STS It's As Simple As XYZ!
STS It's As Simple As XYZ!
STS It's As Simple As XYZ!
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Theory Into Practice
Science-Technology-Society:
It's as Simple as XYZ!
We live in a scientific and technological age. It and teeth. The lion was stronger, the horse was
is called that, not because all of us are scien- faster, the giraffe could reach higher; but tools
tists and engineers, and certainly not because served as extensions of human hands and am-
everyone can understand the intricacies of sci- plifiers of muscle power, enabling humans t
ence or the workings of the technological de- adjust to an almost infinite number of opera
vices that are an integral part of our daily living, tions in virtually any environment. Thus moder
but rather because we are aware that science, physiology, psychology, evolutionary biology,
technology, and society (STS) are intermeshed and anthropology all combine to demonstrat
with one another, affecting our lives in manythat homo sapiens (humans as thinkers) cannot
different ways. be distinguished from homo faber (humans a
Yet we have become so accustomed to makers). Hence we now realize that humans
our scientific technology that we sometimes take
could not have become thinkers had they no
it for granted, failing to realize how unique andmakers (Leroi-Gourhan, 1969; Oak-
also been
significant it is until a storm causes the lights
ley, 1972;to
Volti, 1988; Washburn, 1960).
go out, briefly altering our daily living pattern,
Anthropologists and archeologists have
or until a critical problem, such as afound
potential
evidence that as soon as humans began
energy crisis created by political developments
to think, they began thinking about the whys
in far-off lands, threatens international
and peace.
wherefores of nature (Braidwood, 1975;
But such examples show that science and tech-
Childe, 1946; Clarke, 1970; Sarton, 1952). Sci
nology are inextricably connected with thewhether
ence, hu- in the form of magic, supersti-
man condition, from minor, everydaytion, items to
or religion, was a means whereby human
matters of grave concern for human survival.
beings sought to understand the meaning an
Although serious study of STS interactions
workings of the natural universe and, with th
is of recent vintage, their interrelationships go
aid of technology, how to bend nature to their
far back in history; indeed, to prehistoric times,
will. Thus technology and science, in additio
for our human species probably could to not have a major role in shaping our modern
playing
evolved or survived without the tools of tech-
world, are among the most basic of human cul
nology. Our prehuman forebears were too weak
tural characteristics. As Paul Gray (1988), forme
and puny to fight nature with only their hands
president of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech
Melvin Kranzberg is Callaway Professor Emeritus nology,
of stated, "Engineering and science are
notofesoteric quests by an elite few, but are,
the History of Technology at the Georgia Institute
Technology. instead, humanistic ventures inspired by native
Theory Into Practice, Volume XXX, Number 4, Autumn 1991
agrarian society of his time could spare only a Those critics who claim that technological
handful of people for educational pursuits. Chil- advance is ruining our planet and bringing suf-
dren had to work in the fields as soon as they fering to humankind should take a closer look
were old enough to help their parents, and in at the pragmatic realities. If modern technology
towns they were apprenticed as craftworkers at is so harmful to both humans and nature, how
can we account for the fact that the standard of
an early age. Only when technical advances in
agriculture and industry had expanded the avail- living is higher in the industrialized portions of
ability of food and goods was it possible to the world than in those where technology lags
delay the entrance of children into the work force behind? Why are the citizens in the industrial
and provide them with schooling. The figures nations better fed and longer-lived? Why is more
tell the story. being done to protect the environment in the
In 1800 the average American attended technologically-advanced nations than in those
still at a primitive technological level (Kranzberg,
school only 82 days in an entire lifetime, and by
Elkana, & Tadmor, 1989)? Can this be ascribed
1840 this had grown to only 208 days (Kranz-
to mere coincidence? Or, rather, does it not
berg, 1986a, p. 240). But as industrialization in-
creased, the state entered into the educational indicate the presence of linkages between tech-
nological level and other elements of society
business. Elementary schooling (and later, sec-
that make it essential to study technology-soci-
ondary schooling) was made compulsory. This
ety interrelationships?
was not because local and state governments
thought in terms of "high culture." Rather, read- Why Study STS
ing and writing were necessary to meet the com-
While technology alone cannot solve soci-
mercial and industrial needs of the time, and
ety's problems, the material needs of society
governments responded to that need. Indeed, will also not be met by cursing technology. This
the Morrill Act of 1862, providing for land-grant
does not mean, however, that a group of tech-
colleges aimed at education in agricultural and nocrats or a scientific-technological elite should
mechanical fields, was a big step in democra- make decisions for the future directions of our
tizing higher education (Boorstin, 1973). scientific-technological research and its appli-
However, real educational progress in the cations. Many of the problems facing society
United States is quite recent. Only 6 percent of involve not only technology, but also human
American children graduated from high school values, social organization, environmental con-
in 1900, and only one out of every eight Ameri- cerns, economic resources, political decisions,
cans at work in 1930 had ever attended high and a host of other factors. These are "inter-
school. By 1980, however, two-thirds of the face problems," that is, the interface betwee
entire population were high school graduates. technology and society, and they can only b
Indeed, by then the United States had commit- solved-if they can be solved at all-by the ap
ted itself to making higher education available plication of scientific knowledge, technical ex-
to all, sometimes irrespective of people's ability pertise, social understanding, and humane com
to take advantage of it. Thus, although in 1930passion.
only about 4 percent of the appropriate age These interface problems-the kernel of
group attended college, in 1970 the figure was STS studies--have another feature in common:
about 50 percent. In 1970 only 13 percent of Scientists and engineers cannot solve them
the adult labor force had college degrees, but a
alone, yet they cannot be resolved without the
dozen years later that figure had risen to 20 aid of scientific-technological expertise. Unlike
percent (Ferris, 1969; U.S. Bureau of the Cen- earlier times when society had no choice but to
sus, 1976). pursue traditional technical methods, our mod-
tip