooth Muscles

This muscle forms the walls of the organs, glands and blood vessels within the body. It is
responsible for expanding and contracting the passage of blood and other fluids through the
vessels and organs. Smooth muscle is an involuntary muscle.

Joints

A joint, also known as an articulation or articular surface, is a connection that occurs between
bones in the skeletal system. Joints provide the means for movement. The type and
characteristics of a given joint determine its degree and type of movement. Joints can be
classified based on structure and function.

The joints help us to rotate our shoulder, bend our knees and elbows, swivel our neck and more.
By definition, a joint is a point where two bones meet to provide a framework that permits
movement. Bones are attached to one another by tissues called ligaments. Muscles are attached
to bones through tendons.

Classification of Joints

There are two different types of joints- Structural and Functional classification of joints.

 Structural classification of joints.

According to the structural classification of joints, they are divided into 3 types, namely:

Fibrous Joints
Fixed joints, also called immovable joints, are found where bones are not flexible. In such joints,
bones have been fused together in such a way that they are fixed to that part, most commonly to
create a structure. A prominent example of a fixed joint is the skull, which is made up of a
number of fused bones.

Other examples include the upper jaw, rib cage, backbone, and pelvic bone, etc.

Cartilaginous Joints

Cartilaginous joints are partly movable joints comprising of symphysis or synchondrosis joints.
These joints occur only in those regions where the connection between the articulating bones is
made up of cartilage. Synchondrosis are temporary cartilaginous joints which are present in
young children and last until the end of their puberty.

For example, the epiphyseal plates present at each end of the long bones is responsible for bone
growth in children. The symphysis or the secondary cartilaginous joints (the place where bones
join) is permanent. Examples include the pubic symphysis. Other examples of cartilaginous types
of joints include the spinal column and the ribcage.

Synovial Joints

The synovial joints are the most common type of joint because this joint helps us to perform a
wide range of motion such as walking, running, typing and more. Synovial joints are flexible,
movable, can slide over one another, rotatable and so on. These joints are found in our shoulder
joint, neck joint, knee joint, wrist joint, etc.

 Functional classification of joints.

Functional classification of joints is based on the type and degree of movement permitted. Based
on the type and degree of movement permitted. There are six types of freely movable joint and
are mentioned below with the examples:

Ball and Socket Joints

Here, one bone is hooked into the hollow space of another bone. This type of joint helps in
rotatory movement. An example ball and socket joint are the shoulders.
Pivotal Joints

In this type of joint, one bone has tapped into the other in such a way that full rotation is not
possible. This joint aid in sideways and back-forth movement. An example of a pivotal joint in
the neck.

Hinge Joints

Hinge joints are like door hinges, where only back and forth movement is possible. Example of
hinge joints is the ankle, elbows, and knee joints.

Saddle Joints

Saddle joint is the biaxial joint that allows the movement on two planes–flexion/extension and
abduction/adduction. For example, the thumb is the only bone in the human body having a
saddle joint.

Condyloid Joints

Condyloid joints are the joints with two axes which permit up-down and side-to-side motions.
The condyloid joints can be found at the base of the index finger, carpals of the wrist, elbow and
the wrist joints. This joint is also known as a condylar, or ellipsoid joint.

Gliding Joints

Gliding joints are a common type of synovial joint. It is also known as a plane or planar joint.
This joint permit two or more round or flat bones to move freely together without any rubbing or
crushing of bones. This joint is mainly found in those regions where the two bones meet and
glide on one another in any of the directions. The lower leg to the ankle joint and the forearm to
wrist joint are the two main examples of gliding joints.