Britpavedigital 57836
Britpavedigital 57836
Britpavedigital 57836
Hardstanding
DESIGN GUIDANCE
Guidelines for the design of
concrete hardstandings
3rd Edition 2023
Britpave wishes to extend its thanks for their valued time and input in the review and preparation of this guidance.
Front cover image: Next Plc Distribution Centre, South Elmsall, West Yorkshire featuring the Danley Strategic Reinforcement
Design™
All advice or information herein is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for their use or application.
No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by either Britpave or its members. Readers should note that
this publication may be subject to future revision and should therefore ensure that they are in possession of the latest version.
Published by Britpave
First published: 2023
Ref: BP/73
Contents
Hardstanding 1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The Hardstanding Market........................................................................3
3 DESIGN....................................................................................7
3.1 General....................................................................................................7
3.2 Site Appraisal...........................................................................................7
3.3 Subgrade.................................................................................................7
3.4 Subbase...................................................................................................7
3.5 Concrete.................................................................................................7
3.6 Thickness Design.....................................................................................7
3.7 Joints.......................................................................................................8
3.8 Surface Characteristics.............................................................................8
3.9 Integrated Design....................................................................................8
4 SITE APPRAISAL.......................................................................9
4.1 General....................................................................................................9
4.2 Site Survey...............................................................................................9
4.3 Soils Investigation....................................................................................9
4.4 Traffic Estimation...................................................................................12
5 SUBGRADE.............................................................................13
5.1 General..................................................................................................13
5.2 Subgrade Support.................................................................................13
5.3 Subgrade Uniformity.............................................................................14
5.4 Stabilised Subgrade...............................................................................14
6 SUBBASE................................................................................15
6.1 General..................................................................................................15
6.2 Subbase Thickness.................................................................................15
6.3 Foundation Class 2................................................................................15
6.4 Foundation Class 3................................................................................16
6.5 Subbase Construction............................................................................16
7 CONCRETE.............................................................................20
7.1 General..................................................................................................20
7.2 Specifying Concrete...............................................................................20
7.3 Strength................................................................................................20
7.4 Durability..............................................................................................21
7.5 Consistence...........................................................................................22
7.6 Cement.................................................................................................23
7.7 Chemical Admixtures.............................................................................23
7.8 Construction Practices...........................................................................23
7.9 Winter Working.....................................................................................24
7.10 Opening To Traffic.................................................................................25
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
8 THICKNESS DESIGN................................................................26
8.1 General..................................................................................................26
8.2 Design Concept.....................................................................................26
8.3 Parameters............................................................................................26
8.4 Concrete Slab Thickness........................................................................27
8.5 Steel Reinforcement...............................................................................27
8.6 Fibre Reinforcement...............................................................................27
8.7 Telescopic Landing Gear........................................................................27
9 JOINTS...................................................................................29
9.1 The Need For Joints In Concrete............................................................29
9.2 Types Of Joint........................................................................................29
9.3 Joint Sealing..........................................................................................34
9.4 Joint Spacing And Layout.......................................................................35
9.5 Joint Maintenance.................................................................................38
9.6 Joints In Roller Compacted Concrete ....................................................38
9.7 Alternative Methods Of Design And Constuction ..................................39
10 SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS..................................................41
10.1 General..................................................................................................41
10.2 Regularity..............................................................................................41
10.3 Gradient................................................................................................41
10.4 Skid Resistance......................................................................................42
10.5 Abrasion Resistance...............................................................................43
10.6 Impact Resistance..................................................................................43
11 INTEGRATED DESIGN.............................................................44
11.1 General..................................................................................................44
11.2 Drainage...............................................................................................44
11.3 Services.................................................................................................45
11.4 Designing For Edge Drain Units.............................................................45
APPENDICES..........................................................................49
A Vehicle Damage Factors.........................................................................49
B Parameters Adopted In Thickness Design...............................................51
C Design Examples .................................................................................52
D Calculating Joint Spacing For Plain Concrete Pavements
On Bound Subbase................................................................................55
Introduction
1.1 THE HARDSTANDING MARKET 1.2 LONG TERM PERFORMANCE
1
Each year, considerable areas of hardstanding pavements Long term performance with minimum maintenance
and circulatory routes are constructed around industrial, interruptions is important if disruptive downtime and loss
commercial and warehousing premises for use by heavy of availability are to be avoided. As part of the long-term
goods vehicles and other handling plant. The market for performance, it is important to make full consideration of
hardstanding pavements is likely to grow in parallel with the whole life cost of the hardstanding. This includes the
the ongoing growth of the logistics industry from retail, initial cost of pavement construction or rehabilitation, the
food and manufactured goods storage and distribution. costs of routine maintenance and planned strengthening
over the design life, and the value of the asset at the end
Hardstandings are typically constructed from concrete for of its life. Other factors include the non-engineering and
long-life performance and minimum maintenance. Design user cost as a result of delay and increase in operating cost.
life varies from 20 to 40 years. Significant advances in Therefore, where the cost of disruption during pavement
reinforcement detailing, new low carbon high strength maintenance and strengthening is high, constructing
concretes, steel and synthetic fibre reinforcement, and roller strong low maintenance durable pavement would have a
compacted concrete offer increased potential for additional major advantage.
construction efficiency and savings.
Concrete pavement requires little maintenance during
its life. However, premature concrete failure is commonly
associated with inadequate structural design and materials
specification, poor construction quality and increased or
inappropriate operational loading. Design details including
joint types and spacing to account for the expected
traffic pattern and aggregate thermal properties, use of
reinforcement and edge details are crucial for successful
pavements. Additionally, the interaction with other design
elements such as drainage design and potential ground
settlement or heave must also be considered.
3
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
4
Terminology
Terminology
2.1 DEFINITIONS
2
Capping and subbase layers may be formed from imported
materials. Alternatively, the existing subgrade materials, if
To understand why concrete is such a good material
suitable, can frequently be modified through the process
for hardstandings, it is important to understand the
of ‘soil stabilisation’ to provide an equivalent material.
composition of a typical hardstanding construction.
The capping and subbase layers form the foundation to
Hardstandings are essentially made up of layers of different the higher stiffness bound pavement layers above. The
materials, generally increasing in stiffness towards the foundation serves two principal functions:
surface. The wheel loads applied to the finished surface
• To provide a robust platform to the construction of the
are spread through the hardstanding construction such
higher quality bound pavement materials above,
that the underlying ground is not overstressed. The
principal terminology used to describe the layers within the • May also serve as part of the overall load spreading
hardstanding structure is shown below: structure of the hardstanding, ultimately protecting
the underlying natural subgrade from becoming
overstressed.
Bound or unbound capping layer Transverse contraction joints are placed across the pavement
at approximately 4 – 5 metre centres (depending upon the
slab thickness and aggregate used in the PQC mix). Usually,
the transverse joints are dowelled or tied to ensure a good
level of load transfer across the joints.
Natural subgrade
Where URC pavements are constructed without dowels and
ties, aspects of the pavement design and detailing must
Figure 2.1 Principal elements of a concrete hardstanding be reviewed for the subsequent higher edge and corner
loading at joints.
Subgrade: The natural subgrade, be it clays, chalks, sands
2.2.2 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements (JRC)
or gravels, will usually be insufficiently robust to support
construction traffic, let alone the operational traffic. This pavement type is constructed using PQC and is
characterised by transverse contraction joints that can
Capping and subbase: To provide a construction platform be extended to 9 metres or more. Steel reinforcement is
on which bound layers can be satisfactorily placed and provided to control, but not prevent, cracking which may
compacted it is common to strengthen the natural subgrade occur between the joints.
with a capping layer. In turn providing a subbase layer
above using a stiffer bound or unbound material further Whilst the reinforcement is provided to control cracking,
enhances this capping layer. and not for structural purposes, it indirectly contributes
to increasing the cyclic load carrying capacity. It does so
Where the natural ground conditions permit, it is by relieving the concrete matrix of much of the thermal
occasionally possible to eliminate the capping layer by stresses that would otherwise reduce the pavement’s life.
providing a thicker subbase layer directly onto the natural
subgrade.
5
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
2.2.3 Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Pavement (SFRC) 2.2.5 Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement (RCC)
SFRC is constructed using PQC incorporating a specified Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a versatile heavy duty
level of steel fibre dosage which is added at the point of pavement that is ideal for concrete hardstandings where
mixing. SFRC is characterised by transverse and longitudinal strength and durability rather than surface appearance are
contraction joints typically spaced at 4 – 12 metres apart. needed more – although the appearance can be improved
The steel fibre reinforcement is provided to control, but with the use of power-floating.
not prevent, the cracking that may occur between these
joints. Dowelled contraction joints can be specified where RCC is more economic than PQC as it is produced at lower
there are concerns over the long-term performance of the moisture contents and, therefore, less cement is required
load transfer mechanism (aggregate interlock + fibres) to achieve the same strength. Production rates for RCC are
under high load repetitions. Dowels should allow for two- high using modified pavers and rollers. Commonly, RCC is
directional shrinkage to eliminate restraint at the joints. compacted with both vibratory rollers and pneumatic-tyred
rollers to close the surface.
SFRC is easy to place and provides improved control of
shrinkage stresses. A wide range of steel fibre size and RCC does not have conventional sealed joints, using the
type is available. The fibre dosage required to attain a process of controlled cracking instead to provide fully
required performance level varies considerably. The design interlocked wet-formed joints at approximately 3x3m
procedure should therefore take into account the particular nominal centres. Useful guidance on the design of RCC
characteristic of the fibre used and guidance should be can be found in the Portland Cement Association guide
sought from the fibre supplier. ‘Structural design of roller-compacted concrete for industrial
pavements’ and the Bripave ‘Guide to roller compacted
2.2.4 Micro synthetic (polypropylene)/macro synthetic concrete’. Roller compacted concrete pavement is now
(part-polypropylene) fibre reinforced concrete specified in the Specification for Highway Works 1000 Series
pavement (PFRC)
This pavement type is constructed using Pavement
Quality Concrete (PQC) incorporating a specified level of
polypropylene/synthetic (part polypropylene) fibre dosage,
which is added at the point of mixing.
6
Design
Design
3.1 GENERAL 3.4 SUBBASE
3
This chapter outlines the various elements considered The subbase comprises one, sometimes two, layers of
in determining the layout, alignment and detailing of a material between the subgrade and the concrete slab. The
concrete hardstanding, the thickness of the concrete slab, principal purposes of the subbase are to:
the materials to be used in the foundation and consideration
of how to integrate other design elements such as drainage • Provide a working platform from which to construct the
inclusions. If all of these aspects are correctly considered concrete slab without damaging the subgrade
at design stage and carried through to construction then • Improve the uniformity of the slab support
any concrete hardstanding should remain functional • Reduce deflection at joints therefore maintaining
throughout its design life. effective load transfer across joints
Each of these elements is discussed separately in Chapters • Eliminate erosion and pumping of the subgrade
4 to 11. (particularly at joints) as a potential failure mode under
repetitive loading from heavy goods vehicles
• Contribute to the structural strength of the pavement
3.2 SITE APPRAISAL • Insulate frost-susceptible soils from frost by increasing
The three principal elements that should form part of any site the total depth of construction.
appraisal prior to the design of a concrete hardstanding are:
For concrete hardstandings the requirements for subbases
• Soils investigation are less onerous than they are for flexible roads. Bound
• Estimation of design traffic subbases are more effective than granular for reducing
• Topographic and services survey. joint deflection and the risk of pumping but are less
economic. Despite this, unbound granular subbases have
The soils investigation determines the characteristics and a successful track record beneath hardstandings. Whether
strength of the natural soil on which the pavement, and bound or unbound however, subbase materials must be
any fill, is to be constructed. The soil properties influence hard, durable, chemically inert and frost resistant. They
subgrade preparation, the need for a subbase, the type must be suitably graded so that they are capable of being
of subbase required and the overall concrete pavement compacted to a high density.
thickness.
The process of stabilisation, using the addition of hydraulic
The design procedures adopted for determining concrete binders (such as lime, ground granulated blast furnace slag
pavement thickness require an understanding of the and cement) to naturally occurring subgrade materials, can
frequency and spectrum of commercial vehicle types, as also successfully convert subgrade strata into materials that
well as any other load types such as forklift trucks and tugs. possess the above qualities, suitable for the subbase.
7
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
The procedures adopted in the United Kingdom for concrete 3.8 SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
pavement design are largely derived from empirical data
Surface characteristics such as regularity, gradient and
from highway pavements subject to predominantly heavy
texture are important functional requirements to ensure
goods vehicles. These procedures would not be appropriate
that the planned activities are as safe as possible. These
for non-road-legal heavy axle loads which are outside the
are discussed further in Chapter 10.
scope of this publication.
• Contraction joints
Control transverse and longitudinal cracking and
warping due to drying shrinkage. Reinforcement placed
in the upper third of the concrete slab is frequently
used with more widely spaced contraction joints to
achieve this.
• Isolation joints
Isolate the pavement elements from each other or
other penetrations that may cause differential thermal
movement, and subsequent failure.
• Expansion joints
Accommodate expansion of the pavement as
temperatures rise to beyond that at which the
pavement was constructed. Expansion joints also relieve
stresses within the pavement that may occur if nearby
contraction joints are not functioning correctly.
8
Site appraisal
Site appraisal
4.1 GENERAL 4.3 SOILS INVESTIGATION
4
The site appraisal covers three areas: soils investigation, An investigation should be made of the characteristics and
estimation of design traffic and site survey. strength of the soil on which the pavement is to be constructed.
It cannot be emphasised too strongly that ground investigation
The time and resources devoted to these will vary
for pavement design requires techniques and tests outside
according to the size and complexity of individual projects
those used for building foundations, fill classification and
and previous experience. Nevertheless, to meet the design
ground contamination. This is particularly true for projects
objectives, each of these areas warrants some consideration.
that would benefit from soil stabilization. Too often the
The basic criteria that need to be determined are shown in benefits are recognized too late in the programme to take
Figure 4.1 below [8]. full advantage of the cost savings. It is strongly advised that
specialist pavement design input should be included in the
ground investigation scope.
Achieving an earthworks balance can affect the chosen Sand (poorly graded) – 20
vertical geometry of the hardstanding. Sand (well graded) – 40
Sandy gravel (well graded) – 60
The site survey should also record existing features such
as watercourses and main services as these may require
diversion, lowering or culverting, all of which may affect
the hardstanding vertical geometry.
9
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG
DESIGNN H A ND B O O K
HANDBOOK
Table 4.2
Table 4.1 Extended
ExtendedCasagrande
CasagrandeClassification
Classification
Boulders and Soils consisting chiefly of boulders Boulder gravels Particle-size analysis
cobbles larger than 200 mm in diameter or
–
cobbles between 200 mm & 75 mm,
identifiable by visual inspection
Gravel and Soils with an appreciable fraction Well graded gravel-sand Particle-size analysis
GW
gravelly soils between the 75 mm & 2.36 mm. mixtures, little or no fines
Generally easily identifiable by visual Well graded gravel-sands Particle-size analysis, liquid and
inspection. A medium to high dry GC
with small clay content plastic limits on binder
strength indicates that some clay is
present. A negligible dry strength Uniform gravel with little or Particle-size analysis
GU
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
Fine-grained Soils with liquid limits between 35% Silty clays (inorganic) and Particle-size analysis, liquid and
MI
soils having and 50%. Can be readily rolled into sandy clays plastic limits if applicable
medium threads when moist. Do not exhibit Clays (inorganic) of Liquid and plastic limits
plasticity dilatancy. Show some shrinkage on CI
medium plasticity
drying.
Organic clays of medium Liquid and plastic limits from
OI
plasticity natural conditions after oven-drying
Fine-grained Soils with liquid limits greater than Highly compressible Particle-size analysis, liquid and
soils having 50%. Can be readily rolled into micaceous or diatomaceous MH plastic limits if applicable
high plasticity threads when moist. Greasy to the soils
touch. Show considerable shrinkage Clays (inorganic) of high Liquid and plastic limits
on drying. All highly compressible CH
plasticity
soils.
Organic clays of high Liquid and plastic limits from
OH
plasticity natural conditions after oven-drying
Fibrous inorganic Usually brown or black in colour. Peat and other highly
soils with very high Very compressible. Easily identifiable organic swamp soils Pt Moisture content and consolidation tests
compressibility visibly
10
Site appraisal
Applicable
observations and Maximum
tests relating to Value as a road dry density
the material in foundation not Potential frost Shrinkage or Drainage at optimum
place (or carried subject to frost action swelling properties characteristics compaction
out on undisturbed action (kg/m3) and
samples) voids ratio, e
>2000
Excellent to good Medium Very slight Practically impervious
e <0.35
>1600
Fair None to very slight Almost none to slight Excellent
e <0.70
>1600
Fair to good None to very slight Almost none Excellent
e <0.70
Almost none to Fair to practically >1600
Fair to good Slight to high
medium impervious e <0.60
>1600
Poor Medium to high High Poor
e <0.70
>1400
Poor to very poor Very slight High Practically impervious
e <0.90
>1600
Very poor Very slight High Practically impervious
e <0.70
11
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
A number of methods exist for establishing the subgrade 4.4 TRAFFIC ESTIMATION
strength by in-situ testing, many of which are outlined in
Pavements fail gradually over time in response to repetitive
more detail in the National Highways Design Manual for
loading from stresses that are well below the failure
Roads and Bridges, CD225.
strengths of the materials. This fatigue loading is different
Where measured CBR values vary on a particular site, from the limit state design approach taken from structural
it is not uncommon to adopt the 15th percentile value, codes. It is for this reason that structural design models,
acknowledging that some additional work to soft spots may including those for internal floors, are seldom suitable for
be required in localised areas. external pavements.
It is important to note that the pavement design process It is important to understand as much as possible the likely
is based upon equilibrium CBR values, which are those traffic frequency, vehicle types, its growth rate and the
that are representative of the in-service moisture content. required pavement life so that the overall cumulative design
Care should therefore be exercised in the interpretation of traffic loading can be calculated
soils investigation data containing in-situ CBR information
Normally, design traffic is expressed as the cumulative
for soils whose strength is a function of their moisture
number of ‘standard axles’ during the pavement design
content (which is normally the case). The strength during
life. The term ‘standard axle’ in the UK is defined as an axle
construction or in-service may be much lower than the
carrying a load of 80 kN (8.16 tonnes) when quantifying
recorded values, particularly when measured during the
the potential vehicle damage factor
summer when unrepresentatively high figures may be
obtained due to the dryness of the soil. This damage factor is a function of the number of standard
axles that a particular vehicle has, and this is related to
As outlined in 4.2, the existing subgrade materials may
the weight of the vehicle, the number of axles and the
be re-used as fill material and it will be important to gain
distribution of the vehicle weight on the axles. It is therefore
an understanding of how these materials will behave
important to know from the outset what proportion of
when they are disturbed and recompacted. Measuring
heavy good vehicles will be loaded and unloaded.
maximum dry density, natural and optimum moisture
content are essential. If cohesive fills are to be used, or any It is also beneficial to understand vehicle movements across
fills over existing cohesive materials, then these are likely the hardstanding. Traffic will differ in, for example, the
to settle over time, possibly affecting the gradients of the gatehouse area where all the vehicles have access, and the
hardstanding. An understanding of the likely settlement parking bays where they do not. On specific sites there may
potential should be sought at an early stage by carrying be cost benefits in thickening pavements in those areas that
out laboratory testing to establish settlement parameters, will take all of the traffic, whilst thinning pavements in areas
typically oedometer testing on extracted samples. where only a small proportion of the traffic will occur.
Where subgrade stabilisation with hydraulic binders is During the site appraisal stage an understanding of the
considered, specific testing will be required to ensure that proposed goods handling vehicles should be sought.
the subgrade materials are compatible with the process and Potential damage by forklift trucks must be accounted for,
also to determine the binder content required to achieve particularly those with solid tyres. On occasion damage
the desired in-service layer strength. The requirements for from forklift trucks can result from their frequency of traffic
testing for stabilised materials are outlined in the Britpave in specific areas, which can be significant.
document ‘Soil Improvement and Soil Stabilisation: Definitive
Industry Guidance’. Some handling vehicles, such as straddle carriers and reach
stackers can impose very heavy wheel loads and these are
Site vulnerability to the risk of frost penetrating through beyond the scope of this publication. In such instances the
the pavement structure down into any frost susceptible pavements should be designed specifically for these loads
subgrades should be checked. Information can be using alternative design guidance such as the Interpave
obtained for UK sites in the form of a ‘frost index’ from the document ‘The structural design of heavy duty pavements
Meteorological Office. for ports and other industries’.
It is common practice to protect frost susceptible subgrades
by ensuring that the total pavement thickness (including
bound and unbound) is at least 450mm thick. However, for
sites where the frost index is less than 50, the UK National
Highways permit a reduction in this thickness to 350mm.
The Road Research Laboratory Road Note 29. Appendix
1, also provides some useful information on the frost
susceptibility of soils and road materials.
12
Subgrade
Subgrade
5.1 GENERAL
5
As described in Section 4.3, where measured CBR values vary
on a particular site, it is not uncommon to adopt the 15th
A reasonably uniform foundation is essential to the successful
percentile value, acknowledging that some additional work to
long-term performance of a concrete hardstanding. An
soft spots may be required in localised areas. In selecting the
assumption that a concrete pavement will bridge over a
design CBR in this way, the designer is attempting to assign
poor subgrade is incorrect. ACPA (2007) indicates that this
a value slightly above the weakest soil strength condition
means “no abrupt changes or isolated weak or stiff spots”,
likely to be endured during the design life. This may or may
for example, cut-fill transitions or changes in subgrade
not be present at or during construction, and should be a
moisture condition. Experience is that reasonably uniform
conservative rather than optimistic value for several reasons:
support from a low strength subgrade leads to better
long-term performance compared with stronger but non- • It is difficult to accurately predict changes in soil
uniform subgrades. Despite this, concrete pavements have strength for 20 or more years into the future. The
been constructed successfully on a wide range of poor sites effectiveness of pavement drainage and the large range
including reclaimed brownfield sites, very weak soils and of environmental influences often introduce significant
mining subsidence areas. uncertainties,
• The amount of test data on soil strengths is likely to be
The following descriptions of subgrade support and uniformity limited,
are abstracted from the Cement and Concrete Association of • The designer has little direct control of construction
Australia ‘Guide to residential streets and paths’. variables or the future maintenance,
• Additional construction costs of an adequate pavement
are invariably relatively minor in comparison with the cost
5.2 SUBGRADE SUPPORT of the remedial works associated with a deficient design.
5.2.1 General 5.2.2 Poor strength soils
The high modulus of elasticity of concrete, compared with Poor strength soils are those that would normally require
asphalt, enables concrete pavements to distribute loads pre- treatment if the pavement were to be constructed
over large areas. As a result, deflections and pressures on while they are in that state. Pre-treatments include the
the subgrade are lower. Concrete pavement thickness is following options:
therefore not sensitive to subgrade strength. It is more
important that subgrade support be reasonably uniform • Placing capping material to provide a better
with no abrupt changes. construction platform,
• Stabilisation using lime and/or cement if soil conditions
Subgrade strengths for pavements have traditionally been are suitable.
quantified using the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). A typical A non-woven geotextile is important where CBR is less than
range for weak to strong soils would be 2% to 15%. Section 3% to prevent water accumulating at the subgrade surface.
4.3 has already described how a design CBR assessment can
be made during the site appraisal stage. 5.2.3 Moderate strength soils
To understand the nature of different subgrades, it is These soil conditions seldom require special pre-treatment
sometimes useful to categorise them into different soil of the soil apart from compaction prior to the placement of
strengths. The following table provides an approximate the pavement. However, most subgrades will benefit from
subgrade categorisation against CBR. minimal disturbance, as the in-situ undisturbed soil structure
has intrinsic strength that should be preserved. Many highway
Table 5.1 Approximate categorisation of subgrades authorities generally avoid routine reworking of in-situ
subgrades in favour of soft spot identification by proof-rolling,
Approximate subgrade Equilibrium CBR (%) followed by local improvement.
category
Poor 2 Some situations where these soil conditions may exist are:
Moderate 5 • Zones which have good drainage, e.g. embankments,
High 10 • Climatic conditions causing perennially low soil moisture
Very high 15 content,
• Sands and low plasticity clays not subject to saturation.
In the UK, poor and moderate strength soils are generally most
common.
13
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
5.2.4 High strength soils Ideally, to reduce the potential for high moisture gain and/
High strength soils have been assigned a design CBR of 10%. or differential moisture change, cohesive subgrades should be
Some situations where these soil conditions may exist are at, or marginally below, their optimum moisture content. As
where: a general rule, moisture contents at OMC +/– 2% should be
satisfactory for compaction and in-service performance. After
• Native soil comprises weathered rock,
some time in service cohesive soils will attempt to reach this
• Good quality selected fill has been placed with good ‘equilibrium’ state, upon which little further moisture change
compaction, should occur. Likewise, the tendency to subsequently swell or
• Soil has or will be stabilised and laboratory testing has shrink due to moisture change will diminish.
confirmed high strengths,
Cohesive soils greatly above their OMC will be very difficult
• The pavement is on a well-drained site.
to compact.
It is expected that high strength soils would only rarely
Subgrade and fill preparation and compaction requirements
occur in UK conditions.
are detailed in the UK National Highways ‘Specification
for Highway Works, Series 600, Earthworks’ and it is
5.2.5 Very high strength soils recommended that all subgrade and filling works are carried
Very high strength soils have been assigned a design CBR of out in compliance with this document.
15%. Some situations where these soil conditions may exist
are where: 5.3.3 Variations in material type
• Native soil comprises rock and is levelled using a Where sites present abrupt changes in subgrade material (such
granular layer including, where appropriate, a granular as outcropping bedrock) measures should be taken to provide
drainage layer, a transition between these materials to avoid overstressing of
• Structural fill (a designed layer of laboratory-tested the concrete hardstanding.
material) has been placed using controlled compaction,
Where materials with differing settlement potentials (such as
• Selected structural fill has been or will be stabilised and
cohesive and granular) occur side-by-side, careful consideration
laboratory testing has confirmed very high strengths,
should be made of the potential future settlement profile and
• A granular subbase 100 mm thick is placed on a measures taken to avoid abrupt differential settlement.
subgrade characterised as a high strength soil.
Unless such soil conditions already exist, the benefits gained 5.4 STABILISED SUBGRADE
from engineering this soil strength are often marginal
compared with the cost of providing it. 5.3.1 General
Weak foundations and those with high natural moisture
contents can be both modified and stabilised to both reduce
5.3 SUBGRADE UNIFORMITY moisture contents to closer to the optimum moisture content,
5.3.1 General and also significantly strengthen the subgrade.
Factors that influence subgrade uniformity are: The stabilisation of cohesive subgrades will enhance their
• Moisture/density control, stability under conditions of alternate wetting and drying
• Variations in material type. and will extend the construction period by providing an all-
weather working platform.
5.3.2 Moisture/density control The subject of stabilisation is covered in detail within Britpave
In clay or other fine-grained soils, subgrade uniformity can document ‘Soil improvement and Soil stabilisation: Definitive
be enhanced by correct moisture/density control during Guidance’, and the European Standard BS EN 14227, Parts
construction. Two conditions can lead to movement within 1–5.
these soils in service:
• Soils that are too dry when compacted, or which are
allowed to dry out prior to paving. In this instance the
soils will subsequently gain moisture,
• Subgrades with varying natural moisture contents may
result in differential in-service moisture changes.
14
Subbase
Subbase
6.1 GENERAL LWD methodology
6
Beneath a concrete hardstanding, the function of the The LWD is used to measure the surface modulus of
subbase differs from that of the equivalent layer in a pavement foundation. The results are presented as stiffness
flexible pavement. Within a rigid pavement the concrete modulus but can be converted to CBR values if required.
slab provides the pavement’s major structural capacity with The LWD with a 300mm diameter plate will test to a depth
the subbase contributing only minimally to reducing slab of approximately 450mm. Therefore, if the test is being
thickness, particularly at the traffic levels associated with carried out on a granular layer over a subgrade layer, the
hardstandings. value will be a composite value. A typical LWD is shown
below.
In the UK, subbase thickness for trunk roads has been for
many years determined using the design charts contained
within the UK National Highways ‘Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges, CD225 Design for new pavement foundation’.
However, for rigid pavements this document is based upon
the provision of cement bound subbase, with the enhanced
subbase thickness (i.e. those that provide thicker subbase in
lieu of an additional capping layer) being precluded from
rigid pavement design. On subgrades with CBR < 15%,
a capping layer will generally be required to enable the
satisfactory compaction of a cement bound subbase.
Where:
Foundation Class 2 and 3 design charts for subbase thickness
E = estimated subgrade surface modulus
are shown in figures 6.1 and 6.2. Foundation Class 2 and 3
CBR: California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the subgrade
design charts for subbase and capping thickness are shown
The above equation is approximately valid for clay soils CBR in Figures 6.3 and 6.4.
values in the range of 2% to 12%
The following class descriptions are taken from CD225.
15
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
The use of recycled and secondary aggregates arising Subbases with Foundation Class 3 may be adopted beneath
from construction industry waste within subbase layers is concrete hardstandings, although at low traffic intensities
encouraged. So long as the materials can be successfully there may be insufficient savings in PQ concrete slab
compacted, will remain durable during the pavement’s thickness to make these foundations worthwhile. They
lifespan and are stable under construction traffic, recycled and will, however, provide an excellent working platform for
secondary aggregates should perform satisfactorily beneath a mechanised slab construction such as slipform techniques.
concrete hardstanding.
For subgrade moduli of > 30MPa (CBR > 2.5%) materials
Subbases beneath concrete hardstandings, with relatively with Foundation Class 3 may typically include hydraulically
little traffic in comparison with trunk roads will be the most bound subbases in accordance with UK National Highways
economic if Foundation Class 2 is adopted. Specification for Highway Works Series 800 and 1000, such as:
• Cement bound materials, Classes CBGM categories A
Foundation Class 2 is a subbase only (Option 1) or subbase
and B with minimum Rc Class of C3/4
on capping (Option 2) design that is considered here as the
appropriate standard for unbound granular foundations. • Soil treated by cement (SC), soil treated by slag (SS), soil
treated by fly ash (SFA) soil treated by hydraulic road
Option 1 binder (SHRB) with minimum Rc Class C3/4
For subgrade surface moduli of >30 MPa (CBR > 2.5%) These materials should be laid to a nominal thickness
materials within Foundation Class 2 may typically include that varies with the subgrade surface moduli as shown
subbases in accordance with UK National Highways in Figure 6.2, with a minimum thickness of 200mm. For
Specification for Highways Works Series 800 and 1000 - such poor subgrade some treatment of the subgrade either by
as those listed below: stabilisation or incorporation of a granular starter layer may
• Unbound granular material, Type 1 and, depending on be necessary to ensure adequate compaction of these bound
traffic, Type 2, materials. Alternatively, a capping layer in accordance with
• Unbound asphalt arisings, Type 4, Clause 613 of the UK National Highways Specification for
Highways Works Series 600 can be considered below the
• Slag bound materials,
subbase as shown in Figure 6.4.
• Cement bound materials, Classes CBGM Categories A
and B with minimum Rc Class C3/4
• Soil treated by cement (SC), soil treated by slag (SS), soil 6.5 SUBBASE CONSTRUCTION
treated by fly ash (SFA) soil treated by hydraulic road It important that the subbase is constructed to the crossfall
binder (SHRB) with minimum Rc Class C3/4 and surface tolerances dictated by the design to avoid
undesirable fluctuations in the concrete slab thickness above.
These materials should be laid to a nominal thickness that Such fluctuations may result in a non-uniform restraint to
varies with the subgrade surface modulus as shown in Figure thermal movement at the base of the concrete slab, as well
6.1, with a minimum thickness of 175mm. as the potential for slab thicknesses falling below the design
target required for structural performance. Either of these
Option 2 aspects could lead to premature failure of the hardstanding.
For poor subgrade some treatment of the subgrade whether
by stabilisation or incorporation of a granular start layer may be Subgrades must be trimmed and subbases constructed to
necessary to ensure adequate compaction of these materials. crossfalls to achieve adequate drainage of the foundation,
Alternatively, a capping layer in accordance with Clause 613 of without which high moisture contents may well build up
the UK National Highways Specification for Highways Works within the foundation resulting in its weakening and potential
Series 600 can be considered below the subbase as shown in premature failure of the overlying pavement.
Figure 6.3.
The tolerance on the finished subbase surface levels should
be specified as +10 mm to –30 mm for unbound or +10mm
to -10mm for bound subbase to ensure that the concrete slab
thickness is not unduly compromised.
16
Subbase
17
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
18
Figure 6.4 Foundation Classes 3 subbase on capping thickness design [16]
19
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
7 Concrete
7.1 GENERAL 7.3 STRENGTH
Concrete specified for hardstandings must meet specific The ability of the concrete slab to adequately accommodate
requirements if it is to perform successfully. The principal the stresses resulting from traffic and thermal loading is a
requirements for the concrete are: function of its strength and thickness.
• Has sufficient stiffness to satisfactorily distribute the
In classical pavement design, traffic stress is resisted by
predicted loads,
concrete flexural strength. This approach is still used for
• Has sufficient durability for the exposure conditions, airfield pavement design and in many overseas design
• Maintains sufficient skid resistance for safe operations in guides. However, the UK highways sector has always used
all weather. compressive cube strength. This was the approach taken by
TRL in RR87 and this is the design model used in this guide.
The above requirements will only be achieved if correct
construction practices are adopted whilst the concrete is in Flexural strength requires beam testing. Whilst this is fine
its plastic state. for normal design, it is inconvenient for examining existing
pavements because beam specimens would have to be
The four key elements of construction affecting the long- cut out. Compressive strength testing on core samples is
term performance are: concrete placing, compacting, normally used instead.
finishing and curing.
Compressive strength is in effect an indirect measure
of flexural strength. For mixes containing cements in
7.2 SPECIFYING CONCRETE accordance with BS EN 197-1, an approximate relationship
Concrete for hardstandings should be specified in between flexural and compressive strength can be
accordance with European Standard BS EN 206-1 and expressed as follows:
complementary standard BS 8500-1.
These standards prescribe the methods by which both fcuf = 0.75 √fcu
‘Designated Concretes’ and ‘Designed Concretes’ can
be chosen and specified depending upon strength Where fcuf and fcu are flexural and compressive strength
requirements, exposure conditions and intended use. respectively, in MPa. It must be recognised that different
Only specific concrete classes will satisfy the strength mixes may yield different ratios of flexural to compressive
and durability criteria required for hardstandings – this is strength. For large projects it may be prudent to validate
explored in the following paragraphs. this relationship using mix trials. Additionally, crushed
rock aggregate will perform differently from gravel in this
Carbon reduction of construction materials is part of the respect (see Appendix B).
UK drive to lower Greenhouse Gas emissions by 2050. As
explained in the introduction, concrete has many beneficial For both designated and designed concretes, BS 8500–1
effects, but it remains true that cement production is a adopts a dual numeric system to identify the appropriate
carbon hungry process, and the industry is making a huge compressive strength class, expressed for normal weight
effort to lower the carbon produced. concrete in the form C(X)/(Y). Here ‘X’ is the minimum 28-
day characteristic 150 mm diameter by 300 mm cylinder
In the short-medium term the use of SCMs (supplementary strength and ‘Y’ is the minimum 28-day 150 mm cube
cementitious materials) in concrete production will be a key strength, for example C32/40.
method to lower the emissions of concrete. SCMs can be
used as replacement for up to 65% of the OPC content. - The strength of cores retrieved from the pavement is
see section 12 for further details. generally lower than that of laboratory cured cubes and
cylinders. Even under excellent conditions of placing
At these replacement % the short-term strength gain is likely and curing, the strength of cores taken from the slab is
to be less than that of OPC and therefore consideration unlikely to exceed 70 to 85% of the strength of standard
should be given to using 56-day strengths instead of the test specimens [19]. The specified strengths are those to
BS8500 28-day requirement - particularly on larger projects be achieved within laboratory prepared site specimens as
where slabs are unlikely to be loaded with traffic. opposed to those within the slab. As such, this factor must
be taken into consideration if cores retrieved from the slab
are to be used for compliance testing.
20
Concrete
To avoid deterioration and wear under service conditions Class Class Examples
the concrete used for industrial hardstandings should designation description
possess adequate durability. To achieve this the concrete Corrosion induced by carbonation
should be sufficient quality to ensure resistance to frost XC3 & XC4 Moderate External reinforced and
attack, abrasion and also protect any reinforcement from humidity or prestressed concrete
corrosion. cyclic wet surfaces sheltered from,
and dry or exposed to, direct
Key factors in producing durable concrete include an
rain and/or alternate
appropriate water cement ratio, avoiding concretes with
wetting and drying
high water cement ratios and, importantly, achievement
of high density through compaction. It should be noted Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water
that higher water/cement ratios result in lower concrete XD3 Cyclic wet Reinforced and
strengths. and dry prestressed concrete
surfaces directly affected
To determine the correct concrete for industrial paving, BS by de-icing salts or spray
8500-1, Table A.1 [4] defines specific exposure classes for: containing de-icing salts
• Reinforcement corrosion induced by carbonation Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
(XC Classes)
XS1 Exposed to External reinforced and
• Reinforcement corrosion induced by chlorides other airborne prestressed concrete
than sea water (XD Classes) salt but not surfaces in coastal areas
• Reinforcement corrosion induced by chlorides from sea in direct
water (XS Classes) contact with
• Freeze/thaw attack on the concrete (XF Classes) sea water
Freeze/thaw attack
Not all of the exposure conditions listed within BS 8500-1
will be relevant to concrete industrial hardstandings. The XF3 High water Horizontal concrete
following table highlights those that may be relevant. saturation surfaces where water
without accumulates or are
de-icing exposed to frequent
agent splashing with water
and which are exposed
to freezing
XF4 High water Horizontal concrete
saturation surfaces, such as roads
with de-icing and pavements, exposed
agent to freezing and to
de-icing salts either
directly or as spray or
runoff
21
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
22
Concrete
Generally, the cement and combination types in Table 7.3 Other chemical admixtures include accelerators or retarders
are suitable for hardstandings. However, weather conditions that assist cold and hot weather working respectively.
during laying may need to be taken into account. The Shrinkage reducing admixtures are sometimes specified to
reduction in rate of hydration associated with the use of mitigate drying shrinkage.
higher levels of fly ash and ggbs could be an advantage
in periods of hot weather but would be less welcome in
winter. 7.8 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
The placing, compacting, finishing and curing of concrete
CEM I is now seldom specified in pavements because of the have a major influence on its subsequent strength and
higher embodied CO2 and benefits of cement additions. durability.
Because of the challenge with supply and variable take up of
air entrainment, fly ash is seldom specified for pavement work. These processes should be carried out in strict conformance
with the National Highways Specification for Highways
Table 7.3 Cement and combination types commonly used in
Works, Series 800 and 1000.
concrete hardstandings
24
Concrete
7.9.2 The need for precautionary measures Reference should be made to BCA publication ‘Fast-track
Precautionary measures are needed to ensure that: concrete paving’. Proprietary rapid-hardening concretes
are also now available.
• Early age concrete is not damaged due to freezing. As
concrete hardens, a large percentage of the mixing With these techniques concrete pavements can be
water is used to hydrate the cement. The remainder is trafficked within 12 – 24 hours or even sooner. However,
left in the developing pore structure and the degree of early trafficking of concrete pavements can lead to loss of
saturation falls below a critical level at much the same surface texture.
time as concrete reaches a compressive strength of 2
MPa. At a concrete temperature of 10°C, most concretes
would have achieved this at little more than 24 hours
and within 48 hours at 5°C.
• Normal strength development is allowed by appropriate
curing, as described in section 7.8 above. Whilst it is
highly unlikely that the heat generation or retention will
be a problem inside a concrete slab, surface temperature
retention is a problem and the degree of water
saturation may need to be considered.
• The concrete is strong enough to withstand thermal
shock as this can cause cracking, which has strength and
durability implications.
25
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
8 Thickness design
8.1 GENERAL 8.3 PARAMETERS
Many pavement designs exist worldwide for rigid The key parameters that must be defined in order to
pavements. However, not all are suitable for concrete determine the concrete slab thickness are outlined below:
hardstandings. There are three basic categories of pavement
design: mechanistic; analytically based; empirical. 8.3.1 Foundation class
The subbase thickness is determined using Figures 6.1 and
For hardstandings, the thickness design should be based
6.2. Reference should be made to Chapter 6 for details of
on informed methods of analysis using parameters that are
the various subbase options that exist. Four foundation
repeatable on site.
classes are available: F1; F2; F3; F4.
26
Thickness design
Table 8.2 Reinforcement class concrete slab can become very thick, and consequently the
introduction of steel fibres can provide overall cost benefits
Wire mesh designation Reinforcement class
within the design.
Unreinforced R0
A142, A193, A252 R1 In such cases the design of these pavements should be in
accordance with the Interpave document ‘The structural
B385, A393 R2
design of heavy duty pavements for ports and other
B503 R3 industries’.
B785 R4
Where steel fibres are incorporated, the process of brushing
the slab surface to provide texture will ‘lift’ some of the
8.4 CONCRETE SLAB THICKNESS fibres that are closest to the surface. These fibres may require
removal before trafficking. It should also be expected that
The thickness of the concrete slab can be determined either
some corrosion staining will become evident from those
through direct analysis using RR87 or by other acceptable
fibres that remain close to the finished surface.
means by the designer using an appropriate design
approach. However, using the four key predetermined
8.6.2 Polypropylene/part-polypropylene fibres
parameters – foundation class, traffic class, concrete class
and reinforcement class – Table 8.3 provides an instant Synthetic fibres can be broadly divided into two categories:
determination of the concrete slab thickness. micro synthetic fibres and macro synthetic fibres (otherwise
known as synthetic structural fibres).
A more detailed description of the material parameters
adopted within the analysis underlying this table is • Micro synthetic fibres do not contribute to any
contained within Appendix B. reduction in slab thickness. They are based on
100% polypropylene, typically 12mm long and are
predominately introduced into concrete to improve
8.5 STEEL REINFORCEMENT durability and performance. These aspects are discussed
Steel wire reinforcement is commonly incorporated into in Chapter 10.
concrete hardstandings within the top third of the slab • Macro synthetic fibres (or synthetic structural fibres)
depth to allow for wide joint spacings. However, for the are significantly larger than micro synthetic fibres,
steel reinforcement to satisfactorily accommodate the typically 40-50mm long and 1.0 – 1.5mm wide and
thermal stresses, it is important the minimum laps (up to 50 whilst containing some polypropylene, these fibres
times the main bar diameter) are incorporated. are predominantly made from selected polymers. In
addition to the performance enhancements described
It is also important where structural (B-class) and long wire in Chapter 10, claims for reduced slab thickness are
mesh is used, that the mesh is placed so that the larger controversial and obtaining specialist advice is strongly
diameter bars run parallel to the longitudinal joint. Whilst advised.
this may sound obvious, it is not uncommon to see the
Please note, for specific guidance, reference should always
mesh inadvertently placed in an incorrect orientation.
be made to the fibre supplier/manufacturer.
27
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
F2 205 205 190 175 175 185 185 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175
T1
F3 185 185 180 165 150 175 175 165 155 150 150 150 150 150 150
F2 235 235 220 205 180 210 210 200 185 175 190 190 180 175 175
T2
F3 215 215 205 190 165 200 200 190 175 155 175 175 170 155 150
F2 255 255 240 220 195 230 230 215 200 175 205 205 195 180 175
T3
F3 230 230 225 205 180 215 215 205 190 170 190 190 185 170 150
F2 270 270 255 235 205 240 240 230 215 185 220 220 210 190 175
T4
F3 245 245 235 220 190 225 225 220 205 180 200 200 195 180 155
(i) Recommended for light and domestic use only – PAV1 is not recommended for industrial hardstandings where frequent use by HGVs is expected
28
Joints
Joints
9.1 THE NEED FOR JOINTS IN CONCRETE
9
TOP CRACK INDUCER
Concrete slabs will crack in an uncontrolled manner unless
their bay lengths and widths are suitably proportioned.
Factors that affect proportioning include base type (bound
or unbound) coarse aggregate properties and the inclusion
of reinforcement. By providing joints the thermal expansion (A)
and contraction movements expected within the concrete
hardstanding slab can be accommodated as the ambient
temperature changes without unduly stressing the main
body of the concrete section.
9.2 TYPES OF JOINT When sawing, each joint should be sawn as soon as possible
For traditional long strip construction, joints fall into two after adequate strength is obtained in the slab. Determining
distinct categories: transverse and longitudinal. Transverse the proper time to begin sawing is critical; sawing too late
joints are those perpendicular to the direction of paving. often leads to uncontrolled cracking. Sawing too soon,
Longitudinal joints are those that are parallel to the before sufficient strength has been gained, can result
direction. in spalling and ravelling along the joint face. Weather
conditions have a large influence on concrete strength
Transverse and longitudinal joints fall into four primary joint
gain and the optimal time to begin sawing. The concrete
types:
mix design will also affect the proper timing, for example,
• Contraction joints mixes with softer limestone aggregates require less strength
• Construction joints development than mixes with harder coarse aggregates
• Expansion joints such as flint gravels or granite.
• Isolation joints. Either of these methods serves to locally reduce the concrete
thickness thus promoting cracking at this location and
These joints are more fully explained below. For mechanised
reducing the likelihood of cracking occurring elsewhere.
large bay pours incorporating either mesh reinforcement or
Both the insert and the saw cut should have minimum
fibre reinforcement, the slab is divided into smaller bays by
depth of D/4 to ensure the successful crack inducement and
partial depth saw cutting to induce controlled cracking.
a maximum depth of D/3 to maintain a good degree of
aggregate interlock where D is the total depth of the slab.
9.2.1 Contraction joints Where it is proposed to leave the joints unsealed the use
Contraction joints are induced cracks that control transverse of removable inserts can prove undesirable as the action of
cracking in the pavement due to drying and shrinkage. removing them can disrupt the arris.
They are induced by means of partial depth sawing at an
early age or by insertion of a removal insert into the plastic Free Movement Contraction Joint
concrete. See Figure 9.1.
Free Movement Contraction Joints can be formed or saw-
cut. They permit movement to occur at the joint which
29
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
provides relief to in-plane stresses induced by overall Dowels need to be smooth, free from burrs, sawn and
shrinkage and thermal movement and also helps to control not cropped and aligned correctly, perpendicular to
curling. Vertical load transfer is provided by smooth de- the joint direction and parallel to the pavement surface.
bonded dowel bars. Free Movement Contraction Joints If this alignment is not achieved then joints can lock
may be formed at the time of casting, induced by an resulting in uncontrolled cracking occurring away from
embedded crack inducer or by a single saw cut. the joint location. To maintain the dowel alignment during
construction, dowels should be placed in standard wire
Restrained Contraction Joint cradles or cages firmly fixed to the subbase surface to avoid
Restrained Contraction Joints can be formed or saw-cut. disturbance during concrete placing. The dowel cage itself
They permit limited movement to occur at the joint which should not be continuous through the joint. A typical dowel
provides some relief to in-plane stresses induced by overall cage arrangement is shown in Figures 9.2a, 9.2b and 9.2c.
shrinkage and thermal movement and also helps to control Pre-assembled dowel cages are also available. These avoid
curling. Any reinforcement in the slab continues across the need to fabricate on-site, saving time and providing a
the joint at lower level within the depth of the slab when more accurate and robust solution.
such joints are induced by saw cutting. Where these joints
The inserting of dowels during the placing of concrete is
are formed, deformed dowel bars are provided in lieu of
unlikely to achieve the correct alignment and should not
reinforcement across the joint.
be permitted.
Vertical load transfer is therefore provided by aggregate
interlock and also by the reinforcement which crosses the
joints or deformed dowel bars provided in formed restrained
contraction joints. The reinforcement or deformed dowel
bars ensure that induced crack widths remain sufficiently
narrow to maintain the required level of aggregate interlock
and load transfer. Restrained contraction joints may be
formed at the time of casting, induced by an embedded
crack inducer or by a single saw cut.
30
Joints
Dowel wrap
Two rectangular plate dowels
Compressible material full length of
dowel between plate’s vertical faces
Rectangular plate dowel
Compressible material to
2/ length of dowel on
3
both vertical faces
Tapered plate
dowel
Tapered
plate
dowel
Half slab thickness
to center of dowel d
(typical /4 min Sealant reservoir
d and sealant
/3 max
d Induced crack
Figure 9.4 Plate Dowel
Figure 9.2c Typical pre-assembled dowel assembly cage Typical details of transverse contraction joints are shown in
Figure
(a) U n9.5.
dowelled tran sverse con traction join t for some join ted
unreinforced pavements
Plate Dowels
Plate Dowels have a wider cross-sectional area than Round d
/4 min 75 75 55 nominal cover,
or Square dowels creating a wider bearing surface to more d
/3 max
d
/3 maximum
evenly distribute load, therefore reducing point loading and
stress to lower the risk of concrete cracking or bursting. Due
to the tapered shape it allows for two directional movement 0.5d
d
being lateral movement and horizontal movement.
Dowel Debonding compound
Other benefits of plate dowels: (length, L)
Details for mid-slab and end of slab transverse construction Typically 12 mm diameter deformed bars at 600 mm
joints are shown in Figure 9.6. horizontal spacing, 1000 mm long will be suitable in
most cases, although other options are given in the UK
55 nominal cover, Specification for Highways Works, (9) Series 1000, Table
d
/3 maximum 10/5.
Square dowel
(1 6" Bullnose not exceeding 5 mm radius
50
mi mm (unsealed joints only)
n )
Debonding compound
Figure 9.6 Transverse construction joints 0.5d
longitudinal joints, contraction joints will need to be (b) Debonded longitudinal construction joint
induced in the longitudinal direction to avoid uncontrolled
longitudinal cracking resulting from curling combined with
traffic stresses. The induction of such joints is the same for Figure 9.8 Longitudinal construction joints
transverse contraction joints as described above.
Every second longitudinal joint should be free to move and
Sufficient load transfer between adjacent slabs is provided these joints are referred to as debonded longitudinal joints.
by tying them together with smaller diameter deformed On industrial hardstandings subjected predominantly
steel tie bars. Tie-bars are intended to yield and do not to heavy goods vehicles it is common to simply provide
provide load transfer. Their role is to hold the point to plain tie bars, debonded over at least half their length
promote aggregate interlock. and design the slab thickness to cater for this edge load
condition. However, if the designer wishes to reduce edge
stresses then consideration should be given to providing
dowelled longitudinal joints, similar in detail to the end of
bay transverse construction joint shown in Figure 9.6.
32
Joints
d
Dowel Debonding compound
(Length, L)
25 0.5L
33
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
34
Joints
For conventionally reinforced pavements the spacing Expansion joints, where required, should be provided
between contraction joints depends on the level of where bays are reinforced and at the following spacing in
reinforcement provided parallel to the direction of paving plain unreinforced concrete.
and within the upper third of the slab depth. If the
reinforcement is below this level, there is an increased risk Table 9.2 Recommended expansion joint spacing for plain
of unplanned cracking between the joint positions and concrete pavements
partial loss of load transfer across uncontrolled crack widths.
Figure 9.12 indicates the maximum desirable joint spacing Pavement Joint spacing Joint spacing
for different reinforcement weights, although this should be thickness (gravel (limestone
used with caution as intermediate cracking between planned (mm) aggregate) (m) aggregate)(m)
joints will likely occur which may be considered undesirable
by some owner/operator clients. Notwithstanding this, the 150 30 35
maximum joint spacing for reinforced concrete slabs should 175 40 50
be limited to approximately 17m, as longer bays will be 200 60 75
subject to ever increasing joint movements, affecting the
long-term performance of the joint sealant. 225 80 100
≥250 Not required Not required
35
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
Bay shape
Odd shaped bays should be avoided by keeping slabs as
square as possible. Long narrow slabs tend to crack more
than square ones. For unreinforced pavements, the joints
should be located so that the ratio of the longest to shortest
joint spacing does not exceed 1¼ : 1.
Isolation joint
Direction of paving
36
Joints
Isolation joint
Reinforcing bars
(a) Diagonal box cut recommended to
hold cracks tight
Figure 9.15 Typical jointing arrangements to avoid re-entrant angles
Isolation joint
Telescopic landing gear (trailer legs)
Where loading and unloading activity occurs it should be
anticipated that the tractor unit might be removed, with
trailers supported at their front end on telescopic landing
gear. In these areas it is good practice to ensure that the
joint layout is designed so that the landing gear will not
sit directly on a joint, as they may damage the joint arris,
particularly when dropped (see also Sections 8.7, Telescopic
landing gear and 10.6, Impact resistance).
37
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
38
Joints
The advent of finite element analysis (FEA) meant that Using AASHOTO93 for concrete pavement design is no
curling could be studied more rigorously. In parallel, longer recommended.
realisation has grown that field behaviour is governed by
top-down effects due to curling. Key insights from this In addition, there are design guidance documents that
include recognition of the following: provide additional insight and perspective on concrete
hardstanding design, such as ACI 330.2R-17: ‘Guide for
• Concrete elastic modulus is a key design parameter as
the Design and Construction of Concrete Site Paving for
well as strength,
Industrial and Trucking Facilities’. This guide provides
• Foundation strength/stiffness uniformity can be more insight into designing unreinforced concrete pavements
important than magnitude, with dowelled joints (DUCP).
• Traditional wisdom that large panels are preferred to
minimize the number of joints has been questioned ACI 330.2R does not include information on mesh
unless curling is expressly allowed for. reinforcement classes, and states that the nominal quantity
of steel typically used in industrial slabs is well below what
This is expressed in the current AASHTO Mechanistic and is required to be considered structural. It therefore has no
Empirical Design Guide (MEPDG). The accompanying influence on concrete slab thickness design and only acts
software, ASSHTOWARE Pavement ME Design has been to control in-service cracking. The design approach in
developed from FEA. ACI 330.2R-17 aims to prevent out-of-joint, or mid-panel
cracking, but this cannot be guaranteed, and a small
Other pavement design software packages which make use percentage of cracked panels should be expected over the
FEA and some calibration to field and laboratory data for life of the pavement. It mitigates mid-panel cracking through
more realistic models include: strategic joint spacing and free movement at all joints,
– ACPA StreetPave (Free version available at limiting individual panel sizes based on slab thickness. This
www.pavementdesigner.org) allows more controlled cracking and stress relief throughout
– OptiPave2.5 the concrete pavement which prevents shrinkage and/or
stress cracks from forming outside of the joint locations. The
– cncPAVE
inclusion of debonded dowels at all the joints ensures long-
term stability and load transfer performance that minimises
the risks associated with excessive deflection, faulting and
pumping. Dowel design is therefore an important factor in
ACI 330.2R hardstanding design and should consider dowel
spacing, dowel geometry and dowel bearing area.
39
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
40
Surface characteristics
Surface characteristics
10.1 GENERAL 10.3 GRADIENT
10
Concrete is most often specified for industrial hardstandings The gradients adopted for hardstandings are likely to be
because of its resilient surface characteristics. Industrial a compromise between achieving good surface drainage,
hardstandings have very different requirements from public ensuring safe manoeuvrability of vehicles and plant and
highways in that the nature of the traffic and loading can avoiding the potential for uncontrolled speeding down
be more onerous. the slope.
Trafficking of concrete hardstandings is rarely linear and The Freight Transport Association publication ‘Designing
most commonly involves frequent tightly turning and for Deliveries’ provides useful guidance in this respect, and
manoeuvring vehicles, imposing a surface stress on the much of its advice is repeated below.
concrete surface texture. Hardstandings also have to
accommodate mechanical handling equipment (MHE) Industrial hardstandings should be as level as possible
such as forklifts which may have small, hard wheels, which subject to the important requirement of maintaining
in turn may be more abrasive than the pneumatic tyres of good drainage for which a gradient of at least 1 in 60 is
heavy goods vehicles. recommended. However, it is particularly important to
minimise gradients at points where vehicles are stationed for
It is also important that the finished hardstanding surface loading and in their immediate vicinity. Here the gradient
is free from irregularities and set at the correct gradients to should be less than 1 in 40. On steeper gradients wheeled
ensure the safe operation of MHE. containers are difficult to push uphill and more importantly,
tend to roll downhill, presenting a safety hazard to those in
Essentially, a concrete hardstanding must have a surface the vicinity. Adjacent to loading docks it is ideal to design
that is regular, at a suitable gradient, possesses good the pavement to fall away from the face of the building
abrasion and impact resistance, and affords a good level of at a fall of approximately 1 in 60, to ensure that as the
skid resistance. trailer doors are opened, product does not roll or fall on
operatives.
10.2 REGULARITY In addition, some types of stacked goods can slide and
The finished surface should be free from excessive high spots topple. Others supported by the strengthened curtains of
or depressions, which may endanger the manoeuvrability curtain sided vehicles can fall out when the curtains are
of vehicles and MHE or give rise to surface water ponding. undone. Forklifts can become dangerous to operate on
The constructed pavement levels should not deviate by steep gradients. A number of operators, having experienced
more than +/– 6 mm from the design levels. Stepping in some of these problems in service, have imposed a gradient
excess of 3mm across concrete joints should be avoided, limit of 1:60. At such shallow gradients better quality control
and no depression under a 3 m straight edge should be during construction might be required to ensure that any
greater than 10 mm, subject to the requirement to avoid tolerances on levels do not inadvertently result in ponding
ponding. on the hardstanding, particularly at joints in the pavement.
Where containers or other goods are to be stacked, the Gradients can be steeper where vehicles manoeuvre and
maximum deviation in the surface should be such that there park. In such places gradients steeper than 1:20 can
is no risk of the item breaking its back, or sitting in water. be tolerated. However, drivers of articulated vehicles
can experience considerable difficulty in performing
Tighter tolerances may be required in specific areas such manoeuvres whilst traversing side slopes, particularly when
as where drivers and others walk, where surface ponding attempting to reverse trailers at an angle up gradients.
must be avoided. Additional consideration must be given Traversing side slopes requires greater care and wider
at drainage inlets, which must be set slightly lower than turning angles. Gradients up to 1:20 can increase the
the adjacent pavement to encourage the efficient capture space requirements by up to 10%. Gradients from 1:20 to
of surface water. 1:10 are not recommended other than on straight ramps
(see below) as they can increase the space required for a
manoeuvre by up to 20% and sometimes the manoeuvre
will not be possible at all.
41
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
Significant gradients may be unavoidable on ramps Where steel fibres are incorporated, the process of brushing
connecting parts of premises that are on different levels. the slab surface to provide texture will ‘lift’ some of the fibres
Gradients of ramps should not exceed 1:10 when straight that are closest to the surface. These fibres may require
and should be less when there is significant horizontal removal before trafficking. It should also be expected that
curvature. Where ramps meet the horizontal many some corrosion staining would become evident from those
designers prefer to see thee smoothest and longest possible fibres that remain close to the finished surface.
vertical curves because these provide a safer layout and
avoid abrupt changes in the vehicle’s attitude at critical
points when the driver is often required to brake or give
way to other traffic.
42
Surface characteristics
10.5 ABRASION RESISTANCE In many locations, highly abrasive activities are also
associated with high impact activities, and measures to
To maintain safe surface integrity, the concrete must have
combat the destructive nature of impact forces are outlined
a satisfactory level of abrasion resistance. In comparison
below.
with other hardstanding materials, correctly specified and
constructed concrete inherently possesses good abrasion
resistance qualities. 10.6 IMPACT RESISTANCE
The macro-texture described in Section 10.4 is most usually Many concrete hardstandings will be subject to operational
provided by the brushed texture, itself composed of only activities that result in impact from falling loads. One of the
the sand/fine aggregate and cement mortar. If this texture reasons that concrete is adopted as the material solution
is allowed to abrade under traffic, the coarser aggregates for hardstandings is because of its relatively high resistance
below will become exposed and the resistance to skidding to impact.
will then be reliant upon the micro-texture properties of the
However, in concrete hardstandings two modes of failure
coarse aggregate, as outlined above.
due to impact loads can occasionally exhibit themselves:
It is always therefore preferable to ensure that concretes are • Structural failure through punching stresses
correctly specified and constructed such that the brushed • Local failure resulting in spalling.
texture remains for as long as possible. This can be achieved
by: Where routine impact loads are anticipated, such as the
• Using an appropriate concrete class – refer to Table 7.2. dropping of trailers onto their landing gear, the concrete
thickness design should account for this to ensure that
• Using suitable fine aggregate – sand with a high
punching stresses are accommodated and structural failure
quartz (silica) content is an exceptionally hard-wearing
will not occur. It is not uncommon, for example, to provide
material, with crushed quartz sands exhibiting excellent
slab thickening outside loading docks at locations where
durability and angularity. Experience shows that fine
trailers will routinely be dropped onto their telescopic
aggregate containing predominantly limestone material
landing gear.
is liable to lead to concrete surface polishing relatively
quickly under traffic and should therefore be avoided.
The risk of localised spalling and chipping due to impact
• Compliance with aggregate grading targets – when loads will depend on the nature of the load, its shape,
using crushed fines avoidance of an excessive amount of duration of contact and also the specific properties of the
dust is important as this may otherwise necessitate the concrete at its surface. Whilst plain concrete provides a
use of a higher water content to achieve the required good level of resistance to surface spalling and chipping,
consistence, which in turn can lead to low durability this resistance can be enhanced significantly by introducing
concrete surfaces. polyproplene, silica fume or steel fibres. The fibres effectively
• Compliance with the intended maximum water/ increase the energy absorption of the concrete, by holding
cement ratio – ensuring that construction practices do the concrete elements tightly together as they attempt
not allow excessive water cement ratios to occur in the to crack and spall away from one another under impact.
surface concrete. This concrete characteristic is often referred to as ‘surface
toughness’.
• Appropriate curing – adopting correct curing
procedures will allow satisfactory hydration of the
surface concrete.
43
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
11
11.1 GENERAL
Integrated design
Manhole covers and gulley gratings and their concrete
surrounds are always vulnerable to traffic damage. However,
Many hardstandings have their long-term performance
it is still very common to see hardstanding designs where
compromised by a lack of forethought in design when it
such features are placed directly in the wheel path of heavy
comes to integrating the pavement with aspects such
goods vehicles.
as drainage and services, see Figure 11.1. Slabs must be
installed on a straight grade between joints but this is not As a guiding principle, the designer should always try to
always recognised by drainage designers. avoid having any such inclusions within the hardstanding
area by putting these features in verges, landscaped areas,
Thus far this document has concentrated on how to
car parking areas, etc.
design the pavement structure to best accommodate the
anticipated traffic and retain a satisfactory surface under the However, it will not always be possible to eliminate
traffic and the environment. inclusions entirely from the hardstanding areas, and where
they are still necessary they should be placed within non-
However, the benefit of all this good work is so easily lost
critical areas of the hardstanding.
if the pavement structure is punctured with unnecessary,
and poorly detailed, inclusions. Typical inclusions include It is often surprising how certain areas of hardstanding
manholes, gulleys, structural columns and linear drainage are trafficked only infrequently, or not at all. For example,
systems. it is difficult for heavy goods vehicles to traffic close up to
buildings or boundary fences and these areas are often free
Such inclusions form a point of weakness within the pavement
from the damaging effects of their wheels.
structure. Commonly concrete surrounds to manholes and
gulleys are either poorly detailed or constructed incorrectly. One of the main purposes for incorporating covers and
It is also very common to see such features incorrectly gratings within drainage systems is to allow for future
located on site. As any sub-surface features such as drainage maintenance. This alone is a good reason to try to eliminate
are installed before the hardstanding is constructed, the such features from heavily trafficked areas, see Figure 11.2.
final hardstanding layout becomes compromised by this
error and consequently less preferable solutions to jointing Petrol interceptors commonly have multiple access shafts
arrangements have to be found, or alternatively simply and the designer should consider their alignment within the
made up on site as the side forms are erected. drainage network design to attempt to align their multiple
covers with the concrete pavement joint layout. Ideally such
maintenance intensive features should not be located within
the operational areas at all.
44
Integrated design
45
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
12
12.1 GENERAL
Hardstandings and Embodied Carbon
Carbon capture is being researched but technically
viable solutions at industrial scale are some way off. New
To address climate change, in 2019 the UK Government
technologies include alternative cements, supplementary
committed to achieving ‘net zero’ by 2050. It is not
cementitious materials (SCMs) to replace fly ash and ggbs
practical to achieve zero emissions, hence the concept of
and reinforcement materials to replace steel. These are
net zero. This is defined as atmospheric emissions equalling
emerging and others are planned but available technologies
greenhouse gas emissions, which is firstly achieved by
have yet to reach significant market penetration. Because
means of natural carbon sinks. Carbon capture may in time
of the high barriers to market entry, costs are usually high
contribute to net zero but the technologies are still being
compared with existing technology.
researched.
Making the best use of existing technology is currently
After water, concrete is the most used material on the
aimed at minimising cement content. This requires some
planet. In terms of embodied carbon dioxide (eCO2), the
appreciation of concrete mix design. At the heart of mix
primary impact of concrete is the cement, as shown in Table
design is water cement ratio (WCR) – lower WCR means
12.1 below:
more cement relative to water that gives stronger concrete.
Table 12.1 In British Standard notation, concrete strength class is
denoted by CX/Y where X and Y are the cylinder and cube
MATERIAL / ACTIVITY eCO2 characteristic compressive strengths (in MPa) respectively.
(kg/tonne)
It is possible to partly replace cement using SCMs, termed
Cement* 913 cement additions in BS 8500-1. Traditionally the most
common SCMs have been fly ash and ground granulated
Reinforcement* 430
blast furnace slag (ggbs). The UK is now a net importer of
Limestone* 75 fly ash and ggbs as a result of energy decarbonisation and
steel industry contraction respectively. In the UK fly ash is
ggbs* 67 increasingly hard to obtain and ggbs supply is predicted
Transport† 24 to contract in the next few years. The future for SCMs in
the UK is that ggbs and limestone are expected to remain
Placing on site† 22 the most common in the short term but will eventually be
overtaken by new technologies.
Batching† 8
Aggregates* 4 Fly ash and ggbs are waste products from coal-fired power
and steelmaking respectively, arguably neither of which are
Fly ash* 4 key in a low carbon future. Their scarcity therefore may only
increase. Nevertheless, they give useful improvements to
Sources: * Georgopoulos and Minson (2014, pp 136), † estimated from
Flower and Sanjayan (2017, pp 9) concrete, for example:
• Fly ash improves cohesion in pumpable and precasting
Cement manufacture represents roughly 85% of the carbon mixes and can be effective in mitigating the risk of alkali-
impact of concrete. Briefly, cement manufacture involves silica reaction,
heating a blend of calcium carbonate rock (usually limestone • Ggbs reduces hardened concrete permeability and
or chalk) and clay to roughly 1500°C in a kiln. Chemical therefore is beneficial in applications requiring high
reactions from calcium carbonate breakdown release a large resistance to sulfate and chloride attack,
amount of CO2. Heating the kiln also emits CO2 although
• SCMs also lower heat of hydration and thereby assist in
cement manufacturers continue to make reductions using
early age crack control.
alternative fuels.
As such, fly ash and ggbs will remain important until
Decarbonising concrete between now and 2050 is predicted
alternative SCMs become commercially available. Their
to require a staged approach, roughly as follows:
special properties mean that they need to be used judiciously
• Now (2022) – making the best use of current beyond simply reducing CO2. Globally, there is insufficient
technology, supply to allow all countries to reduce carbon using high
• 5 to 15 years – improved concrete technology, ggbs additions. High use of SCMs in, for example, temporary
• 15 to 30 years – carbon capture. works or kerb haunching is thereforearguably unsustainable
46
Hardstandings and Embodied Carbon
12.2 ESTIMATING THE CARBON IMPACT OF Table 12.2 Indicative cement contents for pavement concrete
47
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
Table 12.3 Indicative eCO2 contents for pavement concrete, Cc The eCO2 for mesh reinforcement is given in Table 12.4
using the ICE carbon mix calculator
below:
Concrete eCO2 (kg/m3) based on 20mm
strength Table 12.4 Indicative eCO2 contents for mesh reinforcement, CR
class
maximum coarse aggregate
CEM CEM CEM MESH DESIGNATION eCO2 kg/m2
CEM I
IIA-L IIB-S III/A
A142 1.0
Portland
Portland Blastfurnace
limestone A193 1.4
Portland slag cement cement
cement
cement
6-20% 21-35% 36-65% A252 1.8
limestone ggbs ggbs
A393 2.8
C28/32 349 272 202 125
C32/40 390 304 223 140 B385 2.1
48
APPENDIX A
Vehicle damage factors
The first method gives the designer the opportunity to 5000 0.14
consider varying vehicle payloads, such as allowing for 6000 0.30
empty vehicles, which may result in savings on construction 7000 0.55
thickness in hardstanding areas where such an approach
8000 0.93
can be justified. However, this must be carefully reviewed
against possible changes in operational practice during the 9000 1.48
lifetime of the hardstanding. The second method assumes 10,000 2.26
that all vehicles are operating at maximum payload, and as
10,500 2.75
such provides a conservative design route.
11,000 3.30
11,500 3.95
A1. METHOD 1 12,000 4.68
The axle weight method
A relationship exists between axle weight and the damage For each axle type from each anticipated vehicle type, the
that the axle does to pavements. This damage is evaluated designer can then obtain the cumulative vehicle damage
against the numbers of equivalent ‘standard’ axles that a factor from the following:
specific axle weight represents. The standard axle adopted
{ nea1 × na1 × t
}
in the UK is 8,160 kg and the relationship most commonly
adopted in highway design techniques between the
VDFa1 =
number of equivalent standard axles that a specific axle
1 × 10 6
represents, and the standard axle is the fourth power rule:
Where:
ne =
{ }Ws
8,160
4 VDFa1 = The vehicle damage factor represented by the
total cumulative number of this specific axle
type (msa)
Where:
nea1 = Number of equivalent standard axles
represented by one specific axle (no.)
ne = Number of equivalent standard axles
represented by one specific axle (no.)
na1 = The number of this specific axle type
anticipated each year of operation (no.)
Ws = The specific axle weight being considered (kg) t = The design life of the hardstanding (years)
Table A1 provides the number of standard axles for some This process is then completed for all axle types on all
typical axle weights. These can be used and then multiplied vehicle types such that the summation of VDFa1 + VDFa2
for each specific axle being considered by the number of + VDFa3 +…. for example, provides the total cumulative
axles of this type anticipated throughout the lifespan of the number of standard axles for use in Table 8.1 to determine
hardstanding. the traffic class.
49
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
A2. METHOD 2 These factors are applied to the static axle loads. Where
more than one condition exists then cumulative factors
The vehicle type method should be applied.
This more simplified method of obtaining the cumulative
VDF can be used where information on individual axle Table A2 Equivalent standard axles for typical vehicle types
For each vehicle type the designer can then obtain the 6-axle articulated 44 5.15
cumulative vehicle damage factor from the following: 5-axle articulated 38 4.70
}
4-axle articulated 35 7.35
VDFv1 =
{ nev1 × na1 ×
1 × 10 6
3-axle articulated
Draw-bar
26
35
5.65
5.40
This process is then completed for all axle types on all vehicle
A4. SHUNTING TRACTORS
types such that the summation of VDFv1 + VDFv2 + VDFv3 +… It is not uncommon for trailer units to be moved across
for example, provides the total cumulative number of standard hardstandings using a dedicated vehicle called a ‘shunting
axles for use in Table 8.1 to determine the traffic class. tractor’ (see Figure A1). These vehicles usually have only
two axles and for this reason the weight beneath the ‘fifth
wheel’, where the trailer connects to the shunter, will be
A3. DYNAMIC FACTORS (UNUSUAL) predominantly distributed to the hardstanding pavement
In some design methodologies a dynamic factor is applied through only one axle. This differs from the situation that
as a matter of course to the static axle weights in order otherwise occurs when the HGV tractor unit is coupled
to account for the effects of accelerating, braking, surface to the trailer with potentially two axles beneath the fifth
unevenness and sharp cornering. Such effects are more wheel, thus sharing the load.
common on hardstandings than on the public highway.
• Acceleration +10%
Consequently, the loads on the rear axle of the shunting
• Cornering +30%
tractor could amount to 22 tonnes and should be accounted
• Uneven surface +20% for in the hardstanding design.
50
APPENDIX B
Parameters adopted in thickness design
Mean concrete compressive strength s = Standard deviation taken as 4 MPa for ‘fair to
The mean 28-day concrete compressive strengths assumed good’ concrete control – refer ACI 214-77
for each concrete class as defined in RR87 [17] are shown (Re-approved 1989)
Table B3. These strengths are those to be achieved within
This relationship is often modified to account for the
laboratory prepared site specimens as opposed to those within
strength loss through the addition of entrained air, but
the slab, and are based upon an assumed relationship:
conservatively no adjustment has been made which would
otherwise raise the target mean strength, given the specified
Fm = Fmin + ks characteristic strength. Additionally strength gain beyond
28 days has been ignored, and effective increases in the
flexural to compressive strength ratio through the use of
Where:
crushed rock aggregates have not been taken into account.
Fm = Mean compressive strength
Table B3 Mean concrete compressive strength
51
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
C Design example 1
A new distribution development requires a hardstanding of Final design is therefore:
20,000m2 to accommodate an average of 300 fully laden
heavy goods vehicles per day (150 in and 150 out).
200 mm C32/40 (PAV2) slab (A393 reinforcement)
370 mm unbound Type 1 subbase
The operator will be using two types of HGV:
• 70% 5-axle articulated vehicles Assuming the use of gravel aggregates, the maximum joint
spacing based on A393 mesh providing 3.08 kg/m2 steel
• 30% 6-axle articulated vehicles in the longitudinal direction is 4.5 m (Table 9.1) x 17 m
(Figure 9.1).
The individual axle weights for each vehicle are not known.
The developer requires a minimum design life of 20 years.
The facility will operate 6 days per week, 52 weeks per Embodied Carbon Calculation for the Hardstanding
year. Ground conditions are known to be silty clay with a area:
plasticity index averaging at 30. Table 4.2 indicates that the Following the guidance in section 12 of this document,
worst-case equilibrium CBR can be taken as 3%. an estimation for total embodied carbon of the new
hardstanding can be carried out. It is important to note
From Table A2 the daily traffic can be equated to a total that this is a simplified approach and does not accurately
number of equivalent standard axles: consider the impact of joint spacing or joint type (including
size and spacing of dowels or tie bars) within the calculation,
Main circulation area including loading/unloading but rather the two main elements that contribute to
area total embodied carbon – the concrete and steel mesh
5-axle articulated vehicles reinforcement.
300 x 70% x 4.70 = 987 esa/day
Using the equation below we can calculate the embodied
6-axle articulated vehicles carbon:
300 x 30% x 5.15 = 464 esa/day
eCO2 = t (CC + 58 + 72) + CR
Total daily equivalent standard axles in the main circulation
areas is therefore – Where t is the slab thickness from Table 8.3 and CC and CR
are obtained from Tables 3 and 4 in section 12 respectively.
987 + 464 = 1451 esa/day The factors 58 and 72 kg/m2 are allowance for transport,
batching and placing based on the inputs given in Table 1
Total Design Traffic of section 12 and using 2400 kg/m3 for concrete density.
1451 esa/d x 6d x 52w x 20yrs = 9.05 msa
eCO2 = 0.2 (266 + 58 + 72) + 2.8
From Table 8.1 this level of trafficking will equate to
Traffic Class T2 in all areas. In order to provide a suitable eCO2 = 82 kg/m2
construction platform, it is elected to use an unbound
Total eCO2 for the new 20,000m2 concrete hardstanding is
foundation, comprising only granular subbase material. This
1,640,000 kg/m2
represents a Foundation Class F2 (option 1). The design
subgrade surface modulus is estimated from CBR using the
following equation: E = 17.6 (CBR) 0.64 MPa = 35MPa. It is
elected to adopt a C32/40 (PAV2) concrete class, reinforced
with A393 mesh reinforcement (Reinforcement Class R2).
52
APPENDIX C
Design Examples
Design example 2 -
Alternative Design Method
The example below was derived using PavementDesigner. Special measures to reduce edge stresses will not be
C
org as the software to calculate the concrete slab thickness. introduced. The pavement thickness can therefore be
It is to be known that this design method of construction is taken from Table 8.3. This indicates that the concrete
unreinforced (no mid-panel reinforcement required). slab thickness must be at least 200mm. Remember, if
the design slab thickness is less than 200mm, a separate
A new distribution development requires a hardstanding of calculation should be carried out to determine the level
20,000m2 to accommodate an average of 300 fully laden of punching shear within the slab and the need for any
heavy goods vehicles per day (150 in and 150 out). localised slab thickening or additional reinforcement in
The operator will be using two types of HGV: order to accommodate these increased shear stresses. Refer
to Section 8.7 for more details.
• 70% 5-axle articulated vehicles
• 30% 6-axle articulated vehicles Project Information:
The individual axle weights for each vehicle are not known. • Project Level:
The developer requires a minimum design life of 20 years. Traffic (Custom Traffic Spectrum):
The facility will operate 6 days per week, 52 weeks per Assumed Axle Configuration and Loads:
year. Ground conditions are known to be silty clay with a
plasticity index averaging at 30. Table 4.2 indicates that the 5-axle Vehicle:
worst-case equilibrium CBR can be taken as 3%.
Single Axle:
From Table A2 the daily traffic can be equated to a total – 80kN
number of equivalent standard axles: – 105kN
53
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
Concrete:
Compressive Strength
Pav 2 C32/40
Structure:
Subbase Layers: 1
Thickness: 370mm
Embodied Carbon
Embodied Carbon Calculation for the Hardstanding area:
eCo2 82 kg/m2
54
APPENDIX D
Parameters adopted in thickness design
{ E×h3
}
0.25
l=
12 × (1 – u 2) × k
Where:
l = the radius of relative stiffness (in.)
E = mean modulus of elasticity of the concrete, usually
4 million psi (psi)
h = slab thickness (in.)
u = Poisson’s ratio for concrete, usually 0.15
k = modulus of subgrade reaction (pci)
55
Concrete Hardstanding
DESIG N H A ND B O O K
13 1.
Further reading
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI). ACI 214-77 (re-approved 1989) – ACI manual of concrete practice, Part 2: Construction
practices and inspection pavements. ACI, 1998.
2. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE. Guide to design of slab on-ground – PRC-360-10. ACI, 2010.
3. AMERICAN CONCRETE PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION. Concrete paving technology – Design and construction of joints for concrete
streets. ACPA, 1991.
4. AMERICAN CONCRETE PAVEMENT ASSOCIATION. Subgrades and sub-bases for concrete pavements, Engineering Bulletin
EB2049, 2007
5. BAMFORD, P. Control of cracking cause by restrained deformation in concrete. Report C766. CIRIA, 2018
6. BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Fast track concrete paving. BCA, 1995.
7. BRITPAVE. Cement and other hydraulically bound mixtures – The European Standard BS EN 14227, Parts 1 – 5. Britpave, 2005.
8. BRITPAVE. Soil improvement and soil stabilisation: definitive industry guidance. Britpave, 2019.
9. BRITPAVE. Concreting pavements in winter. Britpave, 2003.
10. BRITPAVE. Guide to roller compacted concrete. Britpave, 2022.
11. BRITPAVE and HIGHWAYS ENGLAND. Concrete pavements maintenance manual. Highways England, 2021.
12. BS 8500-1:2006 Concrete - Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier
(+A1:2012) (incorporating corrigendum No. 1) (No longer current but cited in Building Regulations guidance).
13. CEMENT AND CONCRETE ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA. Guide to residential streets and paths. C&CAA, 2004.
14. CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report 24, Design of paved areas for industrial usage. Slough, Berkshire, C&CA, 1983.
15. CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report 66, External in-situ concrete paving. Concrete Society, 2009.
16. DEPARTMENT FOR TRANSPORT. Manual of contract documents for highway works, Volume 1 – Specification for Highway Works.
HMSO, 2021.
17. DEPARTMENT FOR TRANSPORT. Design manual for roads and bridges, CD 225 Design for new pavement foundations, 2020,
(formerly IAN 73/06 revision 1 (2009), HD 25/94).
18. FLOWER, D. and SANJAYAN, J. Greenhouse gas emissions due to concrete manufacture. Chapter 1 of Nazari, A. and Sanjayan,
J. (eds) Handbook of low carbon concrete. Elsevier, 2017.
19. FREIGHT TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION. Designing for deliveries. FTA, 2016.
20. GEORGOPOULOS, C. and MINSON, A. Sustainable concrete solutions. Wiley, 2014
21. HARRINGTON, D., ABDO, F., ADASKA, W, HAZAREE, C and CEYLAN, H. Guide for roller-compacted concrete pavements. Institute
for Transportation, 2010.
22. HASSAN, K.E., CHANDLER, J.W.E., HARDING, H.M. and DUDGEON, R.P. TRL 630 – New continuously reinforced concrete
pavement designs. TRL, 2005.
23. INTERPAVE. The structural design of heavy duty pavements for ports and other industries. Interpave, 2008.
24. KNAPTON, J, In-situ concrete industrial hardstandings. Thomas Telford Ltd, 1999.
25. KNAPTON, J. and MELETIOU, M. The structural design of heavy duty pavements for ports and other industries. British Ports
Association, 2008.
26. MAYHEW, H.C. and HARDING, H. M. Thickness design of concrete roads. Technical Report 87, TRL, 1987.
27. NEVILLE, A.M and BROOKS, J.J. Concrete technology. Pearson Educational Ltd, 2002.
28. NUNN, M. Development of a more versatile approach to flexible and flexible-composite pavement design, TRL report 615. TRL,
2004.
29. ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. Road Note 29 – A guide to the structural design of pavements for new roads. HMSO, 1970.
30. US DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT – FEDERAL AVIATION AUTHORITY. Airport pavement design and evaluation – Advisory Circular
(150/5320-6D). FAA, 2021.
56
Notes
57
Concrete Hardstanding
DE S I G N H AND B OOK
Britpave
Easthampstead Park, Off Peacock Lane,
Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 3DF