CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT

The voltages and currents that vary like a sine function with time is called alternating voltage (ac
voltage) and alternating current.
 Expressions for alternating voltage and current is given by,
V =V 0 sin ω t and I =I 0 sin ω t
Where V0 and I0 are the peak values.
 Graphical representation of alternating voltage and current is given by,

 The average value of alternating voltage or current over a complete cycle is zero.
 The average value of alternating voltage or current over a half cycle is given by
2 2
V avg = π V 0= 0.637V 0 I avg = π I 0 = 0.637 I 0
and
 The RMS value of alternating voltage or current over a complete cycle is given by
V0 I0
V rms = =0.707 V 0 I rms = =0.707 I 0
√2 and √2
Definition of RMS value of ac:
RMS value of ac is defined as that dc , which when flowing through a given resistor for a given time
produces an amount of heat energy as that produced by ac.
Phasor Diagram:
The diagram which represents alternating quantities as phasors (rotating vectors) along with the phase
angle between them is called as phasor diagram.
AC circuit containing resistor only (Resistive circuit):

The AC voltage applied to the resistor, V=V0sinωt-----(1)

By Ohm’s law V= IR
V
I=
R
Therefore
V 0 sin ω t
I=
R
When sinωt=1 the current is maximum , I=I0
V0
I 0=
R
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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
There fore the current through the circuit, I=I0sinωt-----(2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we can see that voltage and current are in phase.
Phasor diagram and Time diagram for resistor only circuit:

AC circuit containing inductor only (Inductive circuit):

Given V=V0sinωt ---------(1)

dI
V=L
dt
But =V0sinωt
V0
dI = sin ω t
L
−V 0
I= cos ω t
Integrating Lω
−V 0
I= cos ω t
Lω
V0
I= sin ( ω t − π )
Lω 2
sin ( ω t− π )
When 2 =1 , the current is maximum (I=I0)
V0
I 0=
Therefore L ω ----------(2)
Thus the alternating current through inductor only ac circuit
I=I 0 sin ( ω t− π )
2
---------(3)
Comparing equations (1) and (3) we can see that he current lags behind the voltage
by a phase angle 900.
From equation (2),
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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
V0
=L ω
I0 , has the dimension of resistance and is called as inductive reactance.

Phasor diagram and time diagram for an inductor only circuit:

Inductive reactance :
The oppsition offered by an inductor to the flow of alternating current is called as
inductive reactance.
ie., inductive reactance, X L=L ω =L2 π f
 SI unit is ohm.
 Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency of applied signal.
ie., X L∝ f
Thus an inductor blocks ac but allows dc.
Variation of inductive reactance with frequency of applied signal:

AC circuit containing capacitor only (capacitive circuit):

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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Given V=V0sinωt ---------(1)

By definition of capacitance, q=CV=CV0sinωt
dq
I=
dt
Thus current
d (CV 0 sinωt )
I=
dt
d (sinωt)
I =CV 0
dt
I= CV0ωcosωt
I=CV 0 ω sin ( ω t+ π )
2
sin( ω t + π )
When 2 =1 , the current is maximum (I=I0)
Thus I0= CV0ω -----------(2)
Therefore alternating current through a capacitor only circuit
I = I 0 sin ( ω t+ π )
2 -----------------(3)
Comparing equations (1) and (3) we can see that he voltage lags behind the current
by a phase angle 900.
From equation (2),
V0 1
=
I 0 C ω , has the dimension of resistance and is called as capacitive
reactance.
Phasor diagram and time diagram for a capacitor only circuit:

capacitive reactance :
The oppsition offered by a capacitor to the flow of alternating current is called as
capacitive reactance.
1 1
X C= =
C ω C 2πf
ie., capacitive reactance,
 SI unit is ohm.
 capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of applied signal.

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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
1
XC∝
f
ie.,
Thus a capacitor blocks dc but allows ac.
Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency of applied signal:

Series LCR circuit: (AC circuit containing inductor, capacitor and resistor):
Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source.

The applied ac voltage, V =V 0 sin ω t -----------------(1)

Let VL, VC, VR be the voltages across inductor, capacitor and resistor.
Then, V L =I 0 X L ------(2)
V C = I 0 X C --------(3)
V R = I 0 R ---------(4)
If VL > VC , then the phasor diagram for the LCR circuit is given below.

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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT

From the phasor diagram,

V 0= √V 2R +(V L −V C )2
Substituting equations (2), (3), and (4)
V 0= √ (I 0 R)2+( I 0 X L − I 0 X C )2
V 0= I 0 √ R 2+( X L− X C )2 --------(5)
This is the expression for resultant peak voltage.
From the phasor diagram current in the circuit,
I =I 0 sin ( ω t− ϕ ) -----------(6)
ie., the current lags behind the voltage by a phase angle ‘Φ’.
From equation (5),
V0
= √ R2 +(X L− X C )2
I0 , has the dimension of resistance and is called
as impedance.
Impedance (Z):
The effective opposition offered by a series LCR circuit to the flow of alternating
current is called as impedance.
2 2
√
Impedance, Z = R +( X L − X C )
 SI unit is ohm.
 Impedance diagram (or Impedance triangle) is given below

Phase difference between voltage and current (Φ):

From the phasor diagram,
V −V
tan Φ= L C
VR
X − XC
tan Φ = L
ie., R
−1 X L− X C
Φ=tan [ ]
Therefore, Phase angle , R
Resonance:
In an LCR circuit, if the inductive reactance becomes equal to the capacitive reactance
(XL=XC), then the impedance becomes minimum and the current becomes maximum. This is
called resonance of an LCR circuit.

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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Resonant frequency:
The frequency at which the electrical resonance happens is called as resonant
frequency.

Expression for Resonant frequency:

At resonance, X L= X C
1
L ω r=
C ωr
Where ωr is the angular resonant frequency.
1
ω 2r =
LC
1
ωr =
√ LC
But, ωr =2 π f r
1
Therefore,
2 π f r=
√ LC
1
f r=
ie., Resonant frequency, 2 π √ LC
Applications of resonance:
In the tuning mechanism of a radio or a TV set.
In tuning, we vary the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the
resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio signal
received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal of
the particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.
Note:
Sharpness of resonance increases with the decrease in resistance value of the circuit.

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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Variation of I0 with ωr for two values of R is shown in graph.
For Graph (i) , R=100 Ω and for Graph (ii) , R=200 Ω
From the graph it is clear that , the current amplitude for case (i) is twice to that for
case (ii).
Power in an AC circuit ( LCR circuit):
The instantaneous value of voltage and current in an LCR circuit is given by,
V =V 0 sin ω t and I =I 0 sin ( ω t− ϕ )
Therefore , the instantaneous power is given by ,
P i=VI =V 0 sin ω t . I 0 sin ( ω t − ϕ )
= V 0 I 0 sin ω t [sin ω t cos ϕ −cos ω t sin ϕ ]
2 sin 2 ω t
= V 0 I 0 sin ω t cos ϕ −V 0 I 0 sin ϕ
2
To find the average power delivered in the circuit, we have to substitute the average value of
2
sin ω t and sin 2 ω t over a complete cycle.
1
The average value of sin2 ω t over a complete cycle =
2
The average value of sin 2 ω t over a complete cycle = 0.
V 0 I0
Therefore , the average power, Pavg= cos ϕ
2
V I
Pavg= 0 0 cos ϕ
√ 2 √2
R
Therefore, Pavg=V rms I rms cos ϕ or Pavg=V rms I rms
√ R +( X L−X C)2
2

Power factor:
The average power delivered in an ac circuit is given by Pavg=V rms I rms cos ϕ
Here the term ‘cosΦ’ determines how much power is to be delivered in the circuit. Therefore it is
called as Power factor.
True Power
Power factor, cos ϕ =
Virtual Power
Pavg
or cos ϕ =
V rms I rms
From the Phasor diagram,
R R
Power factor, cos ϕ = or cos ϕ = 2
Z √ R +( X L−X C )2
Note:
At resonance:
Inductive reactance , XL = Capacitive reactance XC
Impedance , Z = R
Phase angle between voltage and current , Φ = 0
Powerfactor, cos ϕ =1
Power dissipation is maximum.

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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Power in a resisitive circuit:
Phase difference in a resistive circuit, Φ = 00.
Therefore, Pavg=V rms I rms , maximum power dissipation.
Power in a Pure inductive or capacitive circuit:
Phase difference in a resistive circuit, Φ = 900.
Therefore, Pavg=0 , minimum power dissipation.
Thus a pure inductor or a capacitor is called as Wattless components and the current is called as
Wattless current.
Power in a LR circuit:
R
Pavg=V rms I rms
√ R + X 2L
2

Power in a RC circuit:
R
Pavg=V rms I rms
√ R + X 2C
2

Power in LC circuit:
No power dissipation.
Transformers:
It is a device used to either increase or decrease the given alternating input voltage.
Principle: It is based on Mutual induction.
Construction:
It consists of copper coils wound over a thin laminated soft iron core. The coil to which the electric
energy is given is called as primary coil and the coil from which the electric energy is drawn out is called as
secondary coil.

Theory and working:

The induced emf in the primary and secondary is given by
dϕ dϕ
V P =N P -------(1) and V S =N S ----------(2)
dt dt
Dividing (2) by (1)
VS NS
= This is called turns ratio.
V P NP
If Ns>Np then Vs>Vp the transformer is step up transformer.
If Ns<Np then Vs<Vp the transformer is step down transformer.
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 CHAPTER-7 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Efficiency of a transformer is given by
V SI S
η=
V PI P
V SI S
For an ideal transformer η = =1
V PI P
VS N S IP
Therefore = =
V P N P IS
This called transformer equation.
Energy losses and remedies:
(i) Copper loss: Heat energy production in the copper coils.
Remedy: Using thick copper wire.
(ii) Iron loss (Eddy current loss): Heat energy production due to eddy current in the
iron core.
Remedy: Using thin laminated soft iron core.
(iii) Flux leakage: The magnetic flux linked with primary may not be completely
transferred to secondary. This is called flux leakage.
Remedy: By winding the coils one over the other.
(iv) Hysteresis loss: The heat energy production due to hysteresis.
Remedy: By using core of material with narrow hysteresis loop.

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