Er.

Binod Prasad Khanal 1

1. Air field :
• Landing strip consisting of runway, shoulder and
stop ways.
• Taxi ways (Taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport
connecting runways with aprons, hanger)
• Apron (Place at an airport where planes wait or turn round)
2. Terminal Areas :
• Gates
• Terminal building
• Aircraft service facilities
3. Flight support area consisting of structures and
facilities for air traffic control, navigational aids,
fueling the aircraft etc.
2
The airport layout plan is a graphic presentation to scale of existing and
proposed airport facilities, their location on the airport, and relevant
clearance and dimensional information. The design for each layout is site
specific, and whereas general concepts can be moved between sites, the
individual aspects of each site will almost certainly result in slightly different
layouts.
Layout of an airport is dependent upon a number of factors the most
important are :
1. Number and orientation of runways
2. Number of taxiways
3. Size and shape of aprons
4. The area and shape of land
5. Topography and site soil condition
6. Obstacle to air navigation
7. Required proximity of land uses within the airport boundary
8. Surrounding land uses
9. Timing and scale of phased development of the airport
10. Meteorology
11. Size and scale of airport facilities being planned 3
 Highway

Ap
p roa
ch
Ro
ad
Vehicle
Parking
Airport Area
Terminal
Building Apron
Hanger

Apron

Ta
y
iwa

Turf xi
w Turf Turf
ay
x
Ta

Runway Runway

4
1. Runways
2. Taxiways
3. Passenger terminal and apron
4. Cargo terminal and apron
5. Rescue and firefighting services
6. Air traffic control tower
7. Aircraft maintenance
8. Long-term and short-term parking
9. Access roads
10. Public transport access

5
11. Airport maintenance and engineering base
12. Navaids (Navigational aid-e.g. lighting, signals, sign)
13. Lighting
14. Flight kitchens
15. Fuel farm
16. General aviation (Aerial firefighting, Aerial photography, Aerobatics, Air
ambulance, Gliding, Flight training, Parachuting etc.) terminal and
apron
17. Sewage treatment and pumping station
18. Electric sub station
19. Security fence and control gates
20. Hotels
6
Parameters of runway are (ICAO recommendation) :
• Actual length of runway
• Runway width
• Sight distance
• Longitudinal slope (gradient)
• Transverse slope (gradient)
• Runway clearance
• Runway surface
• Runway surface texture
• Runway shoulder
• Runway strips
• Stopways
• Clearways
7
• Runway length determines the size and cost of
airport and controls the types of aircraft it will
serve.
• The runway must be long enough to allow safe
landing and takeoff by current equipment and by
future aircraft expected to use the airport.
The following factors most strongly influence
required runway length:
• Performance characteristic of aircraft using runway
length
• Landing and takeoff gross weight of aircraft
• Elevation of airport
• Average maximum air temperature at the airport
• Runway gradient
8
• Stopway (SWY) is an area beyond the takeoff runway
centered on the extended runway centerline and
designated by the airport owner for use in decelerating an
aircraft during an aborted takeoff. It must be at least as
wide as the runway and able to support an aircraft during
an aborted takeoff without causing structural damage to
the aircraft.

9
• Clearway (CWY) is an area extending beyond the runway
end available for completion of the takeoff operation of
turbine-powered aircraft.
• A clearway increases the allowable aircraft operating
takeoff weight without increasing runway length.
• No object or terrain may protrude (extend beyond or above a
surface) through the clearway plane except for threshold lights
no higher than 26 inches (66 cm) and located off the runway
sides.

10
• The length of a clearway should not exceed half the length
of take-off run available.
• The width of a clearway should extend laterally to a
distance of at least 75m on each side of the extended centre
line of the runway.
• The area over which the clearway lies need not be suitable
for stopping aircraft in the event of an aborted takeoff.
• A clearway must be under the airport owner’s control,
although not necessarily by direct ownership.
• The purpose of such control is to ensure that no fixed or
movable object penetrates the clearway plane during a
takeoff operation.
11
12
Runway Width Number of Stripes
60 feet (18 m) 4
75 feet (23 m) 6
100 feet (30 m) 8
150 feet (45 m) 12 13
200 feet (60 m) 16
14
The term declared distances indicates the various physical distances
available and suitable for the landing and take-off of aeroplanes,
using stopway, clearway and displaced threshold. Declared distances
at airports are a mechanism by which specific lengths of runway
pavement are identified for use in aircraft operations. Declared
distances are incorporated into the Operations Specifications of
commercial aircraft operators that are part of the air carrier
certificates and operations certificates issued by FAA (Federal
Aviation Administration), as well as into the internal operations
manuals of those operators. Pilots of commercial aircraft are required
to comply with such specifications and manuals. The specified
distance available for a particular operation such as landing may be
different in each direction on the same runway pavement. The FAA
defines four declared distances:
1. Take-off run available (TORA)
2. Take-off distance available (TODA)
3. Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA)
4. Landing distance available (LDA) 15
 The declared distances must be calculated in accordance
with the following:
(i) Take-off run available (TORA) is defined as the length of
runway available for the ground run of an aeroplane
taking off. This is normally the full length of the runway;
(neither the stopway nor clearway are involved.)

16
(ii) Take-off distance available (TODA) is defined as the
distance available to an aeroplane for completion of its
ground run, lift-off and initial climb to 35 ft.
 This will normally be the full length of the runway
plus the length of any Clearway (CWY).

17
(ii) Take-off distance available (TODA) (contd...)
Where there is no designated clearway, the part of the
runway strip between the end of the runway and the
runway strip end is included as part of the TODA

TODA =TORA + RWY Strip length

18
(iii) Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA) is defined
as the length of the take-off run available plus the length of
any stopway (SWY) . Any clearway is not involved.
ASDA = TORA + SWY

19
(iv) Landing distance available (LDA) is defined as the
length of runway available for the ground run of a landing
aeroplane.
Neither Stopway nor Clearway are involved.

LDA = Length of runway (if threshold is not displaced.)

20
Landing distance available when threshold is displaced.
LDA = Length of RWY – Length of Displaced threshold

21
• Runways are oriented in the direction of
prevailing wind because of advantages of
landing and taking off into the wind.
• Aircraft may not maneuver safely on a
runway when wind contains large
component at right angle to the direction of
travel.

22
23
• Weather, in particular the runway/aerodrome
usability factor (wind coverage), as determined by
wind distribution, and the occurrence of localized
fogs.
• Topography of the aerodrome site and its
surroundings.
• Type and amount of air traffic to be served,
including air traffic control aspects.
• Aeroplane performance considerations.
• Environmental considerations, particularly noise.
24
It is the direction of wind opposite to the direction of
landing and takeoff.
 Takeoff : Head wind provides greater lift on the
wings, thus shorter length of runway is enough.
 Landing : Head wind provides a braking effect
and aircraft comes to stop in a smaller length of
runway.
If landing and takeoff are done along the wind direction,
it may require longer runway length and if done in
opposite direction (provides greater lift on the wings
when taking off and provides breaking effect while
landing) it saves about 10 percent of the length of
runway. 25
Runway should be oriented in such a way that the direction
coincides with that of prevailing winds. It is not always possible
to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the centre
line of runway. On certain days and hours wind may be blowing
at a certain angle with the centre line of the runway.
If V is the velocity of wind and θ is the angle wind direction
make with centre line of the runway the component Vsinθ,
perpendicular to the direction of runway is usually responsible
for preventing safe usage of the runway. This normal wind
component VSinθ is called cross wind component.


V VSin 

Vcos 
26
 The cross wind component should be kept minimum.
 Maximum allowable Cross wind Component depends
upon the size of the aircraft, wing configuration and the
condition of the pavement surface.
 For Small aircraft: CWC < 15 kmph.
 For Mixed air traffic CWC < 25 kmph
 For Big aircraft (ICAO) CWC <35 kmph

ICAO has specified that runways should be oriented so that

aeroplanes may be landed at least 95% of time with cross wind
components as follows
Aeroplane reference field length Cross wind Component
1500 m or over 37 km/hr
1200m to 1500m 24km/hr
Less than 1200 m 19km/hr
27
Wind Coverage: The percentage of time in a year during
which the Cross Wind Component remains within the
limit is called Wind Coverage (Usability Factor).
 FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) standards for
mixed air traffic wind coverage should be 95 % with the
limit of 25 kmph Cross Wind Component.
 For busy airport, Wind Coverage may be 98 -100 %

28
 Wind rose diagram is the graphical representation of
wind data (direction, duration and intensity
(velocity)).
 Wind data should be collected for the period of 5-
10 years.

Wind rose diagram can be plotted in two types:

1. Wind Rose type I (shows direction and duration)
2. Wind Rose type II (shows direction, duration and
intensity)
29
30
 NNW N
NNE
NW
NE

WNW ENE

W E
5 10 15

WSW ESE

SW
SE
SSW SSE
S

Wind Rose
31
 Radial line indicate the wind direction and each circle
represents the duration of wind
 From above table, it is observed that the total
percentage of time in a year during which the wind
blows from north direction is 10.3%.
 This value is plotted along the north direction.
 Similarly other values are plotted along the respective
directions.
 All plotted points are then joined by straight lines.
 The best direction of runway is usually the direction of
longest line on wind rose diagram.
 The best orientation of runway is thus along NS
direction.
32
33
34
• On the wind rose, the radial lines indicate wind
direction and the circles represents wind
velocity in kmph.
• Three equi-spaced parallel lines are drawn on a
transparent template in such a way that the
distance between the two nearby parallel lines
is equal to the permissible cross wind
component. This distance is measured with the
same scale with which the wind rose diagram is
drawn.
• Place the transparent paper strip over the wind
rose diagram in such a way that the central line
passes through the centre of diagram.

35
• With the centre of wind rose, rotate
tracing paper and place it in such a
position that the sum of all the values
indicating the duration of wind, within
the two outer parallel lines is the
maximum
• The runway should thus be oriented
along the direction indicated by the
centre line.
• The wind coverage can be calculated
by summing up all the percentage
shown in the segment.
36
• Read the true bearing for the runway on
the outer scale of the wind rose beneath
the centre line of the template.
• The best orientation of runway is along
the direction whose whole circle bearing
is zero degree i.e. NS direction.
• If the coverage provided by a single
runway is not sufficient, two or more
number of runway are planned in such a
manner that the total coverage provided
by them is required.
37
38
It is the length of runway under the
following conditions:
• Airport altitude is at sea level
• Airport temperature is 15 0 Celsius
• Runway is level in longitudinal
direction
• No wind is blowing on runway
• Aircraft is loaded to its full capacity.
39
A. Correction for Elevation

B. Correction for Temperature

C. Correction for Gradient

40
 A. Correction for Elevation
• As the elevation increases, the air density
reduces. It reduces the lift on the wing of the
aircraft and aircraft requires greater ground
speed before it can rise into the air.
• To achieve greater speed longer length of
runway is required.
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway
length should be increased at the rate of 7%
per 300 m rise in elevation above mean sea
level.
41
B. Correction for Temperature
• The rise in airport reference temperature has the
same effect as that of the increase in elevation.
• Airport reference temperature (Tr) is defined as
the monthly mean of average daily temperature
(Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one
third the difference of this temperature (Ta) and
monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature
(Tm) for the same month of the year.

Tm  Ta
Tr  Ta 
3 42
B. Correction for Temperature (contd…)
Ta = Monthly mean of average daily temperature for
the hottest month
i.e. If maximum temperature of a day is t2 and
minimum temperature of same day is t1
Then, Ta = (Thirty values of (t1+ t2)/2 for each day of
the hottest month added together)/30
And Tm = Monthly mean of the maximum daily
temperature for the same hottest month of
the year
= (Thirty values of t2 for each day of the
hottest month added together)/30

43
B. Correction for Temperature (contd…)
• ICAO recommends that the basic length of the
runway after having been corrected for
elevation should be further increased at the
rate of 1% for every 1o centigrade by which
the ‘airport reference temperature’ exceeds
the temperature in the ‘standard atmospheric
temperature (Ts)’ for the airport elevation.
• The temperature gradient of the standard
atmospheric from the mean sea level to the
altitude at which temperature becomes 15 o C
is -0.0065 o C per meter.
44
 B. Correction for Temperature (contd…)

Check for total correction for elevation and

temperature:

 If the total correction (elevation and temperature)

exceeds 35% the basic runway length, these
corrections should then be checked up by
conducting specific studies.

45
 C. Correction for Gradient
 Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of
energy, and longer the runway length is required for
attaining the ground speed.
 ICAO does not recommend on this correction. FAA
(Federal Aviation Administration) recommends that the
runway length after having been corrected for
elevation and temperature should be further
increased at the rate of 10% for every 1% of effective
gradient.
 Effective gradient is defined as the maximum
difference in elevation between the highest and
lowest points of runway divided by the total length of
runway.
46
 Basic length of runway is 1620 m. The
airport site has an elevation of 750m. Its
reference temperature is 22.5o C. If the
difference between maximum and
minimum elevation of runway is 16.2m,
determine the corrected length of Runway.

47
Length of runway required for landing and
take-off under standard atmospheric
condition at sea level are 2000m and
1700m respectively. The elevation of the
airport site is 200m above sea level. The
monthly mean of maximum and mean daily
temperature for the hottest month of the
year are 28o C and 19o C . If the runway is
to be constructed with an effective
gradient of 0.5%, determine the corrected
length of Runway.
48
a) Correction to runway take-off length (Hints: always calculate take-off length first)
i) Correction for elevation (Ce)
For 300m elevation above MSL 7% increase in basic runway length
For 200 m elevation Ce= (7/100 * 1/300)*200*1700
= 79.33 m
Corrected length after elevation correction = 1700+79.33 =1779.33 m
ii) Correction for temperature (Ct)
Airport reference temperature Tr = Ta + (Tm – Ta)/3 = 19 + (28 -19)/3
= 220 C
Temperature gradient at 200m elevation = 200* 0.0065 = 1.30 C
Standard temperature at elevation (Ts) = 150 – 1.30 = 13.70 C
Difference in temperature = Tr - Ts
= 22 – 13.7 = 8.30 C
Correction for temperature is 1% increase for 10 C difference between
airport reference temperature and standard temperature
Ct = 1779.33 * 8.3/100 = 147.68 m
Therefore, Corrected length of runway after correction for temperature
= 1779.33+147.68 = 1927.01m 49
Check :
Total increase in length = (1927.01-1700)/1700
= 13.36 % (<35%) OK
iii) Correction for gradient (Cg)
For each 1% of gradient 10 % increase of the runway length corrected
for elevation and temperature
For 0.5 % gradient = 10 * 0.5 = 5% increase in runway length
Cg = 1927.01 * 5/100 = 96.35 m
Corrected length of runway after correction for gradient
= 1927.01+ 96.35 = 2023.36 m

b) Correction to runway landing length ( Hints: always calculate this after)

i) Correction for elevation (Ce)
For 300m elevation above MSL 7% increase in basic runway length
For 200 m elevation Ce= (7/100 * 200/300)*2000
= 93.33 m
Corrected length after elevation correction = 2000+93.33 =2093.33 m
Therefore, Actual runway length = 2093.33 m 50
 Basic length of runway is 1900 m. The
airport site has an elevation of 535m. The
monthly mean of maximum and mean daily
temperature for the hottest month of the
year are 27o C and 18o C . If the runway is
to be constructed with an effective
gradient of 0.25%, determine the corrected
length of Runway.

51
 Determine the actual length of the Runway
required if the length required for landing and
take-off under standard atmospheric
condition at sea level are 2100m and 2500m
respectively. The elevation of the aerodrome
is 150m above sea level. The aerodrome
reference temperature is 24o C. If the runway
is to be constructed with a slope of 0.5%.
Temperature in the standard atmosphere for
150m = 14.025o C
(Hints : Always do correction for elevation, temperature and
gradient for take-off first and Correction for elevation only for
landing after. Actual runway length is greater of two. Here
greater value will be of take-off length)
52
53
The elevation of the highest point of the
landing area.

54
 It varies according to the class of airport.
 The outermost part of largest aircraft using the airport should not
extend beyond the pavement.
 Shoulders are provided on either side of the landing strip and area to be
stabilized by turfing.
Factors affecting runway width:
•Deviation of an aeroplane from the centerline at touchdown.
•Cross wind condition
•Runway surface contamination (snow, rainfall ice etc.)
•Rubber deposit
•Approach speeds used
•Visibility
•Human factors
55
56
57
 The slopes computed by dividing the differences between the maximum
and minimum elevation along the runway centerline by the runway length
should not exceed:

 1 % where the code number is 3 or 4

 2% where the code number is 1 or 2

Along no portion of a runway should the longitudinal slope exceed:

 1.25% where the code number is 4, except that for the first and last
quarter of the length of the runway the longitudinal slope should not
exceed 0.8%.

 1.5 % where the code number is 3, except that the first and last quarter of
the length of a precision approach runway category II or III the
longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8%.

 2 % where the code number is 1 or 2.

58
 Where slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change
between two consecutive slopes should not exceed:
 1.5 % where code number is 3 or 4;
 2% where code number is 1 or 2
 The transition from one slope to another should be
accomplished by a curved surface with a rate of change not
exceeding:
 0.1 % per 30 m. (R min of 30000) where code number is 4
 0.2% per 30 m ( R min 15000) where code number is 3.
 0.4% per 30 m (R min 7500) where code number is 1 or 2.
59
Where slope changes cannot be avoided, they should be
such that there will be an unobstructed line of sight from:
• Any point 3 m above a runway to all other points 3 m
above the runway within a distance of at least half the
length of the runway where the code letter is C, D or E;
• Any point 2 m above a runway to all other points 2 m
above the runway within a distance at least half the length
of runway where code letter is B; and
• Any point 1.5 m above a runway to all other points 1.5 m
above the runway within a distance of at least half the
length of runway where the code letter is A.

60
To promote the rapid drainage of water, the runway
surface should, if practicable, be cambered except
where a single cross fall from high to low in the
direction of the wind most frequently associated with
rain would ensure rapid drainage. The transverse
slope should ideally be:

• 1.5 % where the code letter is C, D, E or F

• 2% where the code letter is A or B

But in any event should not be exceed 1.5 % or 2 %,

as applicable, nor be less than 1 % except at runway
or taxiway intersections where flatter slopes be
necessary. 61
 Runway shoulder must be provided to ensure a transition
from the full strength pavement to the unpaved strip of
runway.
 The paved shoulder protects the edge of the runway
pavement, contribute to the prevention of soil erosion by jet
blast and mitigate foreign object damage to jet engines.
 Runways shoulder should be provided for a runway where
the code letter is D or E and the runway width is less than
60m.
 Runway shoulders should be provided where the code letter
is F.
 The runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each
side of the runway so that the overall width of the runway
and its shoulders is not less than 60 m for letter E and 75 m
for code letter F. 62
 The surface of the shoulder that abuts (touch or
next to) the runway should be flush with the
surface of the runway and its transverse downward
slope should not exceed 2.5 %.

63
 A runway strip extends laterally to a specified
distance from the runway center line,
longitudinally, before the threshold, and beyond
the runway end.
 It provides an area clear of objects which may
endanger aeroplanes.
 The strip includes a graded portion which should
be so prepared as to not cause the collapse of the
nose gear if an aircraft should leave the runway.
 There are certain limitations on the slopes
permissible on graded portion of the strip.
64
A strip including a precision approach runway
shall, wherever practicable, extend laterally for a
distance of at least:
 150 m where the code number is 3 or 4 and;
 75 m where the code number is 1 or 2.
 A strip including non-precision approach should
extend laterally to a distance of at least:
 150 m where the code number is 3 or 4;
 75 m where the cod number is 1 and 2
65
A strip including a non-instrument runway should
extend, on each side of the centre line of the
runway and its extended centre line throughout the
length of the strip, for a distance of at least:
 75 m where the code number is 3 or 4
 40 m where the code number is 2; and
 30 m where the code number is 1.

66
• An object, other than equipment or installation
required for air navigation purposes, situated on a
runway strip which may endanger aeroplanes
should be regarded as an obstacle and should, as
far as practicable, be removed.
• Any equipment or installation required for air
navigation purposes which must be located on the
runway strip should be of minimum practicable
mass and height, frangibly designed and mounted,
and sited in such a manner as to reduce the hazard
to aircraft to a minimum.
67
 Maximum capacity and efficiency of an
aerodrome are realized only by obtaining the
proper balance between the need for runways,
passenger and cargo terminals, and aircraft storage
and servicing areas. These separate and distinct
aerodrome functional elements are linked by the
taxiway system.
 The components of the taxiway system therefore
serve to link the aerodrome functions and are
necessary to develop optimum aerodrome
utilization.
68
 The taxiway system should be designed to
minimize the restriction of aircraft movement to
and from the runways and apron areas.
 A properly designed system should be capable of
maintaining a smooth, continuous flow of aircraft
ground traffic at the maximum practical speed
with a minimum of acceleration or deceleration.
 This requirement ensures that the taxiway system
will operate at the highest levels of both safety and
efficiency
69
 Following factors should be considered in planning the layout of
the taxiway system :

a) Taxiway routes should connect the various aerodrome elements

by the shortest distances, thus minimizing both taxiing time and
cost;

b) Taxiway routes should be as simple as possible in order to avoid

pilot confusion and the need for complicated instructions;

c) Straight runs of pavement should be used wherever possible.

Where changes in direction are necessary, curves of adequate
radii, as well as fillets or extra taxiway width, should be provided
to permit taxiing at the maximum practical speed.

d) Taxiway crossings of runways and other taxiways should be

avoided whenever possible in the interests of safety and to reduce
the potential for significant taxiing delays;

70
e) Taxiway routings should have as many one-way segments as
possible to minimize aircraft conflicts and delay. Taxiway
segment flows should be analyzed for each configuration under
which runway(s) will be used;

f) The taxiway system should be planned to maximize the useful

life of each component so that future additions are easily
possible.

g) Taxiway route should avoid areas where public could have

easy access for the security of the taxiing aeroplane from
sabotage.

h) All sections of the taxiway system should be visible from the

aircraft control tower.

i) The effects of jet blast on areas adjacent to the taxiways should

be mitigated by stabilizing the loose soil and erecting blast
fences. 71
72
73
 Changes in direction of taxiways should be as few
and small as possible.
 The design of the curve should be such that when the
cockpit of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway
centre line markings, the clearance distance between
the outer main wheels of the aeroplane and the edge
of the taxiway should not be less than those
specified in the table below:

74
75
 A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to a runway at an
acute angle and designed to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off
at higher speeds than those achieved on other exit taxiways,
thereby minimizing runway occupancy time.

 A decision to design and construct a rapid exit taxiway is based

upon analyses of existing and contemplated traffic.

 The main purpose of these taxiways is to minimize aircraft

runway occupancy and thus increase aerodrome capacity. When
the design peak hour traffic density is approximately less than
25 operations (landings and take-offs), the right angle exit
taxiway may suffice.

 The construction of this exit taxiway is less expensive, and

when properly located along the runway, achieves an efficient
flow of traffic. A decision to design and construct a rapid exit
taxiway is based upon analyses of existing and contemplated
traffic.
76
77
 An apron is a defined area intended to
accommodate aircraft for purposes of
loading and unloading passengers,
mail or cargo, fuelling and parking or
maintenance.
 The apron is generally paved but may
occasionally be unpaved; for example,
in some instances, a turf parking apron
may be adequate for small aircraft.

78
 The passenger terminal apron is an area designed
for aircraft maneuvering and parking that is
adjacent or readily accessible to passenger
terminal facilities. This area is where passengers
board the aircraft from the passenger terminal.
 In addition to facilitating passenger movement,
the passenger terminal apron is used for aircraft
fuelling and maintenance as well as loading and
unloading cargo, mail and baggage.
 Individual aircraft parking positions on the
passenger terminal apron are referred to as
aircraft stands.

79
 Aircraft that carry only freight and mail
may be provided a separate cargo
terminal apron adjacent to a cargo
terminal building.
 The separation of cargo and passenger
aircraft is desirable because of the
different types of facilities each
requires both on the apron and at the
terminal

80
 In addition to the terminal apron,
airports may require a separate parking
apron where aircraft can park for
extended periods.

81
 A service apron is an uncovered area
adjacent to an aircraft hangar on which
aircraft maintenance can be performed,
while a hangar apron is an area on
which aircraft move into and out of a
storage hangar.

General aviation aircraft, used for

business or personal flying, require
several categories of aprons to support
different general aviation activities.
82
The amount of area required for a particular
apron layout depends upon the following
factors:
◦ the size and maneuverability characteristics of
the aircraft using the apron;
◦ the volume of traffic using the apron;
◦ clearance requirements;
◦ type of ingress and egress to the aircraft
stand;
◦ basic terminal layout or other airport use
◦ aircraft ground activity requirements; and
◦ taxiways and service roads.
83
84
85
86