+2 Physics Notes and Questions 2025
+2 Physics Notes and Questions 2025
+2 Physics Notes and Questions 2025
If Two glass rods rubbed with wool or silk cloth are brought close to
each other, they repel each other [Fig. 1.1(a)]. Similarly, two plastic
rods rubbed with cat’s fur repelled each other [Fig. 1.1(b)] . On the other
hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod [Fig. 1.1(c)] .
Insulators
The substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity
through them are called Insulators . Eg. glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon,
wood
▪ If some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place. So
insulators gets electrified on combing dry hair or on rubbing.
Definition of coulomb
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
𝐅 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐
1 qq0
By Coulomb’s law, F = 4πε
0 r2
F
E=q
0
𝟏 𝐪
𝐄 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆 𝟐
𝟎𝐫
𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⋅ ⅆ𝐒
𝛟 = ∫ 𝐄 ⅆ𝐒 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 ( 𝛉 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐄 𝐚𝐧ⅆ 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐨 ⅆ𝐒)
1.10 Electric Dipole
An electri dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a
distance
⃗)
Electric Dipole moment (𝐩
Electric Field due to a Dipole along the Axial Line
ES=0 (S≠ 𝟎)
Example
Find the electric field due two plane sheets of charge in regions I ,II and
III
`
Chapter 2
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
2.1 Introduction
Electrostatic Potential Energy at a point
Electric potential energy at a point P in an electric field is defined as the
work done by the external force in bringing the charge q from infinity to
that point.
UP∞ = UP − U∞ = UP − 0 = UP
𝐏
𝐔𝐏 =− ∫∞ 𝐅 . ⅆ𝐫
• The work done by an electrostatic field in moving a charge from one
point to another depends only on the initial and the final points and
is independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other.
Example
(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 ×
10−7 C,located 9 cm away
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10−9 C from
infinity to the point P. Does the answer depend on the path along
which the charge is brought?
1 𝑄
(a) V =
4πε0 𝑟
9 4 𝑥 10−7
= 9 × 10 x
0.09
𝟒
V = 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 V
(b) W= qV
= 2 𝑥 10−9 x 4 𝑥 104
W = 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 J
No, work done will be path independent. Any arbitrary infinitesimal path
can be resolved into two perpendicular displacements: One along r and
another perpendicular to r. The work done corresponding to the later
will be zero.
2.4 Potential due to an Electric Dipole
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
− =
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐪 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
V=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟐
2.5 Potential due to a System of Charges
By the superposition principle, the potential at a point due to a system of
charges is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual
charges.
V = V1 + V2 + ⋯ + Vn
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
V = + + ……………+
4πε0 r1 4πε0 r2 4πε0 rn
𝟏 𝐪 𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝐧
𝐕 =
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎
(𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
+ ……………+
𝐫𝐧
)
𝟏
45-3x=2x
45=5x
x=9cm
If P lies on the extended line OA,
1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
- =0
4πε0 𝑥 4πε0 x−15
3 2
=
x 𝑥−15
3x-45=2x
x=45cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive
charge on the side of the negative charge.
2.6 Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at
all points on the surface.
• As there is no potential difference between any two points on an
equipotential surface, no work is required to move a test charge on
the surface.
• For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point
is normal to the electric field at that point
Capacitance
The potential difference, V between the two conductors is proportional
to the charge , Q.
Q∝V
Q=CV
𝐐
𝐂=
𝐕
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
C is independent of Q or V.
The capacitance C depends only on the geometrical configuration (shape,
size, separation) of the system of two conductors .
SI unit of capacitance is farad.
1 farad =1 coulomb volt −1
1 F = 1 C V −1
Other units are,
1 μF = 10 -6 F , 1 nF = 10 -9 F , 1 pF = 10-12 F, etc.
Symbol of capacitor
Fixed capacitance Variable capacitance
Q
• C= . For large C, V is small for a given Q. This means a capacitor
V
with large capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a
relatively small V
• High potential difference implies strong electric field around the
conductors. A strong electric field can ionise the surrounding air
and accelerate the charges so produced to the oppositely charged
plates, thereby neutralising the charge on the capacitor plates, at
least partly.
• The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand
without break-down (of its insulating property) is called its
dielectric strength; for air it is about 3 × 106 V𝑚−1
2.12 The parallel plate capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting
plates separated by a small distance.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
▪ For n capacitors in series, = + + ……….. +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐂𝐧
▪ If all the capacitors have the same value, C1 = C2 = ………= Cn = C
1 n 𝐂
=C , 𝐂′ = 𝐧
C′
eg:- If C=1μF n=10
C 1μF
C′ = = = 0. 1μF
n 10
The effective capacitance decreases when capacitors are connected in
series. In series combination the effective capacitance will be smaller
than the smallest among individual capacitors.
Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.
1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 8
= + + =
C 2F 5F 10F 10F
10F
C= =1.25F
8
Capacitors In Parallel
Example
Find the effective capacitance of the combination.
C = C1 + C2 + C3
C =0.1 μF + 0.2 μF + 0.3 μF
C =0.6 μF
2.15 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
1 2
The work stored as potential energy in the electric field between the
plates.
𝐐𝟐
Energy 𝐔 =
𝟐𝐂
The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will
thus move to neutralise the charges and constitute an electric current.
Hence there will be a current for a very short while and no current
thereafter.
To maintain a steady electric field in the body of the conductor we use
cells or batteries.
3.4 Ohm’s Law
A basic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in
1828.
At constant temperature ,the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the
conductor.
V∝I
V = RI
𝐕
𝐑=
𝐈
The constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the
conductor
The SI units of resistance is ohm and is denoted by the symbol Ω.
Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
𝐈
𝐂=
𝐕
Unit of conductance is ohm−1 (Ω−1 or mho) or =siemens
Ohm’s Law : Experimental verification
emf
Current I =
Total Resistance
𝛆
𝐈=
𝐑+𝐫
ε = I (R + r)
ε = IR + Ir
ε = V + Ir
𝐕 = 𝛆 – Ir
I1 + I2 + I4 = I3 + I5
I1 + I2 − I3 + I4 − I5 =0
∑I = 0
Example
For a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge , the resistors are such that the
current through th galvanometer Ig = 0.
Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junctions B
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝟒 -------------(1)
Apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junctions D
𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝟑 -------------(2)
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop ABDA
𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝟐 ----------------(3)
Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loop CBDC
𝐈𝟑 𝐑 𝟑 = 𝐈𝟒 𝐑 𝟒 ---------------(4)
eq (3) I1 R1 I R
eq (4)
----- = I2 R2
I3 R3 4 4
R1 R
= R2
R3 4
𝐑𝟐 𝐑
= 𝐑𝟒
𝐑𝟏 𝟑
This is the balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null
deflection.
Chapter 4
Moving Charges and Magnetism
4.1 Introduction
Christian Oersted discovered that moving charges or currents produce a
magnetic field in the surrounding space. The direction of the magnetic
field depends on the direction of current.
The magnetic field due to a straight long current-carrying wire. The wire is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. A ring of compass needles surrounds the
wire. The orientation of the needles is shown when
(a) the current emerges out of the plane of the paper,
(b) the current moves into the plane of the paper.
(c) The arrangement of iron filings around the wire.
*The darkened ends of the needle represent north poles.
*A current or a field (electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of the
paper is depicted by a dot (.)
*A current or a field going into the plane of the paper is depicted by a cross
(⊗ ).
Unit of B
F = qvB sinθ
F
B=
qv
𝐧𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧ⅆ
Unit of B = =tesla (T)
𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞
tesla is a large unit. A smaller unit (non-SI) called gauss is also often
used.
1 gauss = 10−4 tesla
1 G = 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 T
The earth’s magnetic field is about 3.6 × 10−5 T
Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length 𝑙 .
The total number of mobile charge carriers in it is nA 𝑙
Let e be the charge on each charge carrier .
Then q=neA 𝑙
Let each mobile carrier has an average drift velocity vd .
𝐅 = 𝐪 (𝐯⃗ × ⃗𝐁
⃗)
vd × ⃗𝐁
𝐅 = neA𝑙 ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ )
𝐅 = (ne A vd ) 𝑙 × ⃗𝐁
⃗ (neAvd =I)
⃗ )
𝐅 = I (𝒍 × 𝐁
Fleming’s left hand rule
Stretch the fore finger , middle finger and thumb of left hand in three
mutually perpendicular directions, such that fore finger in the direction
of magnetic fileld, the middle finger in the direction of current ,then the
thumb gives the direction of force.
Example
1 A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A.
It is suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B .
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
The velocity v of particle is along the x-axis, while B, the magnetic field
⃗⃗ is along the z-axis (screw rule or right-
is along the y-axis, so 𝐯⃗ × 𝐁
hand thumb rule).
(a) for electron it will be along –z axis.
(b) for a positive charge (proton) the force is along +z axis.
4.3 Motion of a charged particle in a Magnetic field
Case 1 - When θ =00 or θ =1800
i.e. the charge is moving in the same direction or opposite direction
of magnetic field (parallel or antiparallel)
F = qvB sin 0 =0
F = qvB sin 180 =0
Thus there is no magnetic force on the charge and
the charge moves undeflected.
𝐦𝐯 𝟐
= 𝐪𝐯𝐁
𝐫
𝐪𝐁𝐫
𝐯=
𝐦
v qB
angular frequency, ω = =
r m
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
Period 𝐓 = = 𝐪𝐁
𝛚
𝐦
𝟐𝛑𝐦
𝐓= 𝐪𝐁
𝟏
Frequency ν =
𝐓
𝐪𝐁
𝛎 =𝟐𝛑𝐦
Case 3- When θ between 00 and 900
i.e. when the charged particle moves at an arbitrary angle 𝜃
with the field direction, it undergoes helical path.
Here velocity has one component along B, and the other perpendicular to
B. The motion in the direction of field is unaffected by magnetic field, as
the magnetic force is zero. The motion in a plane perpendicular to B is
circular , thereby producing a helical motion.
The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called
pitch p.
p =vparallel x T
𝐪𝐁
P= 𝐯
𝟐𝛑𝐦 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥
μ0 Id𝑙 sin 90
dB =
4π r2
μ0 Id𝑙
dB =
4π r2
r 2 = x 2 + R2
μ0 Id𝑙
dB = ----------------(1)
4π x2 +R2
Total field B =∫ dB cos θ ----------------(2)
R R
cos θ = = (x2 2 )1/2
r +R
Substituting for dB and cos θ
μ0 Id𝑙 R
B =∫ ----------(3)
4π x2 +R2 (x2 +R2 )1/2
μ0 IR
B= ∫ d𝑙
4π (x2 +R2 )3/2
μ IR
B = 0 (x2 2 )3/2 x2πR
4π +R
𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝐑𝟐
B= 𝟐(𝐱 𝟐 +𝐑𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
Magnetic field at the centre of the loop
At the centre x=0
μ0 IR2
B=
2R3
𝛍𝟎 𝐈
B= 𝟐𝐑
The line integral of magnetic field over a closed loop is equal to μ0 times
the total current passing through the surface.
The closed loop is called Amperian Loop.
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐁. ⅆ𝒍 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐈
Applications of Ampere's Circuital Law
1.Magnetic field due to a straight infinite current-carrying wire
A plot of the magnitude of B with distance r from the centre of the wire having
radius a
Right-hand rule
There exists a simple rule to determine the direction of the magnetic
field due to a long wire ,called the right-hand rule. Grasp the wire in your
right hand with your extended thumb pointing in the direction of the
current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic
field.
4.7 Solenoid
A solenoid consists of a long wire wound in the form of a helix where the
neighbouring turns are closely spaced. The field between two
neighbouring turns vanishes and the field at the interior mid-point P is
uniform. The field outside the solenoid approaches zero.
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 =∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 +∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 +∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙+∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 ------------- (1)
abcd ab bc cd da
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ B d𝑙 cos 0 = ∮ab B d𝑙 = B ∮ab d𝑙 = B𝑙
ab ab
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ab B d𝑙 cos 90 = 0
bc
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = 0
∮ B. (since B = 0 outside)
cd
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ab B d𝑙 cos 90 = 0
da
If Ia = Ib = 1A
and , d=1m
μ0 4π x 10−7
fba = = =2 x 10−7 N/m
2π 2π
The ampere is that current which, when flaws through two very long,
straight, parallel conductors placed one metre apart in vacuum, would
produce a force equal to𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 N/m on each other.
τ = IbB x asin θ
τ = IAB sinθ
For N turns of the coil
τ = NIAB sinθ
We define the magnetic moment of the current loop as, m = I A
For N turns, m=NIA
Unit of magnetic moment is Am and dimensions are AL2
2
𝛕⃗ = mB sinθ
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐁
𝛕⃗ = 𝐦
Comparing with electric field along the axial line of a an electric dipole
1 2𝐩
E= 3
4πε0 x
1
μ0 →
ε0
m→ p (electrostatic dipole moment)
B → E (electrostatic field)
4.10 The Moving Coil Galvanometer
Ig G = (I − Ig )S
𝐈𝐠 𝐆
S=
𝐈−𝐈𝐠
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
To convert a Galvanometer to a volteter a high resistance , R is
connected in series with the galvanometer coil.
V = Ig (R + G)
V
R+G=
Ig
𝐕
R = –G
𝐈𝐠
Example
A galvanometer with coil resistance 12Ω shows full scale deflection for a
current of 2.5mA. How will you convert it into an ammeter of range
0 – 7.5 A?
Ig G
S=
I−Ig
2.5 x 10−3 x 12 2.5 x 10−3 x 12
S= −3 = =4 x 10−3 Ω
7.5−2.5 x 10 7.5−0.0025
−3
A resistance of 4 x 10 Ω is to be connected in parallel to the
galvanometer coil to convert it into an ammeter.
Example
A galvanometer with coil resistance 12Ω shows full scale deflection for a
current of 3mA. How will you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0 –
18V?
V
R = –G
Ig
18
R = – 12 =6x 103 -12 =6000-12 =5988 Ω
3 x 10−3
A resistance of 5988 Ω is to be connected in seriesl to the galvanometer
coil to convert it into a voltmeter.
Chapter 5
Magnetism and Matter
5.1 Introdution
The word magnet is derived from the name of an island in Greece called
magnesia where magnetic ore deposits were found, as early as 600 BC.
Note:-The magnetic field lines can not be called as magnetic lines of force. Unlike
electrostatics (F =qE) the field lines in magnetism do not indicate the direction of
the force on a moving charge(F=q(vxB))
Example
(a) What happens if a bar magnet is cut into two pieces:
(i) transverse to its length, (ii) along its length?
In either case, one gets two magnets, each with a north and south pole.
(c) Must every magnetic configuration have a north pole and a south
pole? What about the field due to a toroid
Not necessarily. True only if the source of the field has a net non zero
magnetic moment. This is not so for a toroid or even for a straight
infinite conductor.
(d) Two identical looking iron bars A and B are given, one of which is
definitely known to be magnetised. (We do not know which one.) How
would one ascertain whether or not both are magnetised? If only one is
magnetised, how does one ascertain which one? [Use nothing else but
the bars A and B.]
Try to bring different ends of the bars closer. A repulsive force in some
situation establishes that both are magnetised. If it is always attractive,
then one of them is not magnetised.
In a bar magnet the intensity of the magnetic field is the strongest at the
two ends (poles) and weakest at the central region. This fact may be
used to determine whether A or B is the magnet. In this case, to see
which one of the two bars is a magnet, pick up one, (say, A) and lower
one of its ends; first on one of the ends of the other (say, B), and then on
the middle of B. If you notice that in the middle of B, A experiences no
force, then B is magnetised. If you do not notice any change from the end
to the middle of B, then A is magnetised.
Example
What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar
magnet of length 5 cm at a distance of 50 cm from its mid-point? The
magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.40 A m2 ,
μ0 m 10 −7 x 0.40
BE = 3= =3.2 x10 −7 T
4π r (0.5)3
μ0 2m
BA = =2x 3.2 x10 −7 =6.4 x10 −7 T
4π r3
Example
(a) Magnetic field lines show the direction (at every point) along which a
small magnetised needle aligns (at the point). Do the magnetic field lines
also represent the lines of force on a moving charged particle at every
point?
No. The magnetic force is always normal to B (remember magnetic force
= qv × B). It is misleading to call magnetic field lines as lines of force.
(b) Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined within the core of a
toroid, but not within a straight solenoid. Why?
If field lines were entirely confined between two ends of a straight
solenoid, the flux through the cross-section at each end would be non-
zero. But the flux of field B through any closed surface must always be
zero. For a toroid, this difficulty is absent because it has no ‘ends’.
(e) Magnetic field arises due to charges in motion. Can a system have
magnetic moments even though its net charge is zero
Yes. The average of the charge in the system may be zero. Yet, the mean
of the magnetic moments due to various current loops may not be zero.
We will come across such examples in connection with paramagnetic
material where atoms have net dipole moment through their net charge
is zero
5.4 Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity
Magnetisation(M)
The net magnetic dipole moment developed per unit volume of a
material is called Magnetisation(M).
𝐦𝐧𝐞𝐭
𝐌= 𝐕
Magnetisation is a vector quantity, its unit is Am−1 ,dimensions AL−1
Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a current
I. If the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero
magnetisation, the total field inside the solenoid will be
B = B0 + Bm ---------------(1)
Here B0 is the field due to the current in the solenoid and Bm is the field
contributed by the material core which is proportional to the
magnetisation M of the material.
B0 = μ0 nI
Bm = μ0 M
B = μ0 nI + μ0 M
B = μ0 H + μ0 M
B = μ0 (H + M) ------------(2)
Here M is called magnetisation and H is called magnetic intensity
The total magnetic field inside the sample has two parts: one, due to
external factors such as the current in the solenoid. This is represented
by H. The other is due to the specific nature of the magnetic material,
namely M.
Magnetic intensity(H)
The magnetic intensity can be defined as
𝐁
𝐇=𝛍 −𝐌
𝟎
B = μ0 (H + M)
B
=H+M
μ0
B
H= −M
μ0
H has the same unit and dimensions as M .Its unit is Am−1 ,dimensions
AL−1
Magnetic Susceptibility(𝛘)
The magnetisation can be influenced by external factors(H which is
equal to nI). This influence is mathematically expressed as
M = χH
𝐌
𝛘= 𝐇
where χ is a dimensionless quantity called as magnetic susceptibility. It
is a mesure of how a magnetic material responds to an external field.
▪ χ is large and positive for ferromagnetic materials.
▪ χ is small and positive for paramagnetic materials.
▪ χ is small and negative for diamagnetic materials. For diamagnetic
materials M and H are opposite in direction.
Relation connecting Susceptibility and permeability
B = μ0 (H + M)
B = μ0 (H + χH)
B = μ0 (1 + χ)H) --------------(1)
B = μ0 μr H -----------------(2)
𝐁 = 𝛍𝐇
From (1) and (2)
𝛍𝐫 = 𝟏 + 𝛘
𝛘 = 𝛍𝐫 − 𝟏
μr is a dimensionless quantity called the relative magnetic permeability
of the substance.
The magnetic permeability of the substance is µ can be written as
μ = μ0 μr =μ0 (𝟏 + 𝛘)
Magnetic permeability
B= μH
𝐁
𝛍=𝐇
Example
A solenoid has a core of a material with relative permeability 400. The
windings of the solenoid are insulated from the core and carry a current
of 2A.If the number of turns is 1000 per metre,calculate (a) H,(b) M,(c) B
a) H =nI=1000x2 =2000 A/m
b) M = χH=(μr − 1)H
=(400-1)2000=399x2000
=7.98x105 ≅8x105 A/m
c) B = μ0 μr H =4π x 10−7 x400 x 2000
=100.48 x10−2 T=1T
Diamagnetism
▪ Diamagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised
opposite to the direction of external magnetic field.
▪ Diamagnetic substances move from stronger to the weaker part of
the external magnetic field, i.e.,a magnet would repel a diamagnetic
substance.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is small and negative for diamagnetic materials.
χ<0
▪ Relative permeability , μr is positive and less than one for
diamagnetic materials. μr < 1
▪ When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field,
the field lines are repelled or expelled and the field inside the
material is reduced.
Paramagnetism
▪ Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised in
the direction of external magnetic field.
▪ Paramagnetic substances move from a region of weak magnetic field
to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get weakly attracted to a magnet.
▪ Susceptibility 𝛘 is small and positive for paramagnetic materials.
χ >0
▪ Relative permeability is positive and greater than one for
diamagnetic materials. μr > 1
▪ When a paramagnetic material placed in an external field , the field
lines gets concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is
enhanced.
Electromagnetic Induction
The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying
magnetic fields is appropriately called electromagnetic induction.
6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and Henry
Experiment 1
A coil 𝐶1 is connected to a galvanometer G.
Observations
▪ When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed towards the coil,
the pointer in the galvanometer deflects, indicating the presence of
electric current in the coil.
▪ The deflection lasts as long as the bar magnet is in motion.
▪ The galvanometer does not show any deflection when the magnet is
held stationary.
▪ When the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer
shows deflection in the opposite direction, which indicates reversal
of the current’s direction.
▪ Moreover, when the South-pole of the bar magnet is moved
towards or away from the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer
are opposite to that observed with the North-pole.
▪ Further, the deflection (and hence current) is found to be larger
when the magnet is pushed towards or pulled away from the coil
faster.
▪ When the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C1 is moved towards
or away from the magnet, the same effects are observed.
Conclusion
It shows that it is the relative motion between the magnet and the coil
that is responsible for generation (induction) of electric current in the
coil.
Experiment 2
The bar magnet is replaced by a second coil C2 connected to a battery.
The steady current in the coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field.
Observations
▪ As coil C2 is moved towards the coil C1 , the galvanometer shows a
deflection. This indicates that electric current is induced in coilC2 .
▪ When C2 is moved away, the galvanometer shows a deflection in
the opposite direction.
▪ The deflection lasts as long as coil C2 is in motion.
▪ When the coil C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are
observed.
Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces the electric
current.
Experiment 3
Two coils C1 and C2 are held stationary. Coil C1 is connected to
galvanometer G while the second coil C2 is connected to a battery
through a tapping key K.
𝑑𝑥
𝜀 = −𝐵𝑙
𝑑𝑡
− dx
v= is the speed of the conductor
dt
𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
The induced emf Blv is called motional emf.
6.7 Inductance
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by
the same coil or a flux change produced by a neighbouring coil .These
phenomenon are respectively called self induction and mutual induction.
In both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the current.
𝜙αI
𝝓 =L I
The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance.
Inductance is a scalar quantity. It has the dimensions of [M L2 T–2 A–2] .
The SI unit of inductance is henry and is denoted by H
Self-Induction
The phenomenon of production of induced emf in an isolated coil by
varying current through the same coil is called self-induction.
The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current through the
coil.
𝜙α I
𝝓 = L I -------------(1)
where constant of proportionality L is called self-inductance of the coil. It
is also called the coefficient of self-induction of the coil.
When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and
an emf is induced in the coil.
dϕ
For N turns, ε=−
dt
dLI
ε=−
dt
ⅆ𝐈
𝛆 = −𝐋 ⅆ𝐭 -----------(2)
Thus, the self-induced emf always opposes any change (increase or
decrease) of current in the coil.
Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid
Consider a solenoid of cross sectional area A and length l, having n turns
per unit length.
The total flux linked with N turns of the solenoid ,
𝜙 = 𝑁𝐵 𝐴
B = 𝜇0 n I
N=n𝑙
𝜙 = 𝑛𝑙 (𝜇0 n I ) 𝐴
𝜙 = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I ------------(1)
But, 𝜙 = LI -----------------(2)
From eq (1) and (2)
LI = 𝜇0 n2 A𝑙I
L= 𝝁𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝒍 -----------(3)
If we fill the inside of the solenoid with a material of relative
permeability 𝜇𝑟 (for example soft iron, which has a high value of relative
permiability), then,
L=𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐀𝒍-----------(4)
The self-inductance depends on geometry of coil and on the
permeability of the medium.
Back emf
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any change
in the current in a circuit. Physically, the self-inductance plays the role of
inertia. Self inductance is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in
mechanics. So, work needs to be done against the back emf (ε ) in
establishing the current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential
energy.
𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = 𝑴
If a medium of relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 is introduced inside the solenoid
M =𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝒍
66.8 AC Generator
An ac generator converts
mechanical energy into
electrical energy. It consists of a
coil which is mechanically
rotated in the uniform magnetic
field by some external means.
The rotation of the coil causes
the magnetic flux through it to
change, so an emf is induced in
the coil.
ε = NBAω sinω t
ε = 𝛆𝟎 sin𝛚 t
where ε0 =NBAω is the maximum value of the emf.
ω = 2πν , ν=frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil
The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the
current is called alternating current (ac).
Chapter 7
Alternating Current
7.1 Introduction
The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that
varies like a sine function with time. Such a voltage is called alternating
voltage (ac voltage) and the current driven by it in a circuit is called the
alternating current (ac current)
In a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. The minima, zero
and maxima occur at the same.
Phasor diagram for the circuit
The rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce the
same average power loss as the alternating current.
Example
A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find
(a) the resistance of the bulb
(b) the peak voltage of the source
(c) the rms current through the bulb.
𝛑 𝐦 𝐯
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝟐) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐋
In a pure inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter
(1/4) cycle.
Inductive Reactance (𝐗 𝐋 )
vm
The current amplitude, im =
ωL
vm
im =
XL
The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive
reactance, denoted by X L
𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚L =𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
▪ The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of
resistance and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive
circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a
purely resistive circuit.
▪ The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance
and to the frequency of the current.
▪ For DC , f=0 and so 𝐗 𝐋 =0 i.e., an inductor offers an easy path to
DC.
▪ The value of 𝐗 𝐋 increases as frequency is increased, hence offers a
resistive path to AC.
𝐯 = 𝐯𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − )
𝟐
Phasor diagram
Example
A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the
inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the
source is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance, 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚𝐋 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
= 2x 3.14x50x25x𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 7.85Ω
𝐕
The rms current in the circuit is, 𝐈 =
𝐗𝐋
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= = 28A
𝟕.𝟖𝟓
7.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor
In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by π/2 or one-
quarter (1/4) cycle.
Capacitive Reactance
𝛎𝐦 𝛎𝐦
Current amplitude, 𝐢𝐦 = 𝟏 =
(𝛚𝐂) 𝐗𝐂
𝟏
The quantity ( ) is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive
𝛚𝐂
reactance, denoted by 𝐗 𝐂
𝟏 𝟏
𝐗𝐂 = =
𝛚𝐂 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂
v = vm sin ωt
π
i = im sin (ωt + )
2
Phasor diagram
Example
A 15.0 μF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the
capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the
frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the
current?
𝟏
The capacitive reactance 𝐗 𝐂 =
𝛚𝐂
𝟏
=
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂
𝟏
= =212Ω
𝟐𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝐱𝟓𝟎𝐱𝟏𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝐕
The rms current is , 𝐈 =
𝐗𝐂
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= =1.04A
𝟐𝟏𝟐
The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the
interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb
(a)increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted.
Give your answer with reasons.
Solution:
As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes
the iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of
the coil increases. Consequently, the inductive reactance of the coil
increases. As a result, a larger fraction of the applied ac voltage appears
across the inductor, leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the
glow of the light bulb decreases.
Example
An electric bulb B and a parallel plate capacitor C are connected in series
as shown in figure.
The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb
affected on introducing a dielectric slab between the plates of the
capacitor? Give reason in support of your answer
When a dielectric slabis introduced between the plates the capacitance
increases. Then capacitive reactance decreases. As a result, a smaller
fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the capacitor, leaving
large voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb
increases.
Phasor-diagram solution
Since L,C and R are in series the ac current i in each element is the same.
Let the current be 𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)
Further, let VR , VL , VC , and V represent the voltage phasors across the
resistor, inductor , capacitor and the source, respectively.
For resistor , 𝐕𝐑 and 𝐈 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞.
For inductor , 𝐕𝐋 𝐥𝐞𝐚ⅆ𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.
For capacitor , 𝐕𝐂 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.
To find the value of im
𝐯𝐦𝟐 = 𝐯𝐑 𝟐 + (𝐯𝐂 − 𝐯𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦𝟐 = (𝐢𝐦 𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐢𝐦 𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐢𝐦 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦𝟐 = 𝐢𝐦𝟐 [(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 ]
𝐯𝐦𝟐
𝐢𝐦𝟐 = (𝐑)𝟐 +(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
√(𝐑)𝟐 +(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
𝐙
The quantity √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 is analogous to resistance and is called
impedance Z in an ac circuit.
Impedance, 𝐙 = √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
SI unit of Z is Ohm
Impedance diagram
Z = √R 2 + X C 2
1
Z = √R2 + ( )2
2πfC
1
Z = √2002 + ( )2
2x3.14x50x15x 10−6
Z = √2002 + 212.32
𝐙 = 291.5Ω
The current in the circuit is
V
I=
Z
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= =0.755A
𝟐𝟗𝟏.𝟓
Impedance at resonance
Z = √(R)2 + (X C − X L )2
Z = √(R)2 + 02
Z= R
Impedance is minimum at resonance.
Resonant Frequency
The condition for resonance ,𝐗 𝐂 = 𝐗 𝐋
𝟏
=𝛚𝟎 L
𝛚𝟎 𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟐𝟎 =
𝐋𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
𝛚𝟎 is called Resonant frequency
Variation of 𝐢𝐦 with 𝛚
Example
Figure shows the variation of i m with ω in a RLC series circuit with
L = 1.00 mH, C = 1.00 nF for two values of R:
(i) R = 100 Ω and (ii) R = 200 Ω. For the source applied vm = 100 V.
For R = 100 Ω
𝐯 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦 =
𝐑 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏A
For R = 200 Ω
𝐯 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦 =
𝐑 𝟐𝟎𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟓A
Tuning of a radio or TV
Resonant circuits have a variety of applications, for example, in the
tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set. The antenna of a radio accepts
signals of dfferent frequencies from many broadcasting stations . But to
hear one particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary
the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant
frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the
radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current
with the frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in the
circuit is maximum.
Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are
present .Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other.
We cannot have resonance in RL and RC circuit.
7.7 Power In AC Circuit: The Power Factor
p= v i
p= 𝐯𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)
𝐯 𝐢
P= 𝐦 𝐦 ⟨𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)⟩
𝟐
𝐯𝐦 𝐢𝐦
P= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
𝟐
𝐯𝐦 𝐢𝐦
P= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
√𝟐 √𝟐
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and
current but also on the cosine of the phase angle ɸ between them.
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor.
Power factor can be obtained from impedance diagram.
𝐑
𝐜𝐨𝐬ɸ =
𝐙
Step-down Transformer
For a step down transformer the number of turns in the secondary will
be less than that in the primary( 𝐍𝐬 ˂ 𝐍𝐏 )
Ampere-Maxwell law
According to Maxwell the source of a magnetic field is not just the
conduction electric current due to flowing charges, but also the time rate
of change of electric field.
The total current i is the sum of the conduction current ( ic ) and
displacement current ( id )
i= 𝐢𝐜 + 𝐢ⅆ
dϕ
i= ic + ε0 dtE
Ampere’s theorem become
∮ B ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 (iC + id )
dϕ
∮ B ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 (ic + ε0 E)
dt
ⅆ𝛟𝐄
∮ 𝐁 ⋅ ⅆ𝒍 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐢𝐜 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 ⅆ𝐭
This is known as Ampere-Maxwell law.
8.3 Electromagnetic waves
Sources of Electromagnetic Waves
▪ A stationary charge produces only electrostatic fields.
▪ Charges in uniform motion (steady currents) can produce
magnetic fields that, do not vary with time.
▪ An oscillating charge(accelerating charge) produces an oscillating
electric field in space, which produces an oscillating magnetic field,
which in turn, is a source of oscillating electric field, and so on. The
oscillating electric and magnetic fields thus regenerate each other,
as the electro magnetic wave propagates through the space.
Thus an oscillating charge(accelerating charge) is the source
of electromagnetic waves.
𝐄𝐱 = 𝐄𝟎 sin (k z– ωt)
𝐁𝐲 = 𝐁𝟎 sin (k z– ωt)
𝟐𝛑
Here 𝐤 =
𝛌
k is the propagation constant
ω =𝟐𝝅𝒗
ω is the angular frequency
𝜔 2𝜋𝜈
= 2𝜋 = 𝑣𝜆 = 𝑐
𝑘
𝜆
𝛚
Speed, c=
𝐤
Example
A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 25 MHz travels in free space
along the x-direction. At a particular point in space and time, E =
6.3ĵ V/m. What is B at this point?
𝐄𝟎
=𝐜
𝐁𝟎
𝐄𝟎 6.3
𝐁𝟎 = c
=3 x 108 =2.1 x10−8 T
E is along y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis.
Therefore, B should be in a direction perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.
i.e., B is along z-axis.
Example
The magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given by
𝐵𝑦 = 2 × 10−7 sin (0.5×103 𝑥 + 1.5×1011 t) T.
a) What is the wavelength and frequency of the wave?
b) Write an expression for the electric field.
k=0.5×103
2π
k= λ =0.5×103
2π
λ = 0.5×103
=12.56 × 10−3 m
ω =1.5×1011
ω =2𝜋𝑣 =1.5×1011
11
1.5×10
𝑣=
2π
=0.24 x1011 Hz
Radio waves
▪ Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.
▪ Frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
▪ (i)They are used in radio and television communication systems.
(ii)Cellular phones use radio waves.
Microwaves
▪ Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), are produced by
special vacuum tubes called, klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn
diodes.
▪ Frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range,
▪ (i)Used for radar systems used in aircraft navigation .
(ii)Used in speed guns used to time fast balls, tennisserves,
and automobiles.
(iii) Microwaves are used in microwave ovens , for cooking.
How is food cooked in microwave ovens?
In microwave ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to
match the resonant frequency of water molecules so that energy from
the waves is transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules.
This raises the temperature of any food containing water.
Infrared waves
▪ Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
▪ (i) Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.
(ii) Infrared radiation plays an important role in maintaining the
earth’s warmth or average temperature through the greenhouse
effect.
(iii)Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for
military purposes and to observe growth of crops.
(iv)LEDs emit infrared waves, which are used in the remote
switches of TV sets, video recorders and hi-fi systems.
Greenhouse Effect
Incoming visible light is absorbed by the earth’s surface and reradiated
as infrared (longer wavelength) radiations. This radiation is trapped by
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour. This trapped
Infrared radiation maintains the earth’s warmth.
Visible rays
▪ Electrons in atoms emit The eye light when they move from
Photocells one energy level to a Photographic film lower energy
level’
▪ Frequency range of 4 × 1014 Hz to 7 × 1014 Hz
Wavelength range of about 700 – 400 nm.
Our eyes are sensitive to this range of wavelengths. Different animals
are sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For example, snakes can
detect infrared waves, and the ‘visible’ range of many insects extends
well into the utraviolet.
Ultraviolet rays
▪ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very
hot bodies. The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light.
▪ Wavelength range of (400 nm) to (0.6 nm).
▪ (i)UV radiations are used in LASIK
(Laser assisted in situ keratomileusis) eye surgery.
(ii) UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
X-rays
▪ One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target
by high energy electrons.
▪ Wavelengths from about (10 nm) to (10–4 nm).
▪ X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment
for certain forms of cancer.
As X-rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be
taken to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
Gamma rays
▪ This high frequency radiation is produced in nuclear reactions and
also emitted by radioactive nuclei.
▪ Gamma rays are the highest frequency range of the
electromagnetic spectrum and have wavelengths of from about 10–
10m to 10–14m.
Laws of Reflection
1) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
2)The angle of incidence is equai to the angle of reflection(i=r).
Sign Convention
The right angled triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
B′ A′ B′ P
= ------------(2)
BA BP
B′ P = v, BP = u, B′ F =v-f , FP = f,
v− f v
=
f u
Applying sign convention ,
−v− −f −v
=
−f −u
v−f v
=
f u
v v
−1 =
f u
Dividing by v
1 1 1
− =
f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝐮 𝐯 𝐟
This relation is known as the mirror equation.
Laws of Refraction
i)The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
ii)The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction is constant
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
= 𝐧𝟐𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫
where n21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the
second medium with respect to the first medium.
n
n21 = 2
n1
This equation is known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Explanation:-
When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal.
▪ The incident ray AO1 is partially reflected (O1 C) and partially
refracted(O1 B) .
▪ As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also
increases.(for ray AO2 )
▪ When the angle of incidence becomes equal to the critical angle(ic ) for
the given pair of media, the angle of refraction becomes 90º.(for rayAO3 )
▪ If the angle of incidence is increased further ( ray AO4 ), refraction is not
possible, and the incident ray is totally reflected.
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection
▪ The ray of light should enter from a denser medium to a rarer
medium.
▪ The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle
(ic ) for the given pair of media .
Critical Angle
The angle of incidence in the denser medium, corresponding to an angle
of refraction 90º, is called the critical angle (i c ) for the given pair of
media.
Let the second medium be air.
sin i n2 1
By Snell’s law = =
sin r n1 n
When i=ic , r=90
sin ic 1
=
sin 90 n
1
sin ic =
n
𝟏
n= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
𝐜
This is the relation connecting refractive index and critical angle.
Total internal reflection in nature and its technological
applications
(i)Prism:
Prisms designed to bend light by 90º or by 180º make use of total
internal reflection .In these cases, the critical angle ic for the material of
the prism must be less than 45º.
Such a prism is also used to invert images without changing their size.
Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the
material of the core is higher than that of the cladding. When a signal in
the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre
and finally comes out at the other end . Since light undergoes total
internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the
intensity of the light signal.
A bundle of optical fibres can be put to several uses. Optical fibres are
extensively used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which
are converted to light by suitable transducers. Obviously, optical fibres
can also be used for transmission of optical signals. For example, these
are used as a ‘light pipe’ to facilitate visual examination of internal
organs like esophagus, stomach and intestines. Optical fibres are used in
decorative lamps.
9.5 Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses
Refraction at a Spherical Surface
MN MN
tan α = , α=
OM OM
MN MN
tan β = , β=
MC MC
MN MN
tan γ = , γ=
MI MI
From ΔNOC, i = α + β--------------(1)
From ΔNIC, β = r + γ
r = β – γ---------------(2)
From Snell’s law
sin i n
= 2
sin r n1
n1 sin i = n2 sinr
For small values of i and r
n1 i = n2 r
Substituting fron eqn (1) and (2)
n1 (α + β) = n2 (β – γ)
MN MN MN MN
n1 ( + ) = n2 ( – )
OM MC MC MI
n1 n1 n2 n2
+ = –
OM MC MC MI
n1 n2 n2 n1
+ = –
OM MI MC MC
n1 n2 n2 −n1
+ =
OM MI MC
Dividing throughout by n1
1 1 n2 1 1
− =( − 1)( - )
v u n1 R1 R2
1 1 1 1
− = (n21 − 1)( - )------------(3)
v u R1 R2
When u=∞ (infinity) , v=f
1 1 1 1
− = (n21 − 1)( - )
f ∞ R1 R2
1 1 1
= (n21 − 1)( - )
f R1 R2
Magnification (m)
Magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the size of the
image to that of the object.
𝐡′ 𝐯
𝐦= =𝐮
𝐡
For erect (and virtual) image formed by a convex or concave lens, m is
positive, while for an inverted (and real) image, m is negative.
Power of a lens
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length expressed in metre
𝟏
𝐩= 𝐟
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre D. 1D = 1m−1
Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a
diverging lens.
Graph between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence - i-d curve
Compound Microscope
A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification (≤ 9). For
much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses, one compounding the
effect of the other. This is known as a compound microscope.
The lens near the object, called the objective. It forms a real, inverted,
magnified image of the object. This serves as the object for the second
lens, the eyepiece, at the focal plane (or little closer) of the eyepiece . The
eyepiece functions like a simple microscope or magnifier and produces
an enlarged and virtual image at infinity, or at the near point. Clearly,
the final image is inverted with respect to the original object.
Magnifiction, m= mo x me -----------(1)
h′ L
m0 = =
h f0
When the final image is formed at infinity,
D
me =
fe
Substituting in eqn(1)
𝐋 𝐃
m=𝐟 x 𝐟
𝟎 𝐞
D= near point=25cm
f0 = focal length of objective
fe = focal length of eyepiece
L= The tube length of the compound microscope
(The distance between the second focal
point of the objective and the first focal
point of the eyepiece is called the tube
length.)
Clearly, to achieve a large magnification of a small object , the objective
and eyepiece should have small focal lengths.
When the final image is formed at the near point,
D
me =1 +
fe
𝐋 𝐃
m= (1+𝐟 )
𝐟𝟎 𝐞
Telescope
Refracting Telescope
Reflecting Telescope
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes. They
have several advantages.
▪ First, there is no chromatic aberration in a mirror.
▪ Second, if a parabolic reflecting surface is chosen, spherical
aberration is also removed. Mechanical support is much less of a
problem since a mirror weighs much less than a lens of equivalent
optical quality.
Wavefront
A locus of points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront; thus a
wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase.
The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is
called the speed of the wave. The energy of the wave travels in a
direction perpendicular to the wavefront.
Spherical Wavefront
For a point source emitting waves uniformly in all directions, the
wavefronts will be spherical .
Plane Wavefront
At large distance from a source, a small portion of the sphere can be
considered as a plane and is known as a plane wavefront.
Superposition Principle
According to superposition principle , the resultant displacement
produced by a number of waves in a medium is the vector sum of the
displacements produced by each of the waves.
10.4 Coherent sources
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same
frequency and same phase or constant phase difference.
Interference
Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a
resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude.
The interference can be constructive or destructive.
Condition for constructive interference
If the path difference at a point is an integral multiple of
λ, there will be constructive interference and a bright
fringe is formed at that point
S2P – S1P = nλ where (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
The British physicist Thomas Young made two pinholes S1 and S2 (very
close to each other) on an opaque screen. These were illuminated by
another pinholes which is illuminated by a bright source. Light waves
spread out from S and fall on both S1 and S2. S1 and S2 then behave like
two coherent sources because light waves coming out from S1 and S2 are
derived from the same original source and interference pattern with
altermate bright and dark fringes is formed on the screen.
𝑥𝑑
For bright band path difference , = nλ
D
nλ𝐷
xn= , n=0, ±1, ±2,….
d
𝑥𝑑 𝟏
For dark band path difference, = (n+ 𝟐 ) λ
D
𝟏 λ𝐷
xn= (𝐧 + ) , n=0, ±1, ±2,….
𝟐 d
Dark and bright bands appear on the screen are called fringes.
Dark and bright fringes are equally spaced.
10.6 Diffraction
Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of
an obstacle , into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
If we look clearly at the shadow cast by an opaque object, close to the
region of geometrical shadow, there are alternate dark and bright
regions just like in interference. This happens due to the phenomenon of
diffraction. Diffraction is a general characteristic exhibited by all types of
waves, be it sound waves, light waves, water waves or matter waves.
▪ Since the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions
of most obstacles; we do not encounter diffraction effects of light in
everyday observations.
▪ The resolving power of our eye ,telescopes and microscopes are
limited due to diffraction.
▪ The colours seen on CD are due to diffraction.
The single slit
10.7 Polarisation
A wave propagating in x direction in a horizontally string ,with
displacement in y direction can be represented as
y (x,t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
It is referred to as a y-polarised wave.
Since each point on the string moves on a straight line, the wave is also
referred to as a linearly polarised wave.
As the string always remains confined to the x-y plane , it is also referred
to as a plane polarised wave.
Polarisation of Light
The phenomenon of restricting the electric field vibrations of light to one
plane is called polarisation.
Unpolarised Light
For an unpolarised light the vibrations of electric vector takes all
possible directions in the transverse plane. Natural light, e.g., from the
sun is unpolarised.
Malus’ Law
When an unpolarised light is passed through two polaroids P1 and P2 and
if the angle between the polaroids is varied from 0º to 90º, the intensity
of the transmitted light will vary as:
I = 𝐈𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉
where I0 is the intensity of the polarized light after passing through P1 .
This is known as Malus’ law.
Chapter 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
11.1 Introduction
▪ It was found that at low pressure ,when an electric field is
applied to the gas in the discharge tube, a fluorescent glow
appeared on the glass opposite to cathode. These cathode rays
were discovered, in 1870, by William Crookes who later, in 1879,
suggested that these rays consisted of streams of fast moving
negatively charged particles.
▪ By applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields across the discharge tube, J. J. Thomson determined
experimentally the speed and the specific charge [charge to mass
ratio (e/m)] of the cathode ray.
▪ In 1887, it was found that certain metals, when irradiated by
ultraviolet light, emitted negatively charged particles having small
speeds. Also, certain metals when heated to a high temperature
were found to emit negatively charged particles. The value of e/m
of these particles was found to be the same as that for cathode ray
particles.
Work Function
The minimum energy required to eject an electron from the metal
surface is called work function. The work function is denoted by ϕ0 .
▪ Work function is measured in electron volt (eV).
▪ ϕ0 depends on properties of metal and nature of its surface.
▪ One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has
been accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.602 ×10–19 J.
The work function of platinum is the highest (ϕ0 = 5.65 eV) while it is
the lowest (ϕ0 = 2.14 eV) for caesium.
The minimum energy required for the electron emission from the metal
surface can be supplied to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes:
(i)Thermionic emission
By suitably heating, the free electrons will get sufficient thermal energy
to escape from the metal surface.
(ii)Field Emission
By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V/m) to a
metal, electrons will get sufficient energy to escape from the metal, as in
a spark plug.
(iii) Photo-electric emission
When light of suitable frequency incident on a metal surface, electrons
are emitted from the metal surface. These photo(light)-generated
electrons are called photoelectrons.
Now the collector is made negative with respect to emitter C. Then the
photocurrent decreases with increases in negative potential and finally
becomes zero. The minimum negative potential of emitter plate A for
which the photocurrent stops or bocomes zero is called the cut off
potential or stopping potential (V0)
At stopping potential,
Kmax = e V0
𝟏
mvmax2 = e V0
𝟐
3.Effect of Intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential
Threshold Frequency
Threshold frequency is the minimum cut-off frequency of the incident
radiation, below which photo emission is not possible, no matter how
intense the incident light is.
11.5 Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light
The phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation were
explained by the wave picture of light. But the wave picture is unable to
explain the most basic features of photoelectric emission.
▪ According to the wave picture of light, the free electrons at the
surface of the metal absorb the radiant energy continuously. The
greater the intensity of radiation, the greater should be the energy
absorbed by each electron. This is contradictory to the observations
of photoelectric effect.
▪ As large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy
absorbed per electron per unit time turns out to be small. It can
take hours or more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy
to overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This is
contrast to observation that the photoelectric emission is
instantaneous.
11.6 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of
Radiation
Einstein explained photoelectric effect based on Planck’s quantum
theory of radiation. When a photon incident on a metal surface, a part of
its energy is used as work function and the remaining part is used to give
kinetic energy to emitted photoelectrons.
Energy of photon =work function + KE of electrons
ℎ𝑣 = 𝜙0 + Kmax
Kmax = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(1)
This is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
At stopping potential V0
Kmax=e V0
e V0 = 𝒉𝒗 − 𝝓𝟎 ----------------(2)
𝑐 𝑐
c= 𝑣 λ then 𝑣= , 𝑣0 =
𝜆 𝜆0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝛎𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = hc ( − ) ----------(5)
𝟐 𝝀 𝝀𝟎
where 𝜆0 is called threshold wavelength.
This equation shows that the graph between stopping potential 𝑉0 and
ℎ
frequency 𝑣 is a straight line with slope which is a constant
𝑒
independent of nature of material.
𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope = =
𝒗 𝒆
𝝓𝟎
The y- intercept =
𝒆
For two metals A and B these graphs metal A metal B will be parallel
straight lines
11.7 Particle Nature of Light –The Photon
1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made up
of particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and speed c=
3x 108 m/s
3) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have
the same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of radiation
may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
Example
Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 ×1014 Hz is produced by a laser.
The power emitted is 2.0 ×10–3 W.
(a) What is the energy of a photon in the light beam?
(b) How many photons per second, on an average, are emitted by the
source?
(a) Each photon has an energy E = h ν = 6.63 ×10–34x6.0 ×1014 Hz
= 3.98 × 10–19 J
𝑃 2𝑥10−3
(b) N= = = 5 x1015photons per second
𝐸 3.98𝑥10−19
Example
The work function of a metal is 6eV. If two photons each having energy 4
eV strike the metal surface. Will the emission be possible? Why?
No, photo emission is not possible.
Photo emission is possible only if ℎ𝑣 > 𝜙0
Here energy of incident photon is less than work function
and hence photo emission is not possible.
Example
The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV.
a) Find the threshold frequency for caesium.
b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photocurrent is brought
to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 V.
𝜙
a) 𝑣0 = 0
ℎ
𝜙0 =2.14 eV =2.14 x1.6x10-19 J
h=6.63 x10-34Js
2.14 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
𝑣0 = =5.16 x1014 Hz
6.63 𝑥10−34
b) e V0 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝜙0
ℎ𝑣 = e V0−𝜙0
𝑐
ℎ = e V0−𝜙0
𝜆
hc
λ=
eV0 −ϕ0
6.63 x10−34 x3 x108
= =454 nm
1.6 x10−19 x0.6−2.14 x1.6x10−19
The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the
electron is bound to the nucleus. If E were positive, an electron will not
follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
Limitations of Rutherford Model
Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties in explaining the
structure of atom:
(a) Rutherford model could not explain stability of
matter. The accelerated electrons revolving around the
nucleus loses energy and must spiral into the nucleus.
This contradicts the stability of matter.
(b) It cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of atoms of
different elements.
12.3 Atomic Spectra
Each element has a characteristic spectrum of radiation, which it emits.
There are two types of spectra-Emission spectrum and Absorption
spectrum.
Emission Spectrum
When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low pressure, by passing an
electric current through it, the emitted radiation has a spectrum which
contains certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of this kind is
termed as emission line spectrum and it consists of bright lines on a
dark background. Study of emission line spectra of a material is used for
identification of the gas.
Absorption Spectrum
When white light passes through a gas and we analyse the transmitted
light using a spectrometer we find some dark lines in the spectrum.
These dark lines correspond precisely to those wavelengths which were
found in the emission line spectrum of the gas. This is called the
absorption spectrum of the material of the gas.
−𝐦𝐞𝟒
𝐄𝐧 =
𝟖𝐧𝟐 𝛆𝟎 𝟐 𝐡𝟐
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
𝐄𝐧 = eV
𝐧𝟐
𝟏
𝐄𝐧 𝛂 𝟐
𝐧
The negative sign of the total energy of an electron moving in an orbit
means that the electron is bound with the nucleus.
Energy levels
The energy of an atom is the least (largest negative value) when its
electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the nucleus for n = 1. The
energy is progressively larger in the outer orbits.
Ground State
The lowest energy state of an atom is called the Ground State, with the
electron revolving in the orbit of smallest radius, the Bohr radius, a0.
For ground state n=1
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
𝐄𝟏 = 𝟐 eV = -13.6 eV
𝟏
Composition of Nucleus
The composition of a nucleus can be described using the following terms
and symbols:
Z - atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
N - neutron number = number of neutrons=A-Z
A - mass number = Z + N = total number of protons and neutrons .
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons. Thus the number of
nucleons in an atom is its mass number A.
▪ Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u. The
relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent,
respectively. Thus, the average mass of a chlorine atom is obtained
by the weighted average of the masses of the two isotopes, which
works out to be
75.4 x34.98+ 24.6x 36.98
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 35.47 u
which agrees with the atomic mass of chlorine.
Isobars
All nuclides with same mass number A , but with different atomic
number are called isobars.
For example, the nuclides ( 31H) and ( 32He)are isobars.
Isotones
Nuclides with same neutron number N but different atomic number Z
are called isotones.
For example 198 197
80Hg 79Au are isotones.
13.3 Size of The Nucleus
By performing scattering experiments in which fast electrons, instead of
α-particles, are projectiles that bombard targets made up of various
elements, the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been accurately
measured.
Radius of nucleus
A nucleus of mass number A has a radius
R = R0 A1/3 where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m.
Volume of nucleus
4
V= πR3
3
4 𝟏⁄ 𝟑
= π (𝐑 𝟎 𝐀 𝟑)
3
4
= π(𝐑 𝟎 )𝟑 𝐀
3
The volume of the nucleus is proportional to A
Density of nucleus
mass
Nuclear density=
volume
Amp
=4
3
π(𝐑 𝟎 )𝟑 𝐀
mp
=4 = constant
3
π(𝐑 𝟎 )𝟑
Thus the density of nucleus is a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei.
Example
Given the mass of iron nucleus as 55.85u and A=56, find the nuclear
density?
mFe = 55.85 u = 9.27 × 10–26 kg
m
Nuclear density =4 Fe 𝟑
3
𝜋(𝐑 𝟎 ) 𝑨
9.27 × 10–26
=4
3
𝜋(1.2 × 10–15 )𝟑 𝒙 𝟓𝟔
= 2.29 × 1017 kg m–3
13.4 Mass- Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy
Mass – Energy
Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can
convert mass-energy into other forms of energy, say kinetic energy and
vice-versa.
Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation
E = mc 2
c is the velocity of light in vacuum.c= 3×108 m s–1.
Experimental verification of the Einstein’s mass-energy relation has been
achieved in the study of nuclear reactions. In a reaction the conservation
law of energy states that the initial energy and the final energy are equal
provided the energy associated with mass is also included.
Example
Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
E = mc 2
= 1x10–3 × ( 3 × 108 ) 2
= 10–3 × 9 × 1016
= 9 × 1013 J
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release of
enormous amount of energy.
Example
Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and
then in MeV.
1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
E = mc 2
=1.6605 × 10–27 x(3 x 108)2
E = 1.4924 × 10–10 J
The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass, of its constituents
(protons and neutrons). The difference in mass of a nucleus and its
constituents is called the mass defect.
ΔM = [𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐌
For example, let us consider 168O ; a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8
protons.
Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
The expected mass of 168O nucleus = 16.12744 u
The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is the ratio of the binding energy Eb
of a nucleus to the number of the nucleons, A, in that nucleus.
Ebn = Eb / A
It is the average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its
individual nucleons.
The plot of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number
Observations:
(i) In the mass number range A = 30 to 170 ( 30 < A < 170), the
binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant, about
8 MeV/nucleon.
(ii) The maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 i,e,.for 56Fe nucleus.
(iii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei with A< 30 and for heavy nuclei
with A>170.
The nuclear force binds the nucleons together inside the nucleus.
(i) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb
repulsive force between protons inside the nucleus and the
gravitational force between the masses.
(ii) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero
as their distance is more than a few femtometres. The force is
attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they
are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.
A rough plot of the potential energy
between two nucleons as a function of
distance. The potential energy is a
minimum at a distance r0 of about 0.8 fm.
13.6 Radioactivity
A .H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896. Radioactivity is a
nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a
decay.This is referred to as radioactive decay.
Fission does not always produce barium and krypton. A different pair
can be produced,
1 235 236 133 99
0n + 92U → 92U → 51Sb + 41 Nb + 4 10n
1 235 236 140 94
0n + 92U → 92U → 54Xe + 38Sr + 2 10n
The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus.
The enormous energy released in an atom bomb comes from
uncontrolled nuclear fission.
Nuclear Fusion – Energy Generation in Stars
Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a
single larger nucleus, with the release of a large amount of energy.
Examples are
1 1 2 +
1H + 1H → 1H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV
2
1H + 21H → 23He + n + 3.27 MeV
2
1H + 21H → 31H + 11H + 4.03 MeV
Thermonuclear fusion
For nuclear fusion to occur in bulk matter the temperature of the
material is to be raised until the particles have enough energy to
penetrate the coulomb barrier. This process is called thermonuclear
fusion.
for thermonuclear fusion to take place, extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure are required, which are available only in the
interiors of stars including sun.
The energy generation in stars takes place via thermonuclear fusion.
The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process called the proton-
proton (p, p) cycle.
1 1 2 +
1H + 1H → 1H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV
e+ + e− → γ + γ + 1.02 MeV
2
1H + 11H → 23He + γ + 5.49 MeV
3
2H + 32H → 42He + 11H + 11H + 12.86 MeV
The combined reaction is
4 11H + 2 e− → 42He + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
Or (4 11H + 4 e− ) → ( 42He + 2e− ) + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
In about 5 billion years, however, the sun’s core, which by that time will
be largely helium, will begin to cool and the sun will start to collapse
under its own gravity. This will raise the core temperature and cause the
outer envelope to expand, turning the sun into what is called a red giant.
Chapter 14
Semiconductor Electronics:
Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Introduction
14.1 Introduction
Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state
electronic devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc. Lattice structure and the
atomic structure of constituent elements decide whether a particular
material will be insulator, metal or semiconductor.
(i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ~ 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m
σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1
(ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity
intermediate to metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m
σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1
(iii) Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ~ 1011 – 1019 Ω m
σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
Semiconductors which could be:
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are:
• Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
• Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
• Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene,
etc.
Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on
elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic
semiconductors.
Energy Bands In Solids
▪ Inside the crystal each electron will have a different energy level.
These different energy levels with continuous energy variation
form energy bands.
▪ The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence
electrons is called the valence band.
▪ The energy band which includes the energy levels of conduction
electrons is called the conduction band.
▪ The conduction band is above the valence band .Normally the
conduction band is empty and valence band is occupied.
▪ The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg ).
It is measured in electron volt.
In some metals, the conduction band is partially filled and the valence
band is partially empty with small energy gap and in some others the
conduction and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap electrons
from valence band can easily move into the conduction band. Therefore, the
resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.
(ii)Insulators
In insulators a large band gap , Eg > 3 eV. There are no electrons in the
conduction band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. The
energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence
band to the conduction band by thermal excitation.
(iii)Semiconductors
In semiconductors a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3 eV) exists. Because
of the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence
band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the
conduction band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move
in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is lower
than that of insulators.
When the electrons from valence band move to the conduction band
vacant energy levels will be created in the valence band . This vacancy of
electrons is called hole. Other valence electrons can move to this hole
thereby producing hole current.
For n-type Si semiconductor ,the donor energy level ED ,is slightly below
the bottom EC of the conduction band .The electrons from this level move
into the conduction band with very small supply of energy.
p-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a
trivalent impurity like A𝑙, B, In, etc. The dopant has only 3 valence
electrons and can form covalent bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms
but does not have any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom. This
vacancy of electron creates a hole. As the pendavalent impurities creates
holes ,which can accept electrons from neighbouring atom, these
impurities are called acceptor impurities.
For p-type semiconductors, nh >> ne
Here holes become the majority carriers and electrons the minority
carriers.
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium is given by
nenh = ni 2
Energy bands of p-type semiconductor at T > 0K
The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-
region causes a difference of potential across the junction of the two
regions. Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of electron
from the n region into the p region, it is often called a barrier potential.
The barrier potential of a Ge diode is 0.2Vand that of a Si diode is 0.7V.
▪ In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, till the
voltage across the diode crosses a certain value. . This voltage is
called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (0.2V for germanium
diode and 0.7 V for silicon diode).
▪ After threshold voltage, the diode current increases significantly ,
even for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage.
▪ For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~μA) and
almost remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse
saturation current. However, at very high reverse bias called break
down voltage Vbr, the current suddenly increases. The general
purpose diode are not used beyond the reverse saturation current
region.
Threshold Voltage
The forward voltage beyond which the diode current increases
significantly is called threshold voltage or cut-in voltage.
Break down Voltage
The reverse voltage at which the reverse current increases suddenly is
called break down voltage.
Dynamic Resistance(rd)
Dynamic resistance is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV
to a small change in current ΔI.
𝚫𝐕
rd =
𝚫𝐈
Example
The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown in the Figure. Calculate
the resistance of the diode at (a) ID = 15 mA and (b) VD = –10 V.
Filters
To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage a capacitor is
connected parallel to the output terminals.
The cicuits that filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc voltage are
called filters.
Chapter 1
Electric charges and fields
1.When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass rod becomes positively
charged and silk negative.
When a plastic rod is rubbed with fur, plastic rod becomes negatively
charged and fur positive.
2.When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, charges appear on both. Explain
how this observation is consistent with law of conservation of energy.
When two bodies are rubbed ,the body which loses electrons, will
become positively charged and which gains electrons becomes
negatively charged. The two bodies thus acquire equal and opposite
charges . The charge is only transformed from one form to another.
3.Write the basic properties of electric charge
• Quantization of charge : According to quantisation of electric
charge,
charge of a body is an integral multiple of electronic charge.
q=± ne ; where, n=1,2,3.........
• Charge is conserved: It means that total charge of an isolated
system
remains constant.
• Additivity of charge: The total charge on a surface is the algebraic
sum of individual charges present on that surface.
𝒒 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 +.................. + 𝒒𝒏
4.What do you mean by quantisation of charge
Charge of a body is always an integral multiple of one electronic charge
Q=±ne where n=1,2,3…….
5.How many electronic charges form 1 C of charge?
q=±ne,
𝑞
n=
𝑒
1
n= =6.25 x1018
1.602 x 10−19
6.How many electrons constitute an electric charge of -16𝝁 C of charge?
q=±ne,
𝑞
n=
𝑒
−16x10−6
n= =1014
−1.6 x 10−19
7.State coulomb’s law.
The force of attraction or repulsion between two stationery electric
charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
1 q1 q2
F= 2
4πε0 r
8.What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges
2 x10-7C and 3x10-7C placed 30cm apart in air.
1 q1 q2
F= 2
4πε0 r
9 2 x10−7 𝑥 3 x10−7
= 9𝑥 10 = 6x10−3 𝑁
(0.3)2
1 q1 q2
By Coulomb’s law, F=
4πε0 r2
F
E=
q0
1 q
E=
4πε0 r2
13.Write any four properties of electric field lines
An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it
at each point is in the direction of the net field at that point.
▪ Electric Field lines start from positive charge, end at negative
charge.
▪ Electric field lines of a positive charge are radially outwards and
that of a negative charge is radially inwards
▪ Electric field lines Do not form closed loops.
▪ Two field lines never intersect.( two directions for electric field is
not possible at a point)
14.Draw the electric field lines of a positive charge
𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑆
ϕ = ∫ E dS cosθ
Unit- Nm2/C
19.Define electric dipole
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a
distance
20.Define electric dipole moment. Write its unit
Electric dipole moment is the product of magnitude of one of the charges
and the distance between charges
p=q x 2a
Unit -Cm (coulomb metre)
21.Write the difference between polar and non polar molecules.
In non polar molecules the centres of positive and negative
charges coincide. Eg: CO2 , CH4 ,
In polar molecules the centres of positive and negative charges
do not coincide. Eg ∶ H2 O
22.Derive equation for electric field due to a dipole along the axial line
1 q
E+q = (r−a)2
-------------(1)
4πε0
1 q
E−q = (r+a)2
------------(2)
4πε0
E =E+q − E−q
𝑞 4𝑎𝑟
𝐸= [(𝑟 2 ] ------------(3)
4𝜋𝜀0 −𝑎2 )2
1 q
E+q = ----------------(1)
4πε0 r2 + a2
1 q
E−q = ------------------(2)
4πε0 r2 + a2
E =𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸−𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
E =2𝐸+𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 --------------(3) ( 𝐸+𝑞 = 𝐸−𝑞 )
𝑎
Cos𝜃= 2 2 1⁄
(𝑟 +𝑎 ) 2
1 𝑞 𝑎
E =2 𝑥 𝑥 1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 ) ⁄2
At point A
E1A (to right) and E2A (to right) have same direction
EA= E1A + E2A
1 10−8 1 10−8
= +
4πε0 (0.05)2 4πε0 (0.05)2
10−8 10−8
= 9x10 x 9 + 9x109 x
(0.05)2 (0.05)2
= 3.6 x104N C-1 + 3.6 x104N C-1
= 7.2 x104N C-1
EA is directed towards the right
At point B
E1B (to left)and E2B (to right) have opposite direction
EB= E1B - E2B
10−8 10−8
= 9x109 x - 9x109 x
(0.05)2 (0.15)2
= 3.6 x104N C-1 - 0.4 x104N C-1 = 3.2 x104N C-1
EB is directed towards the left (as E1B has greater
magnitude)
At point C
E1C and E2C have same magnitude.
10−8
E1C = E2C = 9x109 x = 9x103 N C-1
(0.1)2
EC = E1C cos 60+ E2C cos 60
=2 E1C cos 60
=2x 9x103 x 0.5 = 9 x103N C-1
EC is directed towards the right.
26.What will happen when a dipole is placed in a uniform external
electric field?
In a uniform electric field there will be a net torque on the dipole, and
hence it rotates. But the net force will be zero.
27.What will happen when a dipole is placed in a non uniform external
electric field?
In a non uniform electric field the dipole experiences a net force as well
as a net torque. So there will be both translational and rotational
motion.
28.Derive the expression for torque acting on a dipole placed in a
uniform external field, at an angle θ with it.
40.A point charge of +10𝝁 Cis at a distance of 5cm directly above the
centre of a square of side 10cm as shown in figure. What is the electric
flux through the square?
42.Find electric field due two plane sheets of charge in regions I ,II and
III
Chapter 2
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
− =
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟐
𝐪 𝟐 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
V=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝐩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐕=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫𝟐
9.Obtain the expression for potential due to a system of charges
V = V1 + V2 + ⋯ + Vn
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
V = + + ……………+
4πε0 r1 4πε0 r2 4πε0 rn
𝟏 𝐪 𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝐧
𝐕 =
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎
(𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
+ ……………+
𝐫𝐧
)
𝟏
10.Two charges 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 C and –𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 C are located 15 cm apart. At
what point on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential
zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
Let P lies between O and A at a distance x from O,
1 3 𝑥 10−8 1 2 𝑥 10−8
- =0
4πε0 𝑥 4πε0 x−15
3 2
=
x 𝑥−15
3x-45=2x
x=45cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive
charge on the side of the negative charge.
11.Derive the expression for potential energy of a dipole placed in an
external field.
18.Electrostatics of conductors
1.Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
2. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be
normal to the surface at every point.
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static
situation.
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the
conductor and has the same value (as inside) on its surface.
σ
5.Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E =
ε0
19.Explain electrostatic shielding
The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. This is known
as electrostatic shielding. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity.
20.Why it is safer to be inside a car during lightning?
Due to Electrostatic shielding, electricfield E=0 inside the car.
So it is safer to sit inside a car than standing outside during lightening.
21.Define capacitance. Write its unit.
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to potential
Q
C=
V
The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).
22. Obtain the equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
𝐂𝐦𝐞ⅆ =K 𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The capacitance increases K times, where K is the dielectric constant.
26.Define dielectric constant in terms of capacitance.
Kε0 A
Cmed d
= ε0 A =K
Cair
d
𝐂𝐦𝐞ⅆ
K=
𝐂𝐚𝐢𝐫
The dielectric constant of a substance is the factor by which the
capacitance increases from its vacuum value, when a dielectric is
inserted between the plates.
27.A parallel plate capacitor with air between plates has a capacitance of
8𝛍F. What will be the capacitance if distance between the plates is
reduced by half and the space between is filled with a medium of
dielectric
constant 5.
𝜀 𝐴
C= 0 = 8μF
𝑑
𝐾𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴
C’= = 2K =2 x 5 x 8μF=80 μF
𝑑/2 𝑑
28. Obtain the equation for effective capacitance when capacitors are
connected in series.
V = V1 + V2
Q Q Q
= +
C C1 C2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐂 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
29. Obtain the equation for effective capacitance when capacitors are
connected in parallel.
Q = Q1 + Q 2
CV = C1 V + C2 V
C = 𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐
30.You are given two capacitors of 2 𝝁 F and 3 𝝁 F. What are
themaximum and minimum values of capacitance that can be obtained
by combining them?
Maximum value is obtained when capacitors are connected in parallel
Cmax = C1 +C2 =2 𝜇 +3𝜇 =5 𝜇𝐹
Minimum value is obtained when capacitors are connected in series.
𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 2 𝑥3 6
Cmin = = = 𝜇𝐹
𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 2+3 5
𝐐𝟐
𝐔=
𝟐𝐂
𝐔
u=
𝐀ⅆ
Chapter 3
Current Electricity
1.State Ohm’s law
At constant temperature ,the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the
conductor
V
=R
I
Unit of resistance is Ω(ohm)
2.Which material has more resistance?
b) V=IR=0.5x17=8.5V
25. State Kirchhoff’s junction rule or current law.
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to
the sum of currents leaving the junction . ∑ I = 0
28.What is the principle behind the working of meter bridge. State the
principle.
Wheatstone bridge principle
Wheatstone principle says that when the Wheatstone bridge is balanced,
R2 R4
i.e., when Ig = 0, = .
R1 R3
Chapter 4
Moving Charges and Magnetism
1.Write Lorentz force equation.
F = q[E + (v x B)]
2.Write the equation for magnetic Lorentz force.
F=q(vxB)
3. Write the expression for magnetic force on a current-carrying
conductor
F = I( 𝑙× B )
4. A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A.
It is suspended in mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B .
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 90
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟2
𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑥 2 +𝑅 2
𝑅 𝑅
cos 𝜃 = = (𝑥 2
𝑟 +𝑅 2 )1/2
Total field B =∫ 𝑑𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑅
B =∫ 0 2 2 (𝑥 2 +𝑅 2 )1/2
4𝜋 𝑥 +𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
B= (𝑥 2 +𝑅 2 )3/2
∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
B= (𝑥 2 +𝑅 2 )3/2
𝑥2𝜋𝑅
4𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅2
B= 2(𝑥 2 +𝑅2 )3/2
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 =∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙+∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 +∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙+∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 ------------
abcd ab bc cd da
(1)
∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 = B𝑙 + 0 + 0 + 0
B.
abcd
∮ ⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑑𝑙 = B𝑙 -------------(2)
abcd
By Ampere's Circuital Law for N turns of solenoid
∮ B. 𝑑𝑙 = μ0 NI ---------------(3)
From eqns (2) and (3)
B𝑙 =μ0 NI
μ NI
B= 0
𝑙
𝐍
𝐁 =𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝐈 where n=
𝑙
14.A long straight conductor carries 35A current. Find the magnetic
field produced due to this conductor at a point 20cm away from
the centre of the wire.
μ0 I 4π𝑥10−7 x 35
B= = =13.5 𝑥0−5 T
2πr 2π x0.2
15.A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500
turns. It carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field inside the solenoid?
N
The number of turns per unit length , n=
𝑙
500
= = 1000
0.5
B = μ0 nI
= 4π × 10−7 x1000x5 =6.28 ×10−3 T
16. a)Obtain the expression for force per unit length between two
parallel current carrying condutors.
b) Use the above relation to define the unit of current ampere)
a)
μ 0 Ia
Ba =
2πd
b)Definition of ampere
μ I I
fba = 0 a b
2πd
If Ia = Ib = 1A and , d=1m
μ0 4π x 10−7
fba = = =2 x 10−7 N/m
2π 2π
The ampere is that current which, when flaws through two very long,
straight, parallel conductors placed one metre apart in vacuum, would
produce a force equal to2 x 10−7 N/m on each other.
17.A rectangular current loop carrying current is placed in a uniform
magnetic field. Obtain the expression for the torque acting on the loop.
V = Ig (R + G)
V
R+G=
Ig
𝐕
R = –G
𝐈𝐠
25. A galvanometer with coil resistance 12𝛀 shows full scale deflection
for a current of 2.5mA. How will you convert it into an ammeter of range
0 – 7.5 A?
Ig G
S=
I−Ig
2.5 x 10−3 x 12
S=
7.5−2.5 x 10−3
2.5 x 10−3 x 12
S= =4 x 10−3 Ω
7.5−0.0025
A resistance of 4 x 10−3 Ω is to be connected in parallel to the
galvanometer coil to convert it into an ammeter.
26. A galvanometer with coil resistance 12𝛀 shows full scale deflection
for a current of 3mA. How will you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0
– 18V?
V
R = –G
Ig
18
R = – 12
3 x 10−3
3
=6x 10 -12
=6000-12 =5988 Ω
A resistance of 5988 Ω is to be connected in seriesl to the galvanometer
coil to convert it into a voltmeter.
Chapter 5
Magnetism and Matter
1.Write the properties of Magnetic Field Lines
▪ The magnetic field lines of a magnet form continuous closed loops.
▪ The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the
direction of the net magnetic field B at that point.
▪ The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the
stronger is the magnitude of the magnetic field B.
▪ The magnetic field lines do not intersect.
2.The Dipole Analogy
Electrostatics Magnetism
1 μ0
ε0
Dipole moment ⃗
p ⃗m
⃗⃗
Axial Field for a short dipole 1 2p ⃗ μ0 2m ⃗⃗⃗
4πε0 r 3 4π r 3
Equatorial Field for a short 1 p ⃗ μ0 m ⃗⃗⃗
dipole 4πε0 r 3 4π r 3
Torque in an external field ⃗ × ⃗E
τ⃗ = p τ⃗ = m ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B
Energy in an external field ⃗U = −p ⃗ . ⃗E ⃗U = −m ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗B
3.Define magnetic flux
Magnetic flux through a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic
field B can be written as
𝝓𝑩 = B . A = BA cos
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter squared(T m2 ).
4. State Gauss’s Law in magnetism.
Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero.
𝝓 = ∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ ⋅ ⅆ𝒔
⃗ =𝟎
5.Why does Gauss’s Law in magnetism give a null result.
Gauss’s Law in magnetism give a null result as isolated magnetic
poles(monopole) do not exist.
6. Define Magnetisation(M). Write its unit and dimension.
The net magnetic dipole moment developed per unit volume of a
material is called Magnetisation(M).
𝑚
𝑀 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 unit is Am−1 ,dimensions AL−1
𝑉
7.Define Magnetic intensity or Magnetising field(H). Write its unit and
dimension.
B
H = − M unit is Am−1 ,dimensions AL−1 (same as magntisation)
μ0
---------------------- --------------------
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
16.Mention the behaviour of a dia and ferromagnetic materials when
they are placed in a non uniform magnetic field.
▪ Diamagnetic substances move from stronger to the weaker part of
the external magnetic field.
▪ Ferromagnetic substances move from weaker to stronger part of the
external magnetic field.
17.What are super conductors
These are metals, when cooled to very low temperatures ,exhibits both
perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism.
χ = –1 and μr = 0 for super conductors.
32.Differentiate hard ferromagnets and soft ferromagnets
The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation persists, ,even
when the external field is removed are called hard ferromagnets. Such
materials are used to make permanent magnets.
Eg: Alnico, lodestone
The ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation disappears on
the removal of the external field are called soft ferromagnets.
Eg: Soft iron .
33.At high enough temperature, a ferromagnet becomes ……………..
paramagnet.
Chapter 6
Electromagnetic Induction
a) vm sin ωt= iR
v
i = m sin ωt
R
𝐯𝐦
𝐢 =𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 where 𝐢𝐦 =
𝐑
b)
i = −im cos ωt
𝛑 𝐯
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − ) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝐦
𝟐 𝛚𝐋
In a pure inductor, current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4) cycle.
b)
q
vm sin ωt =
C
q = C vm sin ωt
d
i= (C vm sin ωt)
dt
d
i = C vm (sin ωt)
dt
i = C vm ω cos ωt
i = ωC vm cos ωt
i = im cos ωt
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + ) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐂 𝐯𝐦
𝟐
𝒃)
10.Write the equation for inductive reactance
𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚L =𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
11.A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find
the inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of
the source is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance, X L = ωL = 2πfL
= 2x 3.14x50x25x10−3
= 7.85Ω
V
The rms current in the circuit is, I =
XL
220
I= = 28A
7.85
V
The rms current is , I =
XC
220
I= =1.04A
212
di q
vm sin ωt = iR + L +
dt C
Phasor-diagram solution
2
V = √vR + (vC − vL )2
=√4002 + (600 − 300)2 =500V
18. In the following circuit ,find the impedance
Z = √(R)2 + (X C − X L )2
= √52 + (15 − 3)2 = √169 = 13Ω
19.Write ant two factors on which the impedance of a series LCR crcuit
depends.
Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, Frequency of AC
20.Using Impedance diagram(impedance triangle) obtain the expression
for phase difference between voltage and current in a series LCR circuit
XC −XL
tanϕ =
R
XC −XL
ϕ = tan−1
R
R
cos ϕ =
Z
ω =1.5×1011
ω =2𝜋𝑣 =1.5×1011
1.5×1011
𝑣= =0.24 x1011 Hz
2π
b) B is along y-direction and the wave propagates along x-axis.
Therefore, E should be in a direction perpendicular to both x- and y-axes.
i.e., E is al ong z-axis.
So expression for electric field is ,
Ez = E0 sin (k x– ωt)
E0
=c
B0
E0 =B0 𝑥 𝑐
=2 × 10−7 x 3 × 108 =60 V/m
Ez = 60 sin (0.5×103 𝑥 + 1.5×1011 t) V/m
8.Arrange electromagnetic waves in the increasing order of
wavelength(or decreasing order of frequency.
Gamma rays . X-rays , Ultraviolet rays, Visible rays, Infrared waves ,
Microwaves, Radio waves
9.How radio waves are produced ?
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.
10.Write the uses of radio waves.
▪ They are used in radio and television communication systems.
▪ Cellular phones use radio waves.
11.How microwaves are produced?
▪ Microwaves are produced by special vacuum tubes called,
klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
MD MD
From figure , tan θ = , θ= ------(1)
R R
MD MD
tan2 θ = , 2θ = -----(2) (tan2θ ≈ 2θ)
f f
MD MD
Substituting θ from eq(1) in eq(2), 2 =
R f
2 1
=
R f
𝐑
𝐟=
𝟐
4.Obtain the mirror equation
The right angled triangles A′B′P and ABP are also similar.
B′ A′ B′ P
= ------------(2)
BA BP
B′ P = v, BP = u, B′ F =v-f , FP = f,
v− f v
=
f u
Dividing by v
1 1 1
− =
f v u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+𝐯 =
𝐮 𝐟
This relation is known as the mirror equation.
5.An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of
radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature, and magnification of
the image in each case.
𝑀𝑁
tan 𝛼 =
𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑁
tan 𝛽 =
𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝑁
tan 𝛾 =
𝑀𝐼
For small values of 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾
𝑀𝑁
𝛼=
𝑂𝑀
𝑀𝑁
𝛽=
𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝑁
𝛾=
𝑀𝐼
From ΔNOC, i = 𝛼 + 𝛽--------------(1)
From ΔNIC, 𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾
𝑟 = 𝛽 – 𝛾---------------(2)
From Snell’s law
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑛1
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟
Substituting fron eqn (1) and (2)
𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 – 𝛾)
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑛1 ( + ) = 𝑛2 ( – )
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
+ = –
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1
+ = –
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1
+ =
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶
16. The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10cm
and 15cm.Its focal length is 12cm.What is the refractive index of glass?
1 1 1
= (n − 1)( - )
f R1 R2
1 1 1
= (n − 1)( - )
12 10 −15
1 1 1
= (n − 1)( + )
12 10 15
1 1
= (n − 1)x
12 6
6 1
n-1= = =0.5
12 2
n= 0.5+1
n=1.5
17.Draw a ray diagram showing image formation by a convex lens
∠A + ∠QNR = 180º
r1 + r2 + ∠QNR = 180º
r1 + r2 = A ------------------(1)
The total deviation ,
d = (i – r1 ) + (e – r2 )
d = i + e –( r1 + r2 )
d = i + e – A -----------------(2)
At the minimum deviation
d=D , i=e, r1 = r2 =r
From eqn (1)
2r =A
𝑨
R= ----------------(3)
𝟐
From eqn (2)
d = 2i – A
𝐀+𝐃
i= -------------(4)
𝟐
By Snell’s law the refractive index of prism
sin 𝑖
𝑛 =
sin 𝑟
𝐀+𝐃
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝒏 = 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
i-d curve
D = (n-1)A
24.Draw a ray diagram showing the image formation at near point for a
simple microscope.
𝐵𝐶 𝑣1 𝜏
sin i = = ----------(1)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝐴𝐸 𝑣2 𝜏
sin r = = ----------(2)
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
(1) sin 𝑖 𝑣1
eqn = --------------(3)
(2) sin 𝑟 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑛1 =
𝑣1
𝑐
𝑛2 =
𝑣2
𝑛2 𝑣1
= -----------(4)
𝑛1 𝑣2
Substituting in eqn (3)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝒏
= 𝟐 -----------(5)
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝒏𝟏
This is the Snell’s law of refraction.
6.Using Huygen’s theory obtain the law of reflection of a plane wave.
Or Using Huygen’s theory prove that angle of incidence is equal to angle
of reflection.
AE = BC = v𝜏
AC = AC (common side)
So the triangles EAC and BAC are congruent .
Therefore . i =r
Angle of incidence=Angle of reflection
This is the law of reflection.
7.A plane wavefront is incident on a thin prism . Sketch the refracted
wavefront
Thomas Young made two pinholes S1 and S2 (very close to each other)
on an opaque screen. These were illuminated by another pinholes which
is illuminated by a bright source. Light waves spread out from S and fall
on both S1 and S2. S1 and S2 then behave like two coherent sources and
interference pattern with alternate bright and dark fringes is formed on
the screen. The central fringe will be bright.
𝑥𝑑
For bright band path difference , = nλ
D
nλ𝐷
xn= , n=0, ±1, ±2,….
d
𝑥𝑑 𝟏
For dark band path difference, = (n+ 𝟐 ) λ
D
𝟏 λ𝐷
xn= (𝐧 + ) , n=0, ±1, ±2,….
𝟐 d
16.What is Diffraction?
Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of
an obstacle , into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
17. Draw a neat diagram of single slit diffraction experiment and write
the condition for central maximum ,secondary maxima and minima.
b) Kmax= e V0
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.54x10−19
V0 = = =0.34 V
𝑒 1.6 𝑥10−19
11.Draw a graph showing the variation of photocurrent with intensity of
light.
𝑽𝟎 𝒉
From graph , slope = =
𝒗 𝒆
𝝓𝟎
The y- intercept =
𝒆
15. Write the properties of photon
or
Explain particle nature of light –The Photon
1) In the interaction of light with matter , light behaves as if it is made
up of particles called photon.
2) Each photon has energy, E=hν and momentum p= hν/c and
Speed c= 3x 108 m/s
3)All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ,
have
the same energy and momentum p, whatever the intensity of radiation
may be.
4) When intensity of light is increased only the number of photons
increases, but the energy of photon is independent of intensity of light.
5) Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
6) In photon-particle collision total energy and total momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a
collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
16.Write de Broglie Relation -Wavelength of matter wave
𝒉 𝒉
λ= = -------------(1)
𝒑 𝒎𝒗
−𝐦𝐞𝟒
𝐄𝐧 = 𝟖𝐧𝟐 𝛆 𝟐 𝐡𝟐
𝟎
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
𝐄𝐧 = eV
𝐧𝟐
10.Find the energy of different energy levels
For ground state(First energy level)
−13.6
n=1 E1 = eV = -13.6 eV
12
For first excited state (second energy level)
−13.6
n =2, E2 = eV = -3.4 eV
22
5.Chlorine has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u. The
relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent,
respectively. Find the average mass of a chlorine atom.
75.4 x34.98+ 24.6x 36.98
= = 35.47 u
𝟏𝟎𝟎
6.Write the expression for radius of nucleus.
R = R0 A1/3
where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m.
7.Two nuclei have mass numbers in the ratio 1:64. What is the ratio of
their nuclear radii?
R1= R0 A11/3
R2= R0 A21/3
𝑅1 𝐴1 1/3 1 1/3 1
= ( ) = ( ) =
𝑅2 𝐴 2 64 4
R1:R2 =1:4
8.Write Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation
E = mc 2
9.Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
E = mc 2
= 1x10–3 × ( 3 × 108 ) 2
= 10–3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013 J
10.Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and
then in MeV.
1u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg
E = mc 2
=1.6605 × 10–27 x(3 x 108)2 = 1.4924 × 10–10 J
15.How can you explain nuclear fission and nuclear fusion based on the
values of binding energy per nucleon values of nuclei?
(i) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per
nucleon .Such a heavy nucleus breaks into two lighter nuclei,
thereby increasing the binding energy per nucleon and the
nucleons get more tightly bound. Energy would be released in the
process and this is an implication of fission.
(ii) Two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) have lower binding energy per
nucleon .They join to form a heavier nucleus , thereby increasing
the binding energy per nucleon and the nucleons get more tightly
bound. Energy would be released in such a process and this is an
implication of fusion.
16.Write the characteristics of nuclear force?
The nuclear force binds the nucleons together inside the nucleus.
(iv) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb
repulsive force between protons inside the nucleus and the
gravitational force between the masses.
(v) The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero
as their distance is more than a few femtometres.
(vi) The force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and
repulsive if they are separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.
(vii) The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron
and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear
force does not depend on the electric charge.
20.The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of ………….. per fissioning nucleus.
200 MeV
2.Define energy gap or band gap. Write the unit in which band gap is
measured.
The energy difference between the top of the valence band and bottom of
the conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap Eg ).
It is measured in electron volt.
27. Explain a full wave rectifier . Draw the input and output voltage
waveforms.
During this positive half cycle, diode 𝐷1 gets forward biased and
conducts ,while 𝐷2 being reverse biased is not conducting. Hence we get
an output current and a output voltage across the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 .
During negative half cycle, diode 𝐷1 would not conduct but diode 𝐷2
conducts, giving an output current and output voltage across 𝑅𝐿 in the
same directionas in positive half.
Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the
negative half of the cycle.
Seema Elizabeth ,
HSST Physics
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur