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INTEGRATED
WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT AND
VALORIZATION
USING ALGAL
CULTURES
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INTEGRATED
WASTEWATER
MANAGEMENT AND
VALORIZATION
USING ALGAL
CULTURES
Edited by
GOKSEL N. DEMIRER
School of Engineering and Technology & Institute for Great
Lakes Research, Central Michigan University,
Mount Pleasant, MI, United States
SIBEL ULUDAG-DEMIRER
Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering Department &
The Anaerobic Digestion Research and Education
Center (ADREC), Michigan State University, East Lansing,
MI, United States
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek
permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements
with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can
be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-85859-5
Contributors ix
Preface xiii
1. Introduction 13
2. Algae in biological treatment of wastewater 14
3. Mechanism of symbiosis between algae and bacteria 27
4. Examples of wastewater treatment by algaeebacteria consortia 32
5. Circular economy, process design, and modeling aspects of algaeebacteria based
wastewater treatment 38
6. Conclusions 42
References 43
1. Introduction 51
2. Details of the STaRR system 60
3. Performance of the STaRR system 63
4. Outlook 74
Acknowledgments 75
References 75
Further reading 80
v
vi Contents
1. Introduction 149
2. Material and methods 150
3. Results and discussion 153
4. Conclusions 162
Acknowledgments 163
References 163
1. Introduction 165
2. Material and methods 166
3. Results and discussion 171
4. Conclusions 180
References 180
Contents vii
1. Introduction 215
2. Wastewater versus seawater as culture medium 216
3. Large-scale raceway ponds construction 217
4. Microalgae consortium 223
5. Harvesting process 223
6. Potential WWT using microalgae at large scale 225
7. Conclusion 231
References 232
Index 265
Contributors
I.S.A. Abeysiriwardana-Arachchige
Civil Engineering Department, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, United States
Zouhayr Arbib
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
Mauricio Bustamante
Biosystems Engineering, University of Costa Rica, San Pedro, San Jose, Costa Rica
Ozgul Calicioglu
The World Bank, Environment, Natural Resources and Blue Economy Global Practice,
Washington, DC, United States
Ra
ul Cano
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
H.M.K. Delanka-Pedige
Civil Engineering Department, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, United States
Göksel N. Demirer
School of Engineering and Technology & Institute for Great Lakes Research, Central Michigan
University, Mount Pleasant, MI, United States
Tuba Hande Erg€ uder-Bayramo glu
Department of Environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
T^ania V. Fernandes
Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),
Wageningen, the Netherlands
Maikel Fernandez
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
Berat Z. Haznedaroglu
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
F. Koray Sakarya
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
Enrique Lara
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
Wei Liao
Biosystems Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
Yan Liu
Biosystems Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
ix
x Contributors
David Marín
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
S.P. Munasinghe-Arachchige
Civil Engineering Department, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, United States
N. Nirmalakhandan
Civil Engineering Department, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, United States
Duygu Ozcelik
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
Frank Rogalla
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
Carlos Sa
uco
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
Matthew Seib
Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District, Madison, WI, United States
Esteban Serrano
FCC Aqualia S.A. Innovation and Technology Department, Madrid, Spain
Vaibhav P. Tale
Chemtron Riverbend Water, Saint Charles, MO, United States
Ulas Tezel
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
Lukas M. Trebuch
Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW),
Wageningen, the Netherlands; Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, the Netherlands
Nil€ € ud€
ufer Ulg€ ur
Department of Environmental Engineering, D€uzce University, D€uzce, Turkey
Sibel Uludag-Demirer
Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering Department & The Anaerobic Digestion Research and
Education Center (ADREC), Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
Kaushik Venkiteshwaran
Department of Civil, Coastal and Environmental Engineering, University of South Alabama,
Mobile, AL, United States
Lijun Wang
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and
Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
Rene H. Wijffels
Bioprocess Engineering, AlgaePARC, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands;
Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
Contributors xi
Tonghui Xie
School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
Bo Zhang
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Design, North Carolina Agricultural and
Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
Daniel Zitomer
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University,
Milwaukee, WI, United States
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Preface
Intensive development efforts and linear economic activities since the last century
resulted in excessive natural resource use as well as environmental and health problems.
When the cost of waste management and health care as well as declining levels of several
important natural resources are considered, it is evident that this also represents major
economic and social challenges. This new paradigm brought along integrating the
concept of sustainability with all anthropogenic activities to create more sustainable
means of producing, processing, and consuming the natural resources along with sustain-
able waste management practices.
Among others, circular economy aims at accomplishing a closed-loop system to
maximize the recovery of raw materials derived from the waste at end-of-life. The wastes
should be considered as “misplaced renewable resources” that can be used again to
generate valuable and marketable products, replacing the fossil-based resources.
Reducing the carbon footprint of waste management activities, recycling and reuse of
valuable materials, wastewater reuse, and bioproduct and biofuel generation from wastes
characterize the main features of sustainable waste management. Thus, it is not only an
integral part of circular economy but also offers a solid framework to alleviate sustainabil-
ity and resource efficiencyerelated problems.
Algal cultures have been used for nutrient removal from wastewaters for a long time.
However, the research on algal biotechnology has been accelerating recently since it can
integrate several processes with environmental and economic benefits, such as CO2
sequestration via photosynthesis, nutrient removal and recovery from wastewaters, and
production of valuable products such as biofuels, human food, cosmetics, pharmaceuti-
cals, animal, and aquaculture feed and fertilizers.
This book revisits algal biotechnology and its potential contribution to sustainable
wastewater management, resource efficiency, circular economy, and the United Nation’s
Sustainable Development Goals. We would like to express our sincere appreciation to
the diverse group of 35 experts from 7 different countries and 16 institutions who shared
their experience, work, and vision.
Goksel N. Demirer
Sibel Uludag-Demirer
Okemos, MI, USA
December 2021
xiii
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CHAPTER 1
Integrated Wastewater Management and Valorization using Algal Cultures © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
ISBN 978-0-323-85859-5, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85859-5.00003-8 All rights reserved. 1
2 Integrated Wastewater Management and Valorization using Algal Cultures
avoidance principles and tools are fundamental elements of CE. For instance, it has been
estimated that eco-design, waste prevention, and reuse can bring net savings for the Eu-
ropean Union (EU) businesses of up to EUR 600 billion, while reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. Moreover, the additional measures to increase resource productivity by 30%
by 2030 could boost the gross domestic product by nearly 1% and also create 2 million
additional jobs in the EU (EC, 2015). In 2020, The European Commission adopted a
new Circular Economy Action Plan, one of the main blocks of the European Green
Deal, as part of Europe’s new agenda for sustainable growth. The new Action Plan an-
nounces initiatives along the entire life cycle of products, targeting, for example, their
design, promoting CE processes, fostering sustainable consumption, and aiming to ensure
that the resources used are kept in the EU economy for as long as possible (https://ec.
europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_420).
CE deployment requires collaboration among stakeholders throughout the entire
value chain of the economic sectors, including the production, consumption, as well
as waste collection and recycling stages. Often, the responsibilities for waste collection
and recycling are attributed to the governments and usually allocated at the municipality
level. Yet, from a perspective of CE, the urban and regional systems have also started
exploring the options for better collaboration and increased producer responsibility for
the supply of high-quality recycling services, as well as enhanced biological treatment
of waste streams such as biorefining and anaerobic digestion. For example, a CE of the
local food systems would not only comprise of local production, distribution, commu-
nication, and promotion and local consumption by informed citizens, but also the man-
agement of organic waste in a systematic manner by the consumers, which could then be
utilized as a raw material, or could be valorized in another form such as biogas (Bacova
et al., 2016).
Similarly, wastewater treatment has traditionally been the responsibility of municipal-
ities, and CE entails obtaining the highest benefit at the highest efficiency from the
resource compared to conventional treatment technologies. In this respect, as a wastewater
processing alternative, microalgae could capture nutrients before they reach water bodies.
These systems would not only enable the upcycling of nutrients but also of atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) into microalgal biomass, a precursor for value-added products
(e.g., biofuels, biochemicals, and proteins). For instance, microalgal biomass could be
used as a substrate for biogas production or supplemented to already-existing biodigesters
of municipal solid waste to balance their nutrient contents (Calicioglu and Demirer,
2019). When integrated, the nutrient removal, CO2 sequestration, and biofuel produc-
tion processes could address the challenges of linear economy around waste management
and fossil-based resource dependence. This approach would bring circularity to urban
and agro-industrial systems by (1) “disassembling” and “reconstructing” the wastewater
nutrients in an available form (i.e., as a fertilizer or protein precursor) and (2) producing
renewable energy for other activities of the CE.
Role of microalgae in circular economy 3
The following sections aim to discuss the conceptual framework and technical feasi-
bility of integrated nutrient removal and biogas production using microalgal and anaerobic
microbial cultures, emphasizing the potential of waste valorization as a significant activity
of CE. To this purpose, the potential role of microalgae in CE; municipal waste valori-
zation through integrated microalgal and anaerobic bioprocesses in a biorefinery concept;
as well as the technical feasibility, scale-up potential and limitations are presented.
Most importantly, the sequestered CO2 as microalgal biomass from the atmosphere
would be available as organic carbon, which can be considered as a chemical energy car-
rier, or a raw material for the synthesis of other biochemicals.
supplements, while proteins and pigments found in microalgae exhibit properties desired
in the pharmaceutical industries to treat certain diseases (Yen et al., 2013). The important
role of microalgae in the production of biofuels and bio-based chemicals makes it a
promising feedstock to be considered as an alternative to many natural components
and sources (Chew et al., 2017).
Due to high lipid contents, microalgal biomass has become particularly of interest as a
biodiesel feedstock (Slade and Bauen, 2013). Microalgae offer many superiorities over
traditional oil crops to produce biofuels and high-value chemicals, such as robust envi-
ronmental adaptability, no competition with food or arable land, rapid fixation of envi-
ronmental carbon, cultivation on wastewater, and year-round cultivation (Ho et al.,
2014). They transform solar energy into high value biofuels and bio-based products by
acting as biosolar machines which incorporate light capture and carbon sequestration
mechanisms and convert these inputs into high value biomolecules/metabolites into
the biomass. Due to significantly low biomass productivities of autotrophic cultivation
methods, algal bioprocesses have shifted focus toward mixotrophic and heterotrophic ap-
proaches by implementing multiple-product strategies in a biorefinery approach (Yen
et al., 2013).
Integrating biorefinery concept with wastewater treatment would provide efficient
utilization of algae biomass, reduce overall residual waste component, and favor sustain-
able economics. The residual biomass can be subjected to a range of biochemical pro-
cesses such as fermentation and anaerobic digestion for recovery of methane and
biohydrogen (Subhash and Venkata Mohan, 2014). Thermo-chemical conversion of
algae biomass can also be performed for synthesis of biooil and biochar (Agarwal et al.,
2015). Moreover, microalgae that contain glucose-based carbohydrates are the most
feasible feedstock for bioethanol production. The high value coproducts can be preferred
for economic support of main process (Venkata Mohan et al., 2015).
Despite the interest in the utilization of microalgae as a biodiesel feedstock, the large-
scale applications of this process are rather limited due to the limitations in the current
harvesting and processing technologies (Vuppaladadiyam et al., 2018; Alcantara et al.,
2013; Passos and Ferrer, 2014). Therefore, anaerobic conversion of the microalgae,
which would not require concentration of biomass as opposed to biodiesel production,
could be an energetically favorable mechanism for the valorization of the wastewater-
derived biomass in the form of biomethane (Passos and Ferrer, 2014; Tan et al., 2014;
Wiley et al., 2011). In addition, this process would provide a stabilized and concentrated
stream of nutrients which could be utilized as fertilizers in a complete biorefinery concept
(Dogan-Subasi and Demirer, 2016). However, anaerobic bioprocessing of microalgae
also faces some challenges: (1) the cell wall structure of the raw microalgae is rigid and
resistant to digestion by the anaerobic microbial consortia (Axelsson et al., 2012; Demuez
et al., 2015); (2) the average carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of microalgae (6:1) (Yen and
Brune, 2007) may result in ammonia inhibition, since this ratio is lower than the
Role of microalgae in circular economy 7
optimum range for anaerobic digestion, 20:1e30:1 (Parkin and Owen, 1986). Therefore,
prior disintegration of the cell wall structure by pretreatment and/or balancing the C:N
ratio in the digester by the addition of a cosubstrate could improve the anaerobic
digestibility and biomethane yields. Numerous studies have focused on methods to
enhance anaerobic biodegradability of microalgae (Axelsson et al., 2012; Mendez
et al., 2013; Ometto et al., 2014; Calicioglu and Demirer, 2016), by means of physical,
chemical, and biological pretreatment (Demuez et al., 2015; He et al., 2016; Ometto
et al., 2014). In order to balance the overall C:N ratio, researchers also codigested micro-
algal biomass with other substrates high in C:N ratio, such as waste paper (Yen and
Brune, 2007), corn straw (Zhong et al., 2012), kitchen waste (Zhao and Ruan, 2013;
Calicioglu and Demirer, 2019), and switchgrass (El-Mashad, 2013).
integrated systems and technical know-how must be harmonized with the economic and
regulatory information to facilitate the applications at a large scale (Stiles et al., 2018).
Nevertheless, case studies and feasibility assessments at this angle exist. For instance, in
a report on a potential CE business case based on production of a variety of commodity
products from microalgae in Japan, it was discussed that using wastewater as nutrients
source could reduce the costs of fertilizers by up to a 75%, and provide 70% reduction
in the costs by recycling acetic acid and ammonia. The reductions in the cost originated
from both the improvement of the existing technology and the increase in the revenue of
wastewater treatment up to 50 yen per cubic meters. It was concluded that this scenario
could compete with fossil oil prices (Herrador, 2016). Indeed, this alternative would not
only be economical, but also environmentally and socially attractive. For instance, it has
been reported that the life cycle impact of microalgae-derived biofuels is dominated by
the cultivation phase, and the environmental and economic feasibility of the system could
be improved by coupling biofuel production with wastewater treatment (Clarens et al.,
2010; Murphy and Allen, 2011). Such a system could also perform well in terms of social
wellbeing indicators, such as food security (Efroymson et al., 2017). In addition,
increasing demands on all three components of the foodeenergyewater nexus require
societies to search for more sustainable development equilibria (Calicioglu and Bogdan-
ski, 2021). In this respect, internalizing social and environmental costs of fossil-based al-
ternatives could also provide a fair comparison ground for microalgal biorefinery
products in the market.
4. Conclusions
The development of a CE will require high-quality, secondary raw materials that can be
fed back into production processes. In this sense, the waste management sector will have
to become a key partner in building new business models that focus both on waste pre-
vention and turning waste into a resource (EPRS, 2017).
Biosequestration of CO2 emissions by microalgal cultures is a relatively new research
area among the waste management applications of microalgal cultures. Nutrient removal
by microalgal cultures and anaerobic digestion of waste microalgal biomass and
subsequent biogas, hydrogen, and fertilizer production were investigated in the past.
Integrating nutrient removal, greenhouse gas mitigation and biofuel production through
microalgal and anaerobic cultures will not only tackle with waste management issues
(wastewater treatment and CO2 mitigation) but also generate renewable energy in the
form of biogas.
Algae are rich in protein and lipids as well as many other compounds which have
several applications in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries in addition to food,
animal feed, and fuel industries. Thus, it is a good example of waste valorization that
aligns well with both waste management and circularity objectives of the CE for several
Role of microalgae in circular economy 9
sectors. This approach, however, requires more research and development for econom-
ically feasible scaling up. Creating a market pull for the high value products is therefore
essential for utilizing microalgae as a mediator of CE.
Acknowledgments
The views represented in this chapter reflect those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the World Bank Group.
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waste activated sludge. Bioresour. Technol. 142, 585e590.
CHAPTER 2
Recent advancements in
algaeebacteria consortia for the
treatment of domestic and industrial
wastewater
Duygu Ozcelik, F. Koray Sakarya, Ulas Tezel and Berat Z. Haznedaroglu
Institute of Environmental Sciences, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
1. Introduction
As we explore a bioeconomy driven sustainable development and abandon fossil fuels
and nonrenewable energy resources, algae gain more popularity as a tangible feedstock
for many sectors including energy, food, health, agricultural, and environmental sectors.
Relying on waste streams such as flue gas for carbon requirements, and wastewater for
nutrient requirements, algae will be an indispensable tool for generating environmentally
sustainable and economically feasible products and technologies. With respect to
applications in wastewater treatment, algae have already been component of tertiary
treatment for enhanced removal of nutrients from wastewater for many years. As we
understand metagenomic dynamics and uncover metabolic requirements in complex
systems such as wastewater, we are more comfortable to offer algaeebacteria based biore-
mediation power to energy-intensive processes of wastewater treatment. Algaee
bacteriaebased bioremediation can also decrease overall costs by generating additional
value added products such as biofuels, biofertilizers, biosurfactants, animal, and aquacul-
ture feed.
Despite the wide portfolio of products that can be obtained from wastewater-fed
algae, several challenges remain to be addressed to improve nutrient/contaminant
removal efficiencies and achieve better economical metrics for wastewater treatment.
As wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) host millions of different species, the hetero-
geneity of metabolic needs, biotic, and abiotic factors pose new risks and problems that
need to be resolved. Although photoautotrophy is the primary form of metabolism
among algae, mixotrophic growth is very likely to generate competition between algaee
bacteria for similar nutrients and carbon sources. Meanwhile, high nutrient concentra-
tions in wastewater (especially nitrogen) most commonly result in lower lipid accumu-
lation in most green algae species suitable for wastewater treatment.
Algaeebacteria consortia in wastewater treatment offer several advantages such as
decreased cost of biomass production, and their mutual growth can positively induce
Integrated Wastewater Management and Valorization using Algal Cultures © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
ISBN 978-0-323-85859-5, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85859-5.00002-6 All rights reserved. 13
14 Integrated Wastewater Management and Valorization using Algal Cultures
more robust and durable biomass against fluctuating nutrient loads and other disturbances
in WWTPs. With this framework of the chapter, we present the most recent develop-
ments of algaeebacteria consortia and provide context to some of these advantages
and disadvantages in wastewater treatment.
In addition to CAS system, there are other suspended culture systems such as waste
stabilization ponds (WSPs) and sequencing batch reactors (SBRs). Natural suspended
culture systems such as WSPs may contain a microbial culture that is either aerobic or
facultative (Peavy and Tchobanoglous, 1985). Among WSPs, facultative microbial cul-
ture system is the common one due to its convenience for application (Mara, 2003).
In facultative ponds, in the upper layer of the system, aerobic microbial growth is favored
as there is a supply of oxygen to aerobic bacteria from algae and atmospheric interactions
(Fig. 2.1) (Mara, 2003). Bacteria use the dissolved oxygen to remove the organic
compounds in the system. The carbon dioxide produced by bacteria is fixed by algae.
Due to a thin colloidal film formation on the surface, oxygen transfer to the lower parts
of the system is hindered; thus, anaerobic conditions predominate. However, these layers
are not stable, and they may create unstable ambient conditions. These conditions trigger
formation of a facultative zone, where there is slightly less dissolved oxygen and sunlight
than the upper part (Peavy and Tchobanoglous, 1985; Mara, 2003). It is crucial to main-
tain algal population in facultative ponds healthy as algae estimated to supply 80% of the
dissolved oxygen in WSP systems for aerobic bacteria to use in organic carbon decom-
position (Pearson, 2003). While low operating costs and simplicity of operation are
advantageous for facultative ponds, they require considerable land, perform poorly in
cold climates, and generate odor and insect problems in the operating area (Ranjit
et al., 2021; Peavy and Tchobanoglous, 1985; Pearson, 2003).
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