05CS601 MOBILE COMPUTING

MR RICHARD MKECHERA
 Unit – I
Wireless Communication Fundamentals
Wireless Communication-Introduction:
Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of
electrical conductors or "wires". The distances involved may be short (a few meters as in
television remote control) or very long (thousands or even millions of kilometers for radio
communications). When the context is clear the term is often simply shortened to
"wireless".
Wireless communications is generally considered to be a branch of telecommunications.
Wireless is a term used to describe telecommunications in which electromagnetic waves
(rather than some form of wire) carry the signal over part or the entire communication
path.
Example:
Cellular phones and pagers: provide connectivity for portable and mobile applications,
both personal and business. Global Positioning System (GPS): allows drivers of cars and
trucks, captains of boats and ships, and pilots of aircraft to ascertain their location
anywhere on earth.
History of Mobile Communication
What is Cell phone?
A cellular phone is a portable telephone that does not use a wired connection. It connects
to a wireless carrier network using radio waves. A cellular phone network uses a number
of short-range radio transmitter-receivers to communicate simultaneously with many
cellphones over a large area. The wireless network is connected to the public telephone
system, another wireless carrier network or the Internet for completing calls to another
phone or to a computer.
To use a cell phone, need to buy a handset (or mobile communications device) and sign
up with a wireless service provider for a calling plan. Handsets are sold at retail outlets,
electronics stores, wireless service dealers and Web-based retailers. Handsets come in a
wide variety of styles, sizes, screens, keypads, software and capabilities. Most cell phones
have a color screen for easier navigation and use. Most cell phones can exchange text
messages with other mobile devices or e-mail addresses. More advanced phones play
games, take digital photographs, access the Internet, have personal digital assistant (PDA)
functions, and play music.
History of cellular mobile communication:
The history of wireless follows following hierarchy. After the second world war many
national and International projects in the area of wireless communications were triggered
off.

 In ancient times the light was modulated either ON or OFF pattern used for wireless
communication. Flags were used to signal code words. Smoke signals were used in
wireless communication as early as 150 BC.
 In 206 BC Radio transmission was introduced.
 In 1794, Claude Chappe invented Optical Telegraph for long distance wireless
communication
 In 1834 – 1874 Philip Reis discovered the Telephone Principle.
 In 1886,Heinrich Hertz demonstrate the wave character of electrical transmission
through space.
 In 1906, vaccum tube were invented by Robert Von Lieben.
 In 1937, Guglielmo Marconigave the wireless telegraphy. The first network in
Germany was , analog A.Netz – in 1958 with 160MHz carrier frequency.
 In 1972 ,the B.Netz followed in Germany using the same 160MHz, here the current
location of the mobile receiver should be known.
 In 1981, Nordic Mobile Telephone System(NMT) has been developed with 450MHz
carrier.
 In 1982, Inmarsat A satellite has been launched.
 In 1984, Cordeless Telephone(CT1) following its Predecessor the CT0 from 1980
 In 1987, CT2 was developed which uses the spectrum at 864MHz and offers a data
channel at a rate of 32 Kb/Sec.
 In 1991, ETSI adopted the standard Digital European Cordless Telephone(DECT) for
digital cordless telephony with a spectrum of 1880 – 1900 MHz.Now it is renamed
 as Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications.At that time Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA) also enhanced.
 During 1992, Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) was standardized.
 In 1994, GSM-1800 networks in Europe also known as DCS 1800 (Digital Cellular
System) started with a better quality.
 In 1996, HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN) whish is standardized by ETSI.
 In 1998, Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems (UMTS) developed by
Europeans.
 In 1999, the 802.11b ,Bluetooth was standardized.
 In 2000, General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) IEEE802.11a was developed.
 In 2001, International Mobile Telecommunications(IMT – d-2000) was standardized
 The year 2007, is the fourth generation the Internet based.

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
1. Cell : It is smallest geographical area considered for cellular mobile communication
radio coverage and the shape of a cell is hexagon.
2. Base station (BTS) : Base station provides functionalities between mobile u and
mobile switching centre (MSC). BTS is located in each cell.
3. Cell splitting : In high cellular traffic regions, a larger cell is divided smaller cells to
have complete radio coverage.
4. Hand off: When mobile unit moves from one cell to another cell, the cell in progress
will be handed over from one base transceiver to the base transceiver of the new
cell where the mobile unit enters so that the cell in progress is not disturbed and
continues smoothly. This process is called as “Hand off’.
5. Cell sectoring : A cell can be divided in to many sectors for example 3 sectors to 6
sectors in each hexagonal cell. Also the directional antenna should focus on each
sector
6. Umbrella cell pattern : A single large cell (Macro cell) consists of many small (micro
cell) cells and there will be interaction between micro and macro cells.
7. Control channel: They are used for necessary exchange of information related to
setting up and establishing cell base stations and the mobile units
8. Traffic channels: They are used for carrying data or voice connections between
different users.
 9. Frequency reuse: It is a concept followed in cellular communication for efficient
spectrum utilization. The same carrier frequency is reused by many cells in a cellular
cluster and it is known as ‘frequency reuse’ scheme.
10.Fading : Fading is an effect in mobile radio propogation. It is common in mutlipath
mobile signalling environment
11.Mobile telecommunication switching office/mobile switching centre
(MTSO/MSC): It is the main unit that connects the base transceiver station and the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) in mobile communication.
12.Page: It is a brief message that is browdcast over ab ebture servuce area, generally
in a simulcast type by many base stations at a time.

ForwardChannel
It is a radio channel used for transmission of information from base station to the mobile
unit.
ReverseChannel
It is a radio channel used for transmission of information from mobile unit to the base
station.
SimplexSystems
These are the communication systems that provide only one way communication.
Subscriber A mobile phone user who pays subscription charges for using a cellular mobile
communication system.
MobileStationMobile
station is mainly intended for use while in movement at any location. It can be hand-held
personal units that is portable or installed in moving vehicles

FullDuplexSystems
The transmission and reception is typically on two different channels (FDD) even though
new cordless systems are using TDD scheme. It is a communication system that allows
two way communication simultaneously.
HalfDuplexSystems
The communication systems that allow two way communication by using same radio
channel for both transmission and reception. The user can transmit or receive at any time.
Transceiver
It is a device used for both transmitting and receiving radio signals.
Roamer
It is a mobile station that operates in a service area other that the subscribed service area.
PSTN
It is the public switched telephone network to which the mobile telephone switching
center

MOBILE COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT:

It is made over physical mobility of the user and it permits the user to perform a task from
any distant area through mobile unit. It also known by different names according to its
role such as
1. Virtual home environment
2. Nomadic computing
3. Wearable computing
1. Virtual home environment
Network supporting mobile users should provide them with the same computing
environment on the road that they have their home or corporate computing environment
It is a concept for personal service environment (PSE) portability across network
boundaries and between terminals

2. Nomadic computing
It uses portability devices such as Laptop and handheld computers so the user can access
the internet and data from their home or anywhere People using such systems are
referred to as technomads and the ability of using the system is nomadicity
3. Wearable computing
It is a device that is always with the user and into which the user can enter commands
and execute it

AECHITECTURE OF MOBILE COMPUTING

Mobile computing architecture is made up of three-tier. The three tiers are:
1.Presentation (Tier-1)
2.Application (Tier-2)
3.Data (Tier-3)
Presentation (Tier-1):
A thin client based on hand held device or PC where the user enter action takes place.
Web browsers and customized client programs are included in this layer
Application (Tier -2):
It plays an important role in WLAN. It processes the user input, obtains the information
and makes the decisions. It uses the technologies like .NET, Java, Zend. It acts as interface
between the presentation layer and data layer.
Data (Tier -3): It includes database systems in which the processed data can be stored and
retrieved.

Functions of Mobile computing

A computer environment is said to be mobile if it supports few of the characteristics
mentioned below.

1. User mobility:
Though the user roams from one place to another he should be able to use the same
service. This service may be a remote network or home network
2. Bearer mobility:
 In this case the user may move from one bearer to another bearer but use the same
service.
3. Host Mobility:
In host mobility the user device can be either a server or a client. If it is a host mobility
the mobility of that IP should be given more care. Bit if it is server or host mobility, some
complexities will change.
4. Service mobility:
Though the user change from one service to another service it should remain enabled and
if a user is sending a mail and he refers some information in his PC stored file for adding
in his mail he should be allowed to do so.

MULTIPLEXING
What is Multiplexing:-

Multiplexing is a technique for sending more than one information signal at a time down
a single communication path(e.g. medium, circuit or channel). Multiplexing is
sometimes loosely referred to as MANY into ONE
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a
physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level
communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message
signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can
extract the original channels on the receiver side.
A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that
performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX).

Multiplexing can be achieved in a number of ways. The following three will be covered
in this class:
1.Space Division Multiplexing
2.Frequency Division Multiplexing
3.Time Division Multiplexing 4.Code division multiplexing.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

•Frequency domain is subdivided into several non-overlapping frequency bands
•Each channel is assigned its own frequency band (with guard spaces in between)
Space Division Multiplexing
•Channels are assigned on the basis of “space” (but operate on same frequency)
•The assignment makes sure that the transmission do not interfere with each (with a
guard band in between)
Time Division Multiplexing
•A channel is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time –All senders use
the same frequency, but at different point of time

Two ways of implementing TDM are:

1.Synchronous TDM
2.Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous Multiplexing:
Synchronous TDM works by the muliplexor giving exactly the same amount of time to
each device connected to it. This time slice is allocated even if a device has nothing to
transmit. This is wasteful in that there will be many times when allocated time slots are
not being used. Therefore, the use of Synchronous TDM does not guarantee maximum
line usage and efficiency. Synchronous TDM is used in T1 and E1 connections.
Asynchronous Multiplexing:
Asynchronous TDM is a more flexible method of TDM. With Asynchronous TDM the
length of time allocated is not fixed for each device but time is given to devices that
have data to transmit. This version of TDM works by tagging each frame with an
identification number to note which device it belongs to. This may require more
processing by the multiplexor and take longer, however, the time saved by efficient and
effective bandwidth utilization makes it worthwhile. Asynchronous TDM allows more
devices than there is physical bandwidth for. This type of TDM is used in Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) networks

Frequency and time division multiplexing

•A channel use a certain frequency for a certain amount of time and then uses a
different frequency at some other time –Used in GSM systems

Code division multiplexing

•separation of channels achieved by assigning each channel its own code
•guard spaces are realized by having distance in code space (e.g. orthogonal codes)
•transmitter can transmit in the same frequency band at the same time, but have to use
different code
•Provides good protection against interference and tapping but the receivers have
relatively high complexity –has to know the code and must separate the channel with
user data from the noise composed of other transmission –has to be synchronized with
the transmitter

Medium Access Control

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
SDMA (Space-Division Multiple Access or Spatial Division Multiple Access) is a MIMO
(Mutiple-Input and Multiple-Output, a multiple antenna schematic architecture)-based
wireless communication network architecture, primarily suitable for mobile ad-hoc
networks, which enables access to a communication channel by identifying the user
location and etablishing a one-to-one mapping between the network bandwidth division
and the identified spatial location. SDMA architecture can be configured and deployed
for most of the well-known mobile communication architectures such as CDMA (Code
division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and FDMA (Frequency
Division Multiple Access)

FDMA
Analog transmission is considered an "older" cellular phone technology. Analog
technology was built in the early 1980's. Analog allows a cellular phone to transmit
signals by sending voice, video, and data that are always changing, and so does the
network systems. Analog is considered an older method of modulating voice or data
information radio signals
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) improves spectrum capacity by splitting each
frequency into time slots. TDMA allows each user to access the entire radio frequency
channel for the short period of a call. Other users share this same frequency channel at
different time slots. The base station continually switches from user to user on the
channel. TDMA is the dominant technology for the second generation mobile cellular
networks. Networks using TDMA assign 6 timeslots for each frequency channel.
Devices using the wireless network send bursts of information that are reassembled at
the receiving end. TDMA builds on FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) by dividing
conversations by frequency and time. Since digital compression allows voice to be sent
under 10 kilobits per second (equivalent to 10 kHz), TDMA can fit three digital
conversations into a FDMA/Analog channel (which is 30 kHz). By sampling a person’s voice
for, say 30 milliseconds, then transmitting it in 10 milliseconds; the system is able to offer
3 timeslots per channel in a round-robin fashion. This technique allows compatibility with
FDMA while enabling digital services and easily
CDMA
CDMA is the latest, greatest cellular technology.

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. For cellular phone users, it's a
transparent interface for a wireless digital network. CDMA was original developed by the
military in the early 1960's. CDMA uses sequential code frequencies to funnel traffic
channels within the same radio channels.
For a non-technical definition, CDMA channels the packets of voice and data over wireless
radio frequencies so a cellular user can hear better, quicker and with more quality then
ever before. CDMA cell phones are also more efficient as they use a channels "band-with"
efficiently.
A perfect analogy of CDMA wide-band technology and narrow-band analog would be the
Internet. Picture CDMA technology as a Cable or DSL Line, and analog technology as a
dial-up Internet connection. Since DSL or cable lines are thicker and wider than a thinner
phone line, it's faster and quicker, in both directions. CDMA is faster in transmitting and
receiving data over a cellular phone. CDMA was originally developed and enhanced by a
US company named Qualcomm. Because the Company led the development of CDMA
technology, it owns a significant amount of intellectual property, including patents,
patent applications and trade secrets. Qualcomm licenses these patents to customers and
integrates them into its own products
It 1993, CDMA went mainstream. That year, CDMA was certified by the TIA
(Telecommunications Industry Association) and was adopted as the leading digital
multiple access technique for cellular phones. Obviously, Qualcomm and other
telecommunication service providers and manufacturers who use CDMA technology
would like to push it's growth.
A CDMA Development Group (CDG) was formed to produce products, platforms and
services that use CDMA and helps to promote its adoption around the world. Since these
manufactures and telecommunications providers base designs, research and
development budgets and plans on CDMA, there is much to gain or lose in it's worldwide
adaption. CDMA technology is based on a form of transmission known as Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum (DSSS). This form of transmission originally used for military and police
communications because the transmissions were difficult to detect in many instances,
and even if they were received they were very difficult to decipher without the correct
codes. However the possibilities of using this technology to provide a multiple access
scheme for mobile telecommunications and have now been exploited in a major way.

Advantages of CDMA:
There are several advantages to using code division multiple access CDMA. The main
reason for its acceptance is that it enables more users to use a given amount of spectrum.
Its use also enables adjacent base stations to operate on the same channel, allowing more
efficient use of the spectrum and it provides for an easier handover
Telecommunication System
What is GSM?
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile telephone system that
is widely used in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital wireless
telephone technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data,
then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time
slot. It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1,800 MHz frequency band.

GSM for Mobile Communication

The digital standard known as the Global System for Mobile (GSM) has captured a large
share of the global cellular market. This book aims to bridge the gap between a reader's
basic knowledge of telecommunications and the complexities of the 5000-page GSM
technical specification. It describes the system as a whole, covering all aspects of the
standard, including mobile stations, switching equipment, the radio interface,
infrastructure, transmission methods, and signaling protocols. System architects involved
in the design of personal communications systems will find the book to be a complete
description of the GSM communications system. It also may serve as a general
introduction to digital cellular systems.

This figure shows an overview of a GSM radio system. This diagram shows that the GSM
system includes mobile communication devices that communicate through base stations
(BS) and a mobile switching center (MSC) to connect to other mobile telephones, public
telephones, or to the Internet. This diagram shows that the MSC connects to databases
of customers. This example shows that the GSM system mobile devices can include
mobile telephones or data communication devices such as laptop computers.

GSM Technical Details:

The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts
•The subscriber carries the mobile station
•The base station subsystem controls the radio link with the mobile station The network
subsystem performs the switching of calls between the mobile users and other mobile
and fixed network users
Architecture of GSM network A GSM network is composed of several functional entities,
whose functions and interfaces are specified. Figure 1 shows the layout of a generic GSM
network. The GSM network can be divided into three broad parts. The Mobile Station is
carried by the subscriber. The Base Station Subsystem controls the radio link with the
Mobile Station. The Network Subsystem, the main part of which is the Mobile services
Switching Center (MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile users, and
between mobile and fixed network users. The MSC also handles the mobility
management operations. Not shown is the Operations and Maintenance Center, which
oversees the proper operation and setup of the network. The Mobile Station and the Base
Station Subsystem communicate across the Um interface, also known as the air interface
or radio link. The Base Station Subsystem communicates with the Mobile services
Switching Center across the A interface.
GPRS – Introduction
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a Mobile Data Service available to users of Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM) and IS-136 mobile phones. GPRS data transfer
is typically charged per megabyte of transferred data, while data communication via
traditional circuit switching is billed per minute of connection time, independent of
whether the user has actually transferred data or has been in an idle state. GPRS can be
used for services such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access, Short Message
Service (SMS), Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet communication
services such as email and World Wide Web access.

2G cellular systems combined with GPRS is often described as "2.5G", that is, a technology
between the second (2G) and third (3G) generations of mobile telephony. It provides
moderate speed data transfer, by using unused Time division multiple access (TDMA)
channels in for example the GSM system. Originally there was some thought to extend
GPRS to cover other standards, but instead those networks are being converted to use
the GSM standard, so that GSM is the only kind of network where GPRS is in use. GPRS is
integrated into GSM Release 97 and newer releases. It was originally standardized by
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), but now by the 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP)
GPRS Applications:
GPRS enables a variety of new and unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber.
These mobile services have unique characteristics that provide enhanced value to
customers. These characteristics include the following:
•Mobility—the ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on the
move
•Immediacy—Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of
location and without a lengthy login session
•Localization—Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current location
The combination of these characteristics provides a wide spectrum of possible
applications that can be offered to mobile subscribers. The core network components
offered by Cisco enable seamless access to these applications, whether they reside in the
service provider's network or the public Internet.

Some limitations of GPRS:

Although GPRS will provide better data rates than is currently available, there are some
limitations.
•Speeds of 177.2kbps would require a user to use all eight timeslots without any error
protection - which simply won't happen. Initial terminals are likely to use only 1-3
timeslots anyway, limiting the available bandwidth to a GPRS user.
•When GPRS packets are sent to a destination they are sent in all different directions -
allowing for the potential for one or some of those packets to be corrupted or even lost
altogether during the data transmission over the radio link. This is inherent in wireless
packet technologies so data integrity and retransmission strategies are incorporated -
which in turn result in potential transit delays.
•Although available radio resource can be concurrently shared between several users, an
increase in the numbers of users will slow data services down for each user.

CELLULAR WIRELESS NETWORK OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR SYSTEM:

Wireless communication technology in which several small exchanges (called cells)
equipped with low-power radio antennas (strategically located over a wide geographical
area) are interconnected through a central exchange. As a receiver (cell phone) moves
from one place to the next, its identity, location, and radio frequency is handed-over by
one cell to another without interrupting a call. Cellular networks offer a number of
advantages over alternative solutions:
Increased capacity
 Reduced power
 Use larger coverage area
 Reduced interference from other signals
OPERATION OF CELLULAR SYSTEM
The heart of the cellular system is made up of individual radio coverage areas called cells.
Each cell has a base station. When a call is made from a cell phone, radio signals are to
the cell site, which alerts mobile telephone switching office thus MTSO provide
connections for all calls between mobile units. The MTSO performs the central functions
call processing, traffic management and transferring calls as a phone moves between
cells. It assigns voice channel to each call i.e, channel assignment, call connection billing
and hand off, then again the communication between base station and mobile is defined
by common air interface (AI) Common air interface specified the following channels:
1.Traffic channel
2.Control channe
Step – 1 Mobile unit utilization
When a mobile is switched on it scans for control channel and selects the strongest signal
from base station. An acknowledgement happens between mobile and MTSO through
base station to identify and to register its location. It scans for signal periodically as long
as the mobile unit is on this is to find the mobility of mobile station.

Step -2 Request for connection

Mobile station makes a call by sending mobile identification number. Receiver examines
the information sent through forward control channel. If the channel is idle, then the
receiver unit transmits the reply through reverse control channel. The base station then
sends the request to the MTSO.
Step – 3 Paging
The connection to the called unit is attempted by the MTSO. MTSO sends a paging
messaged to all base system in cellular system.
Step – 4 Call accepted
The called unit receives the paging message sent by the base station and it responds
through RCC. Then it sends an acknowledgement. MTSO instructs the base station to
move the call to an unused voice channel within cell
Step – 5 Ongoing call
The mobile units on both sides exchange data or voice through their BS and MTSO.
Step – 6 Hand off
During a call if the user moves in and out of the range of base station. MTSO adjusts the
transmitted power and changes the channel of the mobile unit
DIVERSITY TECHNIQUE
It is the best technique applied to improve mobile links with lower cost. This technique
has the concept of diverting each signal in an independent path that is uncorrelated with
another signal path. When one signal path loses its strength in the propagation
environment it is called fading.
Two types of fading:
1. Small scale fading
2. Large scale fading

1. Small scale fading:

It occurs due to fast amplitude fluctuations as the mobile unit moves away from the base
station. This can be overcome by using microscoping diversity technique.
2. Large scale fading:
This effect is due to shadowing which occurs due to variations in surroundings. This can
be reduced by using macroscopic diversity technique.
Types of diversity:
1. Space diversity
2. Frequency diversity
3. Time diversity
4. Polarization diversity
5. Angle diversity
Path diversity Improving coverage and capacity in cellular systems:
Due to increase in demand for various wireless services the numbers of channels
allocated are insufficient to support all users.
To expand the capacity of cellular systems approaches like Cell splitting, Sectoring, and
Coverage zone are used

CELL SPLITTING:
It is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base
station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
It increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of times that
channels are reused.
By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells and by installing
these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases due
to the additional number of channels per unit area.

VERAGE ZONE APPROACHES:

It is the concept that distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to
hard-to-reach places.