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i

RECONSTRUCTING SCHOPENH AUER’S ETHICS

ii
iii

RECONSTRUCTING
SCHOPENH AUER’S ETHICS

Hope, Compassion, and Animal Welfare

Sandra Shapshay

1
iv

3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2019

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​090680–​1

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America

v

For Marcia Baron and Allen Wood, mentors and friends

vi
vii

CONTENTS

Preface ix
Citations to Schopenhauer’s Works xiii

Introduction 1
1. A Tale of Two Schopenhauers 11
2. Schopenhauer’s Pessimism in Light of
His Evolving System 37
3. Freedom and Morality 97
4. Compassionate Moral Realism 139
5. A Role for Reason in Schopenhauer’s Ethics 193
Conclusion 211

Bibliography 215
Index 221
vii
ix

PREFACE

This reconstruction of Schopenhauer’s ethics has been in the works

for nearly ten years, but my interest in Schopenhauer, and especially
his philosophy of value, dates back to a conversation that I had with
Arthur Danto while I was a graduate student at Columbia University.
We were discussing my interest in writing a dissertation on Kantian
aesthetics, which prompted him to ask: “Do you know who is the
most underrated and underappreciated philosopher in Western phi-
losophy?” I thought about this for a little while and then answered
gamely, “Hmmm . . . I don’t know . . . maybe Heidegger?” To which
he replied, “Schopenhauer!”
His somewhat enigmatic pronouncement sent me on a quest
to find the philosophical treasures locked up in this earlier Arthur’s
works, and my work focused at first on his aesthetic theory. But
I came to realize that it is his ethical thought that is probably the most
underrated part of this underrated philosopher, and the central aim
of this book is to defend an interpretation of his ethics as both an
original and promising contribution to the subject. Careful attention
x

P r e fa c e

to especially Schopenhauer’s value ontology is rewarding not just for

our understanding of the history of ethics in the 19th century but
also for contemporary reflection in metaethics. Hopefully this work
contributes somewhat to making Schopenhauer a less underrated
thinker.
I have received substantial help with this project over the years.
I am grateful to the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD)
for a Faculty Research Grant for research at the Schopenhauer-​
Archiv, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, in Fall 2009. Their support
also gave me the opportunity to have illuminating conversations
with Professor Matthias Koßler, President of the Schopenhauer-​
Gesellschaft. Thanks are due also to the College Arts and Humanities
Institute (CAHI) at Indiana University–​ Bloomington, which
awarded me a Faculty Fellowship in 2012, providing me a teaching
release to concentrate on early chapters of this book.
Also beneficial was the chance to try out the arguments in these
chapters at several conferences and symposia. Thanks are due to
Alistair Welchman, who organized the Brackenridge Workshop on
the philosophy of Schopenhauer, University of Texas at San Antonio,
2013, and to Judith Norman, Bernard Reginster, and other speakers
and audience members who pressed a number of objections to the
views in Chapter 4 at that event. A symposium on Schopenhauer’s
views on love and compassion at the University of Ghent in 2013,
organized by Bart Vandenabeele, also provided a wonderful oppor-
tunity for Alex Neill and myself to try out some of the arguments
in Chapter 3, and I’m indebted to audience members at that event
for excellent discussion. I am also appreciative of the opportunity
to present drafts of chapters at the North American Division of
the Schopenhauer Society at the APA Central Division meetings
organized by David Cartwright, and at New York University’s an-
nual conference on Modern Philosophy in 2014, organized by Don

x
xi

P r e fa c e

Garrett, Béatrice Longuenesse, and John Richardson. The session

chair, Desmond Hogan, my commentator, Julian Young, and the
lively audience at NYU helped me to refine Chapters 4 and 5. My
colleague Marcia Baron very kindly organized a workshop on Kant
and Schopenhauer’s Aesthetics and Ethics at the University of St.
Andrews in 2014, and I benefitted very much from discussion there
with Kyla Ebels-​Duggan, Kate Moran, Adrian Piper, Martin Sticker,
and Jens Timmerman. Finally, I’d like to thank the organizers of
the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 49th annual collo-
quium, for a chance to try out the ideas in Chapter 2, and to John
Richardson, whose astute commentary helped me to refine that
chapter enormously.
I am highly indebted to the few scholars who have paid sustained
and careful attention to Schopenhauer’s ethical thought, and espe-
cially to David Cartwright, Christopher Janaway, Julian Young, and
John Richardson, who read and commented extensively on drafts of
several chapters in this book. The interpretation on offer here also
developed in conversation with Alex Neill (with whom I co-​authored
an earlier version of Chapter 3), Matt Altman, Judith Norman,
Elizabeth Millán, Fred Schmitt, Marco Segala, Alistair Welchman,
Dennis Vanden Auweele, Eric von der Luft, and Gudrun von Tevenar,
as well as with wonderful graduate students at Indiana University–​
Bloomington, Sarah Adams, Uri Eran, Tristan Ferrell, Noam Hoffer,
Daniel Lindquist, Sean Murphy, and Levi Tenen.
Thanks are due to my editor at Oxford University Press, Lucy
Randall, who checked in with me at regular intervals for several years,
and who has shepherded this project to completion with the utmost
professionalism. I’d like also to signal my appreciation to my daugh-
ters, Molly and Marlena, who support their “working mom” every
day with their warmth, intelligence and zest for life, and to my hus-
band, Steve, for being a true partner in all things.

xi
xii

P r e fa c e

Finally, this book would likely not have been possible without the
intellectual and moral support of my two philosophical role models,
colleagues, and friends, Marcia Baron and Allen Wood. And even
if the book would have been possible without them, it would have
been a far worse book had they not conversed with me extensively
throughout the entire process.

xii
xii

CITATIONS TO SCHOPENHAUER’S WORKS

Works by Schopenhauer are referenced in the text parenthetically,

using the abbreviations listed below. Where available, I have used the
standard English translations in the Cambridge Edition of the Works of
Schopenhauer, general editor Christopher Janaway.
EFR Schopenhauer’s Early Fourfold Root: Translation and
Commentary [Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom
zureichenden Grunde] (original dissertation 1813), ed.
and trans. F. C. White (London: Ashgate, 1997).
FR On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason
[Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden
Grunde] (1847/​1864), in On the Fourfold Root of
the Principle of Sufficient Reason and Other Writings,
ed. and trans. David Cartwright, Edward Erdmann,
and Christopher Janaway (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2015), 1–​198.
FW Prize Essay on the Freedom of the Will [Über die Freiheit
des Willens] (1839), in The Two Fundamental Problems
of Ethics (1841/​1860), trans. Christopher Janaway
xvi

C i tat i o n s t o S c h o p e n h a u e r’ s W o r k s

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009),

31–​112.
GB Gesammelte Briefe, ed. Arthur Hübscher
(Bonn: Bouvier, 1978).
HN 1-​5 Der handschriftliche Nachlaß, 5 vols., ed. Arthur
Hübscher (Frankfurt am Main: Kramer, 1970).
MR 1-​4 Manuscript Remains, 4 vols, ed. Arthur Hübscher and
trans. E. F. J. Payne (Oxford: Berg, 1988). This is a
translation of HN vols. 1–​4.
OBM Prize Essay On the Basis of Morals [Über die Grundlage
der Moral] (1840), in The Two Fundamental Problems
of Ethics (1841/​1860), trans. Christopher Janaway
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009),
113–​258.
PP I Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical
Essays [Parerga und Paralipomena] (1851), ed.
and trans. Christopher Janaway and Sabine Roehr
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
PP II Parerga and Paralipomena [Parerga und Paralipomena]
(1851), ed. and trans. Adrian Del Caro and Christopher
Janaway (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2015).
SW 1–​7 Sämtliche Werke, ed. Arthur Hübscher
(Mannheim: Brockhaus, 1988), vols. 1–​7.
VC On Vision and Colours [Über das Sehn und die Farben]
(1816/​1854), ed. and trans. David Cartwright,
Edward Erdmann, and Christopher Janaway
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015),
199–​302.
WN On Will in Nature [Über den Willen in der Natur]
(1836/​1854), ed. and trans. David Cartwright,
Edward Erdmann, and Christopher Janaway

xiv
xv

C i tat i o n s t o S c h o p e n h a u e r’ s W o r k s

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015),

303–​460.
WWR I The World as Will and Representation [Die Welt als
Wille und Vorstellung], vol. I (1818/​1844/​1859), ed.
and trans. Christopher Janaway, Judith Norman, and
Alistair Welchman (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2014).
WWR II The World as Will and Representation [Die Welt als
Wille und Vorstellung], vol. II (1844/​1859), trans. E. F.
J. Payne (New York: Dover, 1966).

xv
xvi
xvi

RECONSTRUCTING SCHOPENH AUER’S ETHICS

xvi
1

Introduction

At the apex of his influence, from about 1860 up to the start of World
War I, Arthur Schopenhauer was known first and foremost as a phi-
losopher of pessimism, sparking an entire “pessimism controversy”
in German philosophy in the latter part of the 19th century.1 Still
today, his main reputation is as one of the few philosophers to have
argued that it would have been better never to have been, for “life is a
business which does not cover its costs” (WWR II, chap. 46, 574).
Otherwise put, since most of life is purposeless striving and suffering,
and there is no God to redeem it all in another life, ascetic resignation
from the will-​to-​life is the most justified response. This none-​too-​
cheerful outlook famously captured the attention of Nietzsche, who
spent much of his philosophical energies countering Schopenhauer’s
resignationism, and devising ways authentically to affirm life, in spite
of what he thought was Schopenhauer’s mostly correct diagnosis of
the human condition.2

1. For a detailed account of this controversy see Frederick C. Beiser, Weltschmerz: Pessimism in
German Philosophy 1860–​1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
2. For two excellent accounts of Nietzsche’s grappling with Schopenhauer’s pessimism up
through his late works, see Christopher Janaway, Beyond Selflessness: Reading Nietzsche’s
Genealogy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007) and João Constâncio, “Nietzsche
and Schopenhauer: On Nihilism and the Ascetic ‘Will to Nothingness,’” in The Palgrave
Schopenhauer Handbook, ed. Sandra Shapshay (London: Palgrave-​ Macmillan, 2017),
425–​446.

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