UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

PROJECT TOPIC: EFFECTS OF TRUENCY ON ACEDEMIC PERFOMANCE OF

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Overview

Reviewing relevant literature was the main emphasis of this chapter. Studying global,
African, and Ghanaian literatures can help put the reviewed literature in perspective. The
understanding of absenteeism and academic performance in Northern Senior High schools,
however, is where the examined material begins. Based on its applicability to the subject of
study, the literature was chosen. Therefore, the review of this chapter is done in line with the
study's concepts.
2.1 Truancy levels on global, regional and national views

Every nation's educational system aims to enhance the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains of its citizens by providing people with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values
necessary to further their own nation's development. Any kind of development requires
educated individuals. Education is hence development. People can be given fresh life and
opportunities through education, which also lessens the twin problems of poverty and
increases one's voice in society. In light of this, going to school becomes essential to the
development of any nation. As in the case of western education, Marah (2006) states that it is
necessary for teachers and pupils to be housed inside permanent school walls.
It is anticipated that teachers and students would maintain regular communication in order to
provide efficient monitoring and observation due to the permanent, organized walls. Both
teachers and students must be present on a regular basis for this to be implemented.
Staying in school is the first step to a good education, according to Teasley (2004). Students
are required by law to attend school every day in order to achieve academic excellence, but
truancy occurs when students miss out on scheduled activities. Regular attendance at school
provides youngsters with the best opportunity to learn new things and advance their skills, as
well as a significant step towards realizing their full potential.
They have a greater chance of making lots of friends and feeling included the more time they
spend with other kids, whether in the classroom or as a member of a school team or club.
This
Increase social skills, confidence, and self-esteem.
Different authors have approached the notion of truancy in different ways. "Deliberate
absence from school without parental knowledge" is the definition of truancy as given by the
International Dictionary of Education (2002). Similarly, truancy is defined as "when a student
stays away without permission, anyone who absent himself from work or duty without good
reasons, the knowledge of the authority" in the New Western Comprehensive Dictionary
Special Price Edition (2004).
According to the aforementioned definitions, truancy happens when a student skips class
without getting permission from their parents or other relevant authorities. According to
Carter (2000), truancy is commonly understood to mean: a student's wilful absence from
school without the knowledge or consent of their parents; or a student's absence from school
without a valid excuse. This last definition significantly broadens the definition and equates
truancy
With unexcused absence.
Adeyemo (1999) characterizes truancy as a delinquent behaviour that transpires when a child
frequently misses school without valid grounds.
These definitions highlighted specific aspects of truancy that need to be emphasized in order
to fully comprehend the idea. According to Carter's definition, the excuse for truancy is
invalid from the perspective of the parents and school administration, not the truant's.
Adeyemo (1999) distinguished between three categories of truancy: habitual, sporadic, and
casual.
The kind of truancy known as "habitual truancy" is when a student consistently misses school
without getting permission from his parents or other school officials. Students who
consistently miss many full days of academic classes are considered habitual truants.
It is important to note that students who are habitual truants have high chances of falling
behind in their school work, decline in their academic performance and even lose their
attachment or positive attitudes towards schools (Ezeani, 2006).

Occasional truancy occurs when a student does not constantly and continually absent himself
from school. In this type of truancy, the students’ level of absenteeism from school without
the permission of parents or school authority is irregular. Causal truancy occurs when the
students’ absence from school is by chance. This type of truancy or unexcused absence from
school is not regular and constant but happens by chance. For instance students who
remained lurking within sound of the school bell, so that they could attend those lessons,
which interested them (Ezeani, 2006).

According to Healy (2006), growing numbers of teachers in senior high school have express
concern that students are becoming uninterested in their class because of their commitment in
non academic activities outside the school. Acknowledging the severity of the truancy
problems, educators are exploring creative techniques to increase class attendance, such as
innovative teaching methods and better equipped classroom. Truancy behaviour of students is
an issue that affects many people, because truancy has been associated with various criminal
behaviours such as vandalism, burglary, drug use, gangsterism, cultism, raping and armed
robbery. Also truancy can be the symptoms for other emotional, mental, economic and family
situation. Echebiwe (2009) is of the view that truancy is detrimental to students’ achievement,
promotion, graduation, self-esteem and employment potentials. Clearly, students who miss
school fall behind their peers in the classroom. This in turn, leads to low self-esteem and
increases the likelihood that at risk students drop out of school. Truancy behaviour among
basic science students is at alarming rate. Echebiwe (2009) adds that children who engage in
truancy might have found life in classroom dull, boring and uninteresting. Also, they must
have found greatest pleasure and interest in activities outside the school and the classroom
environment. Such children usually leave their homes giving everybody the impression that
they have gone to school, but stooped on the way side to participate in what they like to enjoy
most. This they do until it is time for school dismissal and they return home. Some others are
caught playing round the street with others truants, engaging in gambling and loitering round
the school premises. This is because some truants get scared of some unfriendly treatment
from teachers, unpleasant encounters during classroom work, unnecessary harassment and
embarrassment by the senior students. These lead to loss of interest in academic by the
students.

Besides, some truants engage in truancy because of the feeling of inferiority among their
classmates, laziness to class work, challenges of classroom test and assignments, verbal abuse
and threats of classroom instruction, school phobia, anxiety, bullying, lack of skills needed to
perform well at school, lack of priority to education and academic. Tenibiaje (2009) opines
that the impact of truancy is very obvious and usually a negative one on the truants students,
parent and the society at large.
Truancy results in loss of intellectual development and lack of improvement of individual.
Also, it leads to poor academic performance at the end of school periods, school terms and
school year. Truancy as a threat to academic performance of the students is believed by
Nwachukwu (1998) to reduce the quality of education the child receives. It reduces the
standard of academic achievement of a child, it leads to the fall of educational standard in
schools. It increases the rate of examination malpractice and poor examination results in both
internal and external examination. Truancy is also a factor that contributes to joblessness,
unemployment and underemployment of most adults today, just because they engaged in the
act of truancy during their school days.

According to Phurutse (2005: 14), learner absenteeism was caused by three factors which
were as follows: individual and personal characteristics, socio-economic reasons and school
based reasons. Phurutse (2005: 18) maintains that illness is a primary reason for legitimately
authorized absenteeism in South Africa and elsewhere. Age was mentioned as another reason
for absenteeism because, according to Railsback (2004: 39), learners at the ages of 16 to 17
years were prone to absenteeism but in practice learners as young as 13 were adversely
affected by absenteeism and truancy.

Morris and Rutt (2004: 94) argue that gender was one of the individual and personal reasons
for absenteeism but he did not substantiate how gender contributed to learner absenteeism.
Morris and Rutt (2004: 96) maintain that males were more likely to be absent without
authorization. He emphasize that the difference is not statistically significant but indicate that,
to a lesser extent, violence and sexual assault could increase the rate of absenteeism among
female learners. According to Railsback (2004: 39), learners who are not necessarily
struggling in their work were absent; learners from wealthy families had psychological
problems, poor social skills and low self esteem which resulted in their being absent. Socio-
economic reasons was the second group of factors contributing to learner absenteeism. These
factors were common in most poverty stricken communities.

According to Railsback (2004: 49), lack of parental involvement in the learner's education
plays a negative role in the achievement and attendance of learners. According to Malcolm et
al. (2003: 65), there is a link between parental and caregiver involvement in learner education
and attendance. Railsback (2004: 51) emphasises that when more adults are available in the
household, the more likely that the learner from that household would be in school as
required.
In Africa, students are also faced with the problem of truancy as well. Truants, in this
continent tend to feel insecure and see themselves as ‘outcasts and rejected at schools’ as
learners often feel confused and lost and do not know where to turn for help (Van Breda,
2006). It was further found that the primary cause of truancy was the school system itself.
Keys concluded that the contributing factors of truant behaviour were school policies, rules,
and curriculum and educator characteristics. The author also showed that classrooms that
rated high in competitiveness and educator control, and relatively low on educator support
had higher truancy rates. Britten (2002) found that educator unpleasantness and antipathy
towards certain learners were significant factors in truant behaviour. Ryan (2001) found that
institutional factors such as teachers, boring subjects, gang affiliation, and detention
contributed to truancy among secondary students in South Africa.

According to Kabungo (2018), when talking about the teacher approach, the MOE document
Zambia education curriculum framework (2013) says “this means that everything that the
teacher does must be focused on what learners want to know, understand and be able to do
successfully”. It further states that “when teachers plan and teach, they should focus on
helping learners acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and dispositions that will enable
them achieve the desired outcomes”. Some methodologies and teachers approach may not be
understood by the students and in this sense hence this can easily make them start missing
classes. This is because there are times when teachers go to class so that they can be marked
present without doing anything sensible there. Some teachers teach a subject they do not like
at all that is why they teach without a means of motivation to the learners. Some do not even
care if learners understand what they teach or not.
2.2 Challenges faced by teachers due to truancy among learners
Since the inception of accountability and testing in the world of education began, efforts to
evaluate teachers based on student achievement have become a primary focus (Kuppermintz,
2003). This move has resulted in the growth of educational outcome indicators. While most
schools and districts have yet to develop and implement viable performance indicators
(Meyer, 1996), value-added models have begun to be used. Of the various value-added
models used in the literature, a common characteristic is that they measure the school
performance or the school inputs using a statistical regression model which includes many
variables as possible in order to isolate the contribution of schools from other sources of
student achievement (Meyer, 1996).
Truancy is one of the major antisocial discipline problems among senior high school students
in Ghana. The concept and acts of indiscipline have received a lot of attention by researchers.
Peck opined that the various behavioural disorders like stealing, violence, drug abuse,
examination malpractice, sexual abuse and truancy have so undermined effective teaching-
learning processes that some teachers have become helpless and disorganized in their task of
impacting knowledge to the learners. Learner absenteeism affects the absent learner, but also
negatively impacts on the teacher’s ability to plan and present classroom instruction in a
logical and organized way. Failure to present classroom instruction in a sequential manner
affects the absent learner and negatively impacts on the teacher’s ability to plan and present
classroom instruction in a logical and organized way. Failure to present classroom instruction
in a sequential manner affects the progress of all learners as it complicates general classroom
management (Stronge et al., 2011).

There is abundant evidence that teacher effectiveness raises student achievement (Borman &
Kimbal, 2005). Effective teachers do make a difference in the lives of students. Marzano et
al., (2001) found that an individual teacher can have a powerful effect on students even if the
school does not. This important finding recognizes the importance of having qualified and
effective teachers in the classrooms. In recent years, research on teacher effectiveness has
reported a direct relationship to student learning (Stronge et al., 2011). It has been
documented how important effective teachers are to the success of students. While these
studies are just the tip of the iceberg to understanding the importance of teachers being
effective, the results reveal that both students and schools require quality teachers to excel.

Although there is a growing body of evidence about teacher effectiveness, in general, and
instructional planning, more specifically, there still remains a dearth of clear, direct evidence
regarding teachers’ lesson planning. Understanding the lesson planning process, and how to
intervene in the process to improve instruction, is helpful for both teachers and
administrators. This can be done through watching instruction and also through the pre-active
or planning phase. When it comes to research regarding the relationship between the planning
process and that which leads to effective instruction, there is a paucity of research available.
As Jasper (1986) stated, it is important to understand the relationship between the planning
process and effective instruction; until this relationship is understood, administrators and
supervisors cannot help teachers plan effectively. There also is concern in the field as it is not
really known how to differentiate good and bad plans, or how these plans play out in the
classroom, so principals cannot use only the lesson plan to effectively monitor instruction.
In order for an effective teacher to excel in planning and preparation, they must “design
instruction that reflects an understanding of the disciplines they teach the important concepts
and principles within that content, and how the different elements relate to one another and
those in other disciplines” (Danielson, 2007). The ability to transition between the various
related disciplines makes the task of designing a lesson more coherent. Another quality of
instructional effectiveness is the ability to design coherent instruction and sound assessment
in terms of the approach to topics which are appropriate to the developmental range of
students in the class. In addition, Stronge et al. (2011) make the claim that effective teachers
are able to increase clarity in their coherent instruction and assessment. Increasing the clarity
and having coherent instruction helps meet the needs of all students as it ensures logical
bonds between concepts, student understanding, and student focus for students at any level.
Truancy is one of the hindrances to effective planning by teachers and remains one of the
greatest challenges faced by teachers in the teaching and learning process (Stronge et al.,
2011).

2.3 Relationship between truancy and academic performance

Attending school forms an integral part in the performance and achievement of learners.
Attendance is also an important factor in school success among youth. Epstein and Sheldon
(2002: 31) indicate that better attendance was related to higher academic achievement for
learners of all backgrounds particularly for learners with lower socio-economic status. In
American context, starting from the kindergarten, learners who attend school regularly score
higher on tests than their peers who are frequently absent. Chronic truancy, which was
referred to as frequent unexcused absence, was a predictor of undesirable outcomes in
adolescence, including academic failure, school drop-out, substance abuse, gang involvement
and criminal activities (McCluskey et al., 2004).

Tenibiaje (2009) opines that the impact of truancy is very obvious and usually a negative one
on the truants students, parent and the society at large. Truancy results in loss of intellectual
development and lack of improvement of individual. Also, it leads to poor academic
performance at the end of school periods, school terms and school year. Truancy as a threat to
academic performance of the students is believed by Nwachukwu (1998) to reduce the
quality of education the child receives. It reduces the standard of academic achievement of a
child, it leads to the fall of educational standard in schools. It increases the rate of
examination malpractice and poor examination results in both internal and external
examination. Truancy is also a factor that contributes to joblessness, unemployment and
underemployment of most adults today, just because they engaged in the act of truancy
during their school days.

In the US, factors, which contributed to learner absenteeism, include family health, financial
26 concerns, poor school climate, drug and alcohol abuse, transportation problems and
differing community attitudes towards education (Teasly, 2004). There is evidence to suggest
that in the US differences by disability status had a stake in learner absenteeism. Learners
classified as having a disability were more likely than students without a disability to have
missed three or more school days within the past month. In 2012, 30% of eighth-graders with
a disability reported missing three or more school days within the past month compared to
52% of students without a disability (Baker et al., 2007).

In the US, difference by school-wide percentage of students eligible for free or reduced price
lunch yielded variations in the rate of learner absenteeism. Learners attending schools where
more than 75% of the learners were eligible for free or reduced price lunches a proxy for
poverty, same as feeding scheme in Southern Africa were reported frequently absent. These
learners were more likely to report missing three or more days of school than were learners
attending schools with a 15% or lower eligibility rate (Ready, 2010). Ready (2010) contends
that 30% of eighth-graders and 32% of fourth-graders at school with a greater than 85%
eligibility rate, compared with 20% and 19% respectively, of their counterparts in school
where 15% or fewer learners were eligible were reported to be chronic absentees.

To reduce learner absenteeism in American schools, the government set national goals which
had to be met in order to curb and prevent learner absenteeism (Reid, 2006:39). The No Child
Left behind Act enacted in January 2002 provides increased accountability for states, school
districts, schools and more flexibility for states and local agencies in how they use federal
education dollars. The Adequate Yearly progress measures hold elementary school and
middle schools accountable for learner absenteeism (Teasly, 2004). There is evidence to
suggest that in Australia over the recent years, there has been more time devoted to
researching a better understanding of learner absenteeism, truancy and dropping out of school
(Bond, 2004: 13). Teasly (2004) maintains that in the US no research answered the question
of whether some strategies to combat learner absenteeism worked better than others and if
there were resources which offered step-by-step guidelines for developing and improving
learner attendance. Reid (2006) argues that the available literature on learner absenteeism
presents a myriad of ideas and theories relating to tackling absenteeism but not a great deal of
evidence to reinforce their effectiveness. According to Reid, what remains apparent was that
raising attendance within schools was not a simple prospect.

Concealed absence is more prevalent to learners in high schools and when absenteeism
involves parent participation, comprehending the motives and reasons for such absences and
negotiating relevant responses by the school became different to those situations of hidden
truancy (Bonzos, 2005:17). According to the Auditor General Victoria (2004: 64), prolonged
habitual and persistent learner absenteeism could have deleterious effects in the child`s later
life. Absenteeism does not only negatively impact effective professional practice of teaching
and learning. Learners who are absent from school are at the greatest risk of dropping out of
school early and becoming long-term unemployed as it is difficult, if not impossible, to
secure a decent job without proper educational background (Bond, 2004).

Learners who drop out of school early also run the risk of being trapped in poverty. Such a
learner in his/her adult life would much likely depend on welfare and social agencies for
survival. Such learners also run the potential risk of being involved in crime, which would
impact negatively on the justice system as it is very costly to maintain an inmate (Bonzos,
2005: 21). Regular school attendance is of utmost importance for learner’s education and
their social skills development. It is evident that non-attending learners are placed at a
disadvantage socially and academically. Such learners miss critical stages of interaction and
development with their peers and likelihood of academic progress and their success is
compromised. The absent learner’s lack of academic success breeds low-self-esteem, social
isolation and dissatisfaction that can trigger learner absenteeism (Bond, 2004: 178).

2.4 Summary

The literature review reveals that the problem of truancy is not unique to developing
countries in Africa. It is a global phenomenon that cuts across many nations. Management
should motivate employees in order to increase morale among them and this will increase
performance. The literature reviewed in this study was relevant in that it brought out specific
factors that can link truancy among learners and academic performance. However, the gap in
the literature review was presented in that most of the studies were related to stress among
teachers and not specific to truancy and its effects on student academic performance. Other
literature reviewed presented gaps in that they focused only on students’ truancy behaviours
without assessing their effect on academic performance.