Plants 12 01653 v2
Plants 12 01653 v2
Plants 12 01653 v2
Review
Phytoremediation as an Effective Remedy for Removing Trace
Elements from Ecosystems
Agnieszka Mocek-Płóciniak 1 , Justyna Mencel 1, * , Wiktor Zakrzewski 2 and Szymon Roszkowski 3
1 Department of Soil Science and Microbiology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Szydłowska 50,
60-656 Poznan, Poland
2 Regional Chemical and Agricultural Station in Poznan, Sieradzka 29, 60-163 Poznan, Poland
3 Department of Geriatrics, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus
University in Torun, Jagiellonska 13/15, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: The pollution of soil by trace elements is a global problem. Conventional methods of
soil remediation are often inapplicable, so it is necessary to search intensively for innovative and
environment-friendly techniques for cleaning up ecosystems, such as phytoremediation. Basic
research methods, their strengths and weaknesses, and the effects of microorganisms on metallophytes
and plant endophytes resistant to trace elements (TEs) were summarised and described in this
manuscript. Prospectively, bio-combined phytoremediation with microorganisms appears to be
an ideal, economically viable and environmentally sound solution. The novelty of the work is the
description of the potential of “green roofs” to contribute to the capture and accumulation of many
metal-bearing and suspended dust and other toxic compounds resulting from anthropopressure.
Attention was drawn to the great potential of using phytoremediation on less contaminated soils
located along traffic routes and urban parks and green spaces. It also focused on the supportive
treatments for phytoremediation using genetic engineering, sorbents, phytohormones, microbiota,
microalgae or nanoparticles and highlighted the important role of energy crops in phytoremediation.
Perceptions of phytoremediation on different continents are also presented, and new international
perspectives are presented. Further development of phytoremediation requires much more funding
Citation: Mocek-Płóciniak, A.; and increased interdisciplinary research in this direction.
Mencel, J.; Zakrzewski, W.;
Roszkowski, S. Phytoremediation as Keywords: trace elements; contaminated soils; phytoremediation; phytoextraction; phytostabilization;
an Effective Remedy for Removing hyperaccumulator; rhizofiltration; plant endophytes; microorganisms
Trace Elements from Ecosystems.
Plants 2023, 12, 1653. https://
doi.org/10.3390/plants12081653
of emission sources. On the other hand, they can be effective for the reclamation of less
polluted soils located along traffic routes or parks, squares and urban greenery, i.e., places
of frequent residence of various age groups. The idea of using plants to reduce and level
pollution in the environment has been known for a long time. In addition to aesthetic
value, protection from noise, providing oxygen, plant species with high phytoremediation
abilities planted in urban areas (maple leaf plane, Japanese larch, poplar, ash, field maple,
white and sessile dogwood, wrinkled rose, common yew), have the opportunity to play
a health-promoting role. This is because they contribute to a significant improvement
in the urban environment in which we live. The ability of plants to take up TEs and
accumulate PAHs and particulate matter (products of traffic pollution) in the wax overhang
makes phytoremediation a very attractive technology dedicated to urban areas. Plants with
phytoremediation capabilities act as a “green liver” in the urban environment.
From the literature collected for this review article, it appears that research to improve
and refine phytoremediation methods is practiced and actualized, but further steps in this
direction are still needed. In practice, the use of only one method or treatment for effective
phytoremediation will not be sufficient or satisfactory. Plant-microbiome interactions are
proving to be an extremely effective approach for TE uptake and translocation in plants.
Our work holds high hopes for further exploration of new metabolites and pathways for the
efficient degradation of contaminants through the plant-microbiota system. With modern
bioengineering techniques, it is possible to modify plants with desirable traits, as well as to
isolate microorganisms and then introduce them into the soil to improve phytoremediation
using appropriate plant species. In-depth and interdisciplinary research in this direction
with significantly increased funding is needed in order to obtain, through these modifica-
tions, both plants and microorganisms that are effective in the remediation of contaminated
land and, in addition, resistant to difficult and often changing environmental conditions.
For this literature review, papers from 2000–2023 were used. Older papers were used
only for the clarification of terms. Data were searched in Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science,
ScienceDirect, Public Library of Science and AGRO databases. Search engines such as
Google Scholar, MDPI Search and ResearchGate were also used. Searches were mainly
conducted by using key-words, synonyms, combining terms and database search limits,
e.g., source type and topic.
roots and rhizomes more than in shoots or the leaves. In hyperaccumulators, both ratios
should be greater than unity [79–87]. Plants with high biomass and high bioaccumulation
in aboveground parts of plants (BFaboveground parts of plants > 1) are suitable for phytoextrac-
tion [83,88,89], while plants with a high bioaccumulation factor for belowground parts
of plants (BFbelowground parts of plants > 1) and at the same time a low translocation factor
(TF < 1) are suitable for phytostabilization [89,90]. Examples of hyperaccumulators and
recommended phytoremediation methods are shown in Table 1.
A ratio also used to assess the distribution of TEs within the shoots and roots of
plants is the root/shoot (R/S) ratio. This ratio indicates the concentration of TEs that is
accumulated in the root to the concentration in the plant shoot. Plant roots are the final site
of absorbed TEs, and shoots are able to accumulate smaller amounts than roots. Plants that
are not hyperaccumulators have a shoot-to-root ratio of less than one. Hyperaccumulators
should have a shoot-to-root ratio greater than one. This indicates efficient transport of TEs
from roots to shoots. [87,143,144]. Hyperaccumulators and the TEs content of their parts
are shown in Table 2.
TEs TEs
Plant Species TEs Accumulation Accumulated References
(mg kg−1 ) Part of Plant
Alyssum bertolonii Ni 10,900 Shoots [145]
Alyssum murale Ni 4730–20,100 Leaves [92]
Arabidopsis halleri Zn 5722 Shoots [146]
Azolla pinnata Cd 740 Roots [98]
Zn 30,550 Roots [147]
Brassica juncea
Cd 25,000 Roots [148]
Cu 20,200
Eleocharis acicularis Zn 11,200 Shoots [149]
As 1470
Euphorbia cheiradenia Pb 1138 Shoots [150]
Pteris vittata As 8331 Frond and root [151]
Sedum alfredii Zn 9000 Leaves [152]
Ni 6100 Rosette [153]
Thlaspi caerulescens
Zn 19,410 Leaves [154]
purpose is to reduce the concentration of TEs in the ground but also to improve the quality
of rainwater runoff [159].
2.1. Rhizofiltration
The rhizofiltration process relies on the ability of the roots of selected plant species to
absorb and adsorb pollutants from ground and surface waters, industrial, municipal, and
agricultural wastewaters, as well as acid mine water [163]. The process of preparing plants
for rhizofiltration involves growing them in clean water to develop large root systems;
then, the plants are transferred from clean water to contaminated water to acclimate. After
successful acclimatization, the plants are moved to the target contaminated site so they
can remove TEs from there [164]. Rhizofiltration can be supported by symbiotic fungi and
bacteria. The method is used to remove TEs ions as well as some organic substances and
radioactive elements found at relatively low concentrations in aquatic environments. The
resulting complexes are readily absorbed by plants. For example, the Alyssum lesbiacum
plant uses histidine to complex nickel [165]. By acidifying the rhizosphere, plant roots cause
TEs to become more available and take up these pollutants more efficiently. Pb is most
Plants 2023, 12, 1653 7 of 29
effectively removed through rhizofiltration [166]. This process does not require an active
biological system and also occurs on dead root tissue [167]. Various technical variants of
rhizofiltration have been implemented, e.g., variants involving the use of mats floating
on the surface of the water and keeping the roots of plants in water (Helianthus sp.), with
aquatic plants such as Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud., Typha laifolia (L.), Eichhornia
crassipes (Mart.) Raf., Lemna minor (L.) [168,169]. Although the aquatic environment is
the natural habitat of plants used in the rhizofiltration process, terrestrial plants are also
gaining interest. Plants grown in hydroponic or aeroponic cultures remove contaminants
more efficiently than aquatic plants [170]. Plants used in this method should not only have
a dense root system and produce large amounts of biomass, but they should also exhibit
high tolerance to TEs. For wetland remediation, it is common to use species characteristic of
aquatic habitats, such as hyacinth, azolla, duckweed, cattail and poplar. These species meet
the aforementioned requirements, such as high tolerance to TEs and high biomass [171].
Terrestrial plants are often characterized by a longer and hairier root system than aquatic
plants. The following species are used for rhizofiltration: Indian mustard (B. juncea) and
sunflower (H. annuus) [172,173].
2.2. Phytoextraction
Phytoextraction (or phytoaccumulation) is the use of plants to remove pollutants from
water and soil and then place and accumulate them in their aboveground biomass [174].
The potential of hyperaccumulator plants is used to absorb sizable amounts of TEs. The
technology consists in mobilizing ions by reduction with chelating compounds, the up-
take of contaminants from the soil by plant roots, followed by transport in the xylem,
redistribution to tissues and sequestration in cells [101,175–177]. Next, the vegetation is
harvested and removed. The process can be repeated many times until satisfactory results
are achieved, i.e., metals such as Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni and V are permanently removed [14].
The efficiency of this process depends on the choice of plants and the amount of water
(along with the substances dissolved in it, e.g., heavy metals) passing through them per unit
of time. It is noteworthy that this method has been proved to successfully remove TEs from
the soil with plants such as Helianthus annuus, Cannabis sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, and Zea
mays [178–180]. Grasses can also be used for phytoextraction, as they are characterized by
a short life cycle, rapid biomass growth, and high tolerance to environmental stresses [181].
Trifolium alexandrinum is also a suitable plant for catching Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn. Like grasses,
this plant species can be harvested a few times in one season because it grows quickly [59].
Sebertia acuminata—an endemic tree growing in New Caledonia—has a high potential for
the phytoaccumulation of metals. It is a hyperaccumulator of nickel. Its latex-type sap
contains about 25% Ni (about 11% by weight).
Phytoextraction-assisted chemicals are being used to increase the uptake of TEs by
plants. This method includes the use of TEs chelators such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA), N-hydroxyethyl-EDTA (HEDTA) or citric acid. These compounds increase
the ability of plants to take up TEs and translocate them within plants (Table 4) [182,183].
Table 4. Cont.
Natural low-molecular-weight organic acids (citric acid, oxalic acid or vanillic acid)
have been studied as alternative chelators to EDTA because of their rapid biodegradation
rates [184,196]. Unfortunately, these chemicals can biodegrade rapidly, often leading to
degradation before the metals are absorbed by plants [184]. However, further research in
this area is required to find an alternative that offers the same results as EDTA. Although
chelates have been used to aid phytoextraction and increase the recovery of TEs, such
activities can have negative environmental impacts. There are still opportunities to develop
green chemical technologies that increase the availability of elements to plants without
damaging the environment [183].
2.3. Phytoevaporation
Phytoevaporation, also known as phytoxidation or phytovolatilization, involves the
uptake of contaminants by plants, their transpiration and subsequent evaporation in a
modified form. The process is primarily used to clean up aquatic environments and soils
contaminated with selenium, mercury or arsenic [197]. Some organic compounds, such
as trichloroethylene, benzene, nitrobenzene, phenol or atrazine, can also undergo phyto-
evaporation [198]. The best-known example of phytoevaporation is the remediation of
selenium-contaminated environments. This element is most often found in the form of sele-
nate (SeO4 2− ), selenite (SeO3 2− ) and occasionally in the organic form of selenomethionine.
The rate of selenium uptake from the substrate depends on its chemical form and other
factors, such as the concentration of SO4 2− , which is a competitive ion, as well as the levels
of glutathione and O-acetylserine in plant cells. When selenium is taken up, thanks to en-
zymatic reactions involving ATP sulfurylase, APS reductase, glutathione reductase, sulfite
reductase, and S-methylmethionine hydrolase in chloroplasts, it is reduced to dimethylse-
lenide (DMSe) or dimethyldiselenide (DMDSe) and released into the atmosphere. Both
of these methylated forms of selenium (DMSe and DMDSe) are 500–700 times less toxic
than the inorganic form of selenium [199,200]. As it is not easy to remove mercury from the
aquatic environment, phytoevaporation is a promising technique for the remediation of
this element. There are plants that can take up and accumulate mercury. However, they
do not have the appropriate enzymes to catalyze the reduction of Hg2+ to Hg0 . Therefore,
genetic engineering techniques are hoped to solve the problem. Transgenic plants, such as
radish (Arabidopsis thaliana) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), contain bacterial genes for the
enzymes—organic mercury compound lyase (MerB) and mercury reductase (MerA). They
take up mercury (mainly in the methylated form) and reduce it to the elementary form
Hg0 [71,198]. Phytoxidation is considered a rather risky method because the pollutants
removed during this process enter the atmosphere. Although their form is less toxic, they
still pose a serious threat to the ecosystem.
2.4. Phytostabilization
Phytostabilization is a process that does not involve the removal of TEs. Instead, they
are retained in the soil through absorption and accumulation in the roots, adsorption on the
Plants 2023, 12, 1653 9 of 29
root surface or precipitation in the rhizosphere, and thus, there is a lower environmental
risk [157,201]. This process can occur through the absorption of TEs and their sequestration
in the root tissues, adsorption on the root cell walls, and precipitation or reduction of metal
valence in the rhizosphere [202–204]. The soil becomes physically stabilized, which coun-
teracts water and wind erosion, whereas the vegetation cover is restored, which reduces
the spread of metals into water or air [179,205]. The immobilization of TEs can be further
assisted by the addition of organic matter in the form of biomass, sludge or composts,
raising the pH value by liming the addition of carbonates or phosphates [14,206–208].
Phytostabilization is recommended for fine-grained soils with high organic matter con-
tent. Phytostabilization has an advantage over phytoextraction because the removal of
hazardous biomass is not required [164]. Plants used for phytostabilization should have
a high bioconcentration rate and a low rate of translocation of metals to the shoots. In
addition, they should exhibit high tolerance to soil contamination and produce a sizable
root biomass [101,201,208,209]. Phytostabilization can be supported by soil microorgan-
isms such as bacteria and mycorrhiza. Thanks to them, the roots can increase their surface
area and penetrate deeper into the soil. This facilitates phytostabilization and acts as a
kind of barrier protecting the plant from the translocation of TEs ions from the roots to
the shoots [210]. In addition, these microorganisms make heavy metal immobilization
more efficient by adsorbing TEs on their cell walls, producing chelators, and promoting
precipitation processes [211,212].
biofuel. The collected biomass will be sent to the Netherlands and Germany, where special-
ized companies will test whether pure biofuel can be obtained from biomass produced in
Poland, Greece, France, Italy, China and India. In addition, research will also be conducted
to isolate contaminants from them that should not be found in such fuel. This project is
very important because naturally polluted areas are being studied. This is because the
above practices are translated into reality in two municipalities in Upper Silesia. Based on
this research, universal strategies will be developed that can be applied to other potentially
contaminated sites and used in various countries in the European Union and Asia. Such a
diversity of analyzed research points (diversity in terms of climatic conditions or types of
pollution) will allow the development of concepts that will be environmentally friendly
as well as economically and socially rational for the production of clean biofuel. Thus,
phytoremediation is becoming one of the elements of both an integrated and sustainable
approach to the revitalization of polluted areas and the protection and shaping of the space
in which we live.
Biofuel plants in phytoremediation have also been reported by Amin et al. [225].
According to the authors, of the plants tested (Abelmoschus esculentus, Avena sativa, Guizo-
tia abyssinica, and Glycine max), A. sativa shows high Zn uptake, high tolerance and
high biomass. This indicates that it is a suitable biofuel plant for both phytoremediation
and biofuel.
Therefore, plant biomass converted into a renewable energy source represents an
opportunity for phytoremediation plants on a global scale. It is worth noting that energy
produced from plants accounts for 14% of global energy demand. Energy plants used
for phytoremediation should be fast-growing, have large biomass and deep roots and
yield an economically valuable product [226–228]. Table 5 shows energy plants used in
phytoremediation serving as biofuel.
Table 5. List of energy crops used in phytoremediation with consideration of bioenergy [229].
isms but also the enzymes themselves in the form of preparations. Such preparations may
contain individual biocatalysts or enzyme complexes capable of changing toxic compounds
into non-toxic ones. The use of enzymes as an aid to phytoremediation is believed to
be advantageous because these compounds have a simple structure; moreover, the trans-
formation of polluting compounds with the participation of enzymes does not result in
the accumulation of toxic by-products, and the enzymes are utilized after the process by
microorganisms residing in the polluted environment. Examples of bacterial enzymes that
can take part in the remediation process are reductases, dehalogenases, monooxygenases
or mono- and dioxygenases [240].
Nanoparticles may prove to be an innovative solution to aid the bioremediation pro-
cess. These are particles with a size of 1–100 nm. Due to the fact that nanoparticles are a
benign product for the environment, we can describe them as a method that carries poten-
tial environmental benefits. Macé et al. [241] conducted a study using a hydroxyapatite
nanoparticle. The study showed that these particles reduced the availability of Cu and Zn
in the soil. In turn, Khan and Bano [242] indicate that the use of nanoparticles improved the
phytoremediation capacity of plants in relation to Cu, Zn, Ni and Pb. Adejumo et al. [243]
applied silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) to Zea mays in their study. The results show improved
shoot growth based on the root vigor index. AgNPs also increased the content of chloro-
phyll a and b and carotenoids; in addition, antioxidant activity increased. The authors
point to improved phytostabilization of TEs while improving plant health values. However,
there is a concern that nanoparticles used as a bioremediation aid may have a negative
impact on the environment after a certain period of time, due to the possibility of releasing
hazardous compounds. Some particles may have a bactericidal effect. Nanoparticles can be
readily absorbed through cell membranes, with degradation having cytotoxic effects [244].
Brassinosteroids (BR) come in response to the negative impact of TEs on plant cells
and the oxidative stress they cause. These are plant hormones that exhibit physiological
activity in concentrations up to one hundred times lower than, for example, auxins. Due
to their high biological activity, BRs regulate many processes in the plant. They can also
reduce the toxicity of TEs. These hormones have the ability to regulate the absorption
of trace element ions into cells and reduce the uptake of the above-mentioned elements
through the roots, thanks to the high activity of the V-ATPase enzyme. Brassinosteroids
also increase the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, which allows the removal of excess
reactive oxygen species. In addition, BRs can stimulate the synthesis of phytochelatins
that bind metal ions into complexes. Brassinosteroids play an important role in inducing
plant defense mechanisms because they interact with other hormones, such as: auxins,
cytokinins and salicylic acid [245–247].
Another method that supports phytoremediation is the use of transgenic plants. Plants
that are used for this process should be characterized by a developed root system, rapid
growth, production of large biomass and the ability to accumulate and tolerate very high
concentrations of TEs. Therefore, genetic engineering can be used to create the ideal phy-
toremediation plant. An example is Nicotiana glauca; it was modified by a wheat gene
encoding phytochelatin synthase (TaPCS1), resulting in potentially higher tolerance to Pb
and Cd compared to a non-transgenic plant [248]. In contrast, transgenic Brassica juncea L.
accumulated 1.5–2 times the concentration of Cd and Zn than wild Indian mustard [249].
Among trees, poplar is one of the excellent candidates for genetic engineering for phytore-
mediation. Poplar, introduced with the yeast cadmium factor 1 (ScYCF1) gene, has very
high phytoremediation capabilities compared to non-transgenic poplar [250]. Nicotiana
glauca with overexpression of the phytochelatin gene obtained from the Thlaspi caerulescens
hyperaccumulator accumulated 24 times more Cd and 36 times more Pb [251]. The current
state of knowledge suggests that the use of genetically modified plants makes it possible to
clean soils contaminated with TEs. In addition to obtaining the above-mentioned plants,
legislation and a general reluctance to use transgenic organisms may be a problem.
Phytoremediation allows the removal of metals from the soil and their accumulation in
the above-ground parts of plants (phytoextraction) or immobilization in the soil at the root
Plants 2023, 12, 1653 14 of 29
of the plant (phytostabilization). Some species of energy plants, growing on soils of lower
quality and contaminated with TEs, successfully provide a yield sufficient for use on an
industrial scale and enable their use in both processes [252]. Examples of energy plants that
can be used in the phytoremediation process are: Salix viminalis, Miscanthus × giganteus,
Sida hermaphropdita. Willow wood grown on soils heavily polluted with emissions from
non-ferrous metal smelters may contain up to 4000 mg/kg Zn, 64 mg/kg Cd, 20 mg/kg
Cu and up to 10 mg/kg Pb [253,254]. Kabala et al. [123] indicate that Miscanthus straw
grown on unpolluted soils contains higher amounts of macronutrients, but lower amounts
of TEs, than willow wood. In the case of mallow, concentrations are comparable to those
in miscanthus straw. However, some studies indicate that mallow can more effectively
clean the soil of Pb, Zn and Cu than willow. This is because it is more tolerant of soil
contamination and has less yield reduction [123,255]. The basic aspects of growing energy
crops are: the production of biomass as a source of renewable energy, utilization of sewage
sludge for fertilization purposes, phytoremediation of chemically degraded soils. Therefore,
it is necessary to obtain plants with high yields but also with higher phytoextraction
abilities of TEs. This is where the previously described genetic engineering comes in, which,
together with energy plants, can significantly improve and streamline the phytoremediation
process [123].
Another method to support phytoremediation in TEs-contaminated waters is the
use of microalgae. This method is considered a cost-effective and sustainable alternative
to those currently used. This method requires low-energy inputs. However, it has its
limitations, such as climatic conditions and difficulties in separating algae from the water.
Thus, further research is needed on techniques for obtaining high microalgae biomass in
order to apply the methods on a wider scale [256,257].
Soil microorganisms can increase the solubility and oxidation of metals by releasing organic
ligands, decomposing organic matter and secreting metabolites and siderophores [273,274].
Abou-Shanab et al. [275] observed that the presence of a specific microbiota increased
the phytoextraction of nickel by the Alyssum murale. Low-molecular-weight organic acids
produced by microorganisms, such as gluconic acid, 2-ketoglutarate, oxalate, citrate, acetate,
malate and succinate, play a special role in the mobilization of TEs. Whiting et al. [276]
found that the inoculation of soil with metal-resistant rhizosphere bacteria significantly
increased the availability of zinc ions and their accumulation in plants. Siderophores—low-
molecular-weight organic chelators with high affinity for iron ions Fe3+ , synthesized by
microorganisms in the presence of iron Fe2+ deficiency, play an important role in the
mobility of metals. These compounds have relatively low selectivity and show an affinity
for numerous metal ions—Al, Cd, Cu, Ga, In, Pb, and Zn [8,277,278]. The metals bound by
bacterial siderophores can be taken up by bacteria and plants, thereby increasing the level
of metal accumulation in plant tissues. A prime example is pyoverdine, synthesized by
bacteria of the Pseudomonas genus.
7. Conclusions
Soil pollution of TEs is a serious problem in the modern world. Unlike air or water
pollution, soil-polluting TEs remain there much longer than other elements of the biosphere.
All TEs in high concentrations are toxic to humans, animals, plants and microorganisms.
Conventional soil remediation methods are often inapplicable, so it is necessary to inten-
sively search for innovative and environmentally friendly techniques for ecosystem clean
up using phytoremediation. Phytoremediation, referred to as green technology, is widely
Plants 2023, 12, 1653 17 of 29
used to remediate soils contaminated with TEs and is used to treat sediments, ground-
water and surface water. Like any method and this procedure has both advantages and
disadvantages.
In recent years, great progress has been seen in improving the efficiency and quality of
the phytoremediation process. This method, combined with burning the resulting biomass
to produce heat and electricity, may prove to be one of the key techniques for environmental
clean-up [302]. At this stage, it seems essential to create effective transgenic plants that are
good phytoremediators. Thus, a huge challenge is to obtain genetically modified plants that
will result in the ability to accumulate pollution in their large biomass. In the case of TEs, the
preference is focused on aboveground parts that can then be easily harvested. Maintaining
translocation from the root to the shoot, followed by sequestration in vacuoles and/or other
parts of the cells of the plant’s aboveground organs, are the most commonly used strategies
for genetic modification [9]. Genetically modified plants should also exhibit high viability
and be more resistant to environmental stress, which will make them better competitors
among native plant varieties. In addition, it is important for scientists to understand the
mechanisms of natural phytoremediation, which is still not fully understood. Until these
undiscovered mechanisms are clarified, the trial-and-error method seems to be the only
reasonable tool [303]. Purification of soils on an industrial scale will most likely be possible
in the future through the use of genetically modified organisms. It is estimated that over
the next 25 years, the European Union will allocate about 100 trillion euros to clean up
degraded areas [222]. It is, therefore, necessary to intensify the research being carried out
in this direction in order to create a plant that can remove and accumulate these pollutants
sparsely and in large quantities as soon as possible.
Today’s engineering bioremediation offers quite a few effective solutions in the form
of the use of various organic substances (e.g., sewage sludge, sorbents, enzymatic and
microbial preparations or nanoparticles). However, it is extremely important that the
preparations or sorbents used do not adversely affect the environment and are easily and
quickly biodegradable. This is because ignorance and unawareness of the far-reaching
effects of their use can be a danger. The technique of assisting bioremediation with genetic
engineering still arouses much controversy. There are a number of restrictions on its use.
This is due to strict regulations and safety considerations. It should be remembered that
there is always a significant risk of gene transfer from transgenic plants or microorganisms
to the environment. Another huge drawback is that genetic research on microbiota and
plants capable of efficient phytoremediation is usually conducted in specialized laboratories,
which unfortunately does not reflect natural conditions. Great hope has been placed in
international projects. One such project currently underway in Poland is the international
‘GOLD’ project called “Bridging the gap between phytoremediation solutions on growing
energy crops on contaminated lands and clean biofuel production,” which has received
sizable funding from Horizon in 2020. This project is very important because naturally
polluted areas are being studied. This is because the above practices are translated into
reality (two municipalities in Upper Silesia). Based on this research, universal strategies
will be developed that can be applied to other potentially contaminated sites and used in
various countries in the European Union and Asia. Thus, phytoremediation is becoming
one of the elements of both an integrated and sustainable approach to the revitalization of
polluted areas and the protection and shaping of the space in which we live.
The future of phytoremediation development must therefore involve the development
of technologies for the utilitarian use of the biomass obtained. Remediation of polluted
soil is time-consuming and, in hyperaccumulating plants, takes 2–60 years, while in non-
hyperaccumulating plants, it takes 25–2800 years [230]. Phytoremediation may be a viable
option for the removal of TEs contamination from environments, as the biomass created in
the process could be economically used in the form of bioenergy [304].
A holistic approach is therefore needed to assess the effectiveness of phytoremediation,
requiring the joint efforts of engineers, agronomists, plant biologists and microbiologists to
work together with policy makers, regulators and industry representatives. Key tasks for
Plants 2023, 12, 1653 18 of 29
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