The Skeletal System

Dr Wisam Nabeel Ibrahim

Department of Biomedical Science
College of Health Sciences
Qatar University
Email: [email protected]
Lecture I
 Expected Learning Outcomes
• List the major functions of the skeletalsystem
• Name the four main classifications ofbones
• Identify the major features of a longbone
• Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone
and its chemical composition (including calcium
metabolism)
• Name and identify different types of bonemarkings.
• Describe briefly the process of bone ossification
and bone formation, growth and remodeling
throughout life
• consist of bones, joints, cartilages, tendons and
ligaments
• Bone is a specialized connective tissue performing
several basic functions.
• Bone tissue makes up about 18% of the weight of the
human body
 Bones
Bones are organs made of hard connective tissue.

Functions of Bones:
• Support – provides hard framework
• Protection of underlying soft body parts and organs
• Movement – skeletal muscles use bones as levers
• Mineral storage – reservoir for important minerals
• Blood-cell formation – bone contains red marrow
• Energy reserves - Yellow bone marrow consists
mainly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides.
 Classification of the Bones

• Long bones are longer than wide – a shaft with

two ends (e.g., the femur, humerus,
metacarpals, metatarsals etc.).
• Short bones are cube-shaped (e.g. the carpals,
tarsals).
• Flat bones have thin flattened ‘plate-like’
surfaces (e.g., the skull bones, ribs, sternum,
scapula, hipbone).
• Irregular bones have varied shapes, do not fit
into other categories (e.g., the vertebrae, facial
bones.
Classification of Bones
 Types of bone cells

1. Osteoprogenitor cells – Mesenchyme stem cells that

divide to produce osteoblasts

2. Osteoblasts – Buildup bone matrix - secret osteoid and

deposit calcium salt (osteogenesis)- reduce blood Ca.

3. Osteocytes – mature bone cells - maintain bone daily

metabolism, exchange of nutrients and wastes with the
blood.

4. Osteoclasts – (WBC) - large cells that Release lysosomal

enzyme & acids to reabsorb or break down bone
matrix- increase blood Ca
 Bone Matrix
A. 2/3 of bone matrix is inorganic portion – calcium salts

account for the rigidity of bone that provide its compressional

strength.

B. 1/3 of the bone matrix is the organic component called

Osteoid - collagen protein, proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
These account for tensile strength by resisting stretching and
twisting and contribute to its overall flexibility.
• Epiphysis: over at the proximal
and distal end of the bone and
usually forms part of the joint
with next bone. separated from
the rest of the bone by a layer of
growth cartilage known as
growth plate.
• Metaphysis is the neck portion
of a long bone between the
epiphysis and the diaphysis. It
contains the growth plate.
• Diaphysis: long, cylindrical and
located at the central portion of
the long bone. Also known as
bone’s shaft.
• Periosteum: a tough sheath of
dense irregular connective tissue
that cover bone except at the joint
which is covered by articular
cartilage.

• The periosteum protects

the bone, assists in
fracture healing and
supplies nutrients to the
bone since it is perfused by
blood vessels
Structure of a Typical Long Bone

• Medullary cavity: Hollow

cavity filled with marrow
• Membranes: Periosteum,
Sharpey’s fibers, and
endosteum
 Medullary cavity
• located in the space within the diaphysis at the centre
of the bone and contains the bone marrow.
• serve as the site of hematopoiesis and fat storage
• Endosteum covers the inner surface of the bone
medullary cavity. It is made up of connective tissue
and contains a single layer of osteoblasts.
• Osteoclasts present in the endosteum in regions of
active bone resorption.
 Compact bone/cortical bone
 Spongy bone/ cancellous – honeycomb of
trabeculae
• built by number of circular concentric rings of bony
tissue surrounding a central canal known as osteons.
Microscopic Structure of Compact Bones

The concentric rings surrounding the central canal known as lamellae

• The central canal is called
Harvesian canal.
• Between the lamellae, there are
small spaces called
lacuna (little lakes) which contain
the osteocytes.
• Several channels draining and
extending out of the
lacuna in all directions are known
as canaliculi (small channels).
• Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves from the
periosteum infiltrate compact bone through transverse
perforating canals also known as Volkmann’s canals
 Makes up most of the bone tissue in short, flat, and
irregularly shaped bones, and the head (epiphysis) of
long bones; also found in the narrow rim around the
marrow cavity of the diaphysis of long bone
 The matrix forms an open network of
trabeculae
 Trabeculae Does not haveosteons no blood
vessels
 Function: reduces overall bone weight for smooth
movement and support & protect red bone marrow
 Bone Development

• Ossification (osteogenesis) – bone-tissue formation:

• Membrane bones – formed directly from mesenchyme

• Intramembranous ossification (ex. cranial bones and
clavicle)

• Other bones – develop initially from hyaline cartilage

• Endochondral ossification (ex. majority of bones including
epiphyseal plate)
Intramembranous Ossification
Endochondral ossification
Stages in Endochondral Ossification
Postnatal Growth of Endochondral Bones
• During childhood and adolescence
• Bones lengthen entirely by growth of the epiphysealplates
• Cartilage is replaced with bone tissue as quickly as itgrows
• Epiphyseal plate maintains constant thickness
• Whole bone lengthens

• As adolescence draws to an end

• Chondroblasts divide less often
• Epiphyseal plates become thinner
• Cartilage stops growing
• Replaced by bone tissue
• Long bones stop lengthening when diaphysis andepiphysis
fuse
X-ray of a child’shand X-ray of a man’shand
Part II
 Bone Markings I

• Projections that provide attachment for

muscles and ligaments

• Projections that help form joints

• Depressions and openings for passage

of nerves and blood vessels
 Bone Markings II
Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment:
▪ Tuberosity - Large, rounded projection; may be roughened
▪ Crest - Narrow ridge of bone; usuallyprominent
▪ Trochanter - Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process (the
only examples are on the femur)
▪ Line - Narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than acrest
▪ Tubercle - Small, rounded projection or process
▪ Epicondyle - Raised area on or above acondyle
▪ Spine - Sharp, slender, often pointed projection
▪ Process - Any bony prominence
Projections that help to form joints:
▪ Head - Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
▪ Facet - Smooth, nearly flat articularsurface
▪ Condyle - Rounded articular projection
▪ Ramus - Armlike bar of bone
 Bone Markings III
Depressions and openings (For passage of bloodvessels
and nerves):
▪ Groove - Furrow
▪ Fissure - Narrow, slitlikeopening
▪ Foramen - Round or oval opening through abone
▪ Notch - Indentation at the edge of a structure

Others:
▪ Meatus - Canal-like passageway
▪ Sinus - Cavity within a bone, filled with air andlined
with mucous membrane
▪ Fossa - Shallow, basinlike depression in a bone,often
serving as an articular surface
 The Skeleton

• Consists of bones, cartilage, joints, and ligaments

• Composed of 206 named bones grouped into twodivisions:

• Axial skeleton (80 bones)

• Appendicular skeleton (126bones)
 The Axial Skeleton

• Formed from80
named bones

• Lies in the midlineof

body

• Consists of skull,
hyoid bone, vertebral
column, and bony
thorax (ribs and
sternum)
 The Skull
• Formed by cranial and facialbones

Anterior aspect or view

 The Cranium & Facial Bones

• The cranium serves to:

• Enclose brain
• Provide attachment sites for some head and neckmuscles

• Facial bones serve to:

• Form framework of the face
• Form cavities for the sense organs of sight, taste, and smell
• Provide openings for the passage of air and food
• Hold the teeth
• Anchor muscles of the face
 Overview of Skull Morphology I
• Facial bones form anterior aspect
• Cranium is divided into cranial vault and the base
• Internally, prominent bony ridges divide skull into three distinct
cranial fossae

• The skull contains smaller cavities

• Middle and inner ear cavities – in lateral aspect ofcranial
base
• Nasal cavity – lies in and posterior to the nose
• Orbits – house the eyeballs
• Air-filled sinuses – occur in several bones around thenasal
cavity (Four paranasal air sinuses)
 Overview of Skull MorphologyII

• The skull contains approximately 85 namedopenings

• Foramina, canals, and fissures
• Provide openings for important structures:
• Spinal cord
• Blood vessels serving the brain
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves
 Cranial Fossae

Anterior

Middle

Posterior
 Cranial Bones
• Formed from eight large bones:
• Paired bones (X 2) include
• Temporal bones
• Parietal bones
• Unpaired (single, x 1) bones include
• Frontal bone
• Occipital bone
• Sphenoid bone
• Ethmoid bone
• The cranial bones are incompletely fused in infants, leaving
soft spots called fontanelles.

• Air sinuses are found in the cranium. They reduce the

weight of the skull and give resonance to the voice.
 Cranial bone sutures

• Three main sutures of the cranium:

• Coronal suture – runs in the coronal plane
• Located where parietal bones meet the frontalbone

• Sagittal suture – occurs where right and left parietal bones

meet superiorly

• Lambdoid suture – occurs where the parietal bones meetthe

occipital bone posteriorly
The Skull: Posterior View
Inferior Aspect of theSkull
Lateral Aspect of theSkull
 Facial Bones

• Unpaired bones
• Mandible and vomer
• Paired bones
• Maxillae, zygomatics, nasals, lacrimals, palatines, and inferior
nasal conchae
 Paranasal Air Sinuses

▪ Frontal
▪ Ethmoidal
▪ Sphenoidal (single inmidline)
▪ Maxillary (largestone)
 The Hyoid Bone
• Lies inferior to themandible
and superior to the larynx

• The only bone with nodirect

articulation with any other
bone

• Acts as a movable base for

the tongue, and serves as a
point of attachment of
muscles used in swallowing.
 The Vertebral Column
• Formed from 26 separate bones in the adult
• Transmits weight of trunk to the lower limbs
• Surrounds and protects the spinal cord

• Serves as attachment sites for muscles of the neck and back

• Held in place by:
1. Ligaments (fibrous)
• Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments
• Ligamentum flavum
2. Synovial joints
3. Inter-vertebral discs (cartilaginous)
The Vertebral Column
General Structure of Vertebrae
 Intervertebral Discs

AF
NP

• Cushion-like pads between vertebrae

• Act as shock absorbers
• Compose about 25% of height of vertebralcolumn
• Composed of nucleus pulposus* (an inner gelatinous material)and
annulus fibrosis (an outer ring of fibrocartilage)
 Regions and Normal Curvatures
• Vertebral column is about 70 cm (28inches)
• Vertebral column is divided into five majorregions:
• Cervical vertebrae – 7 vertebrae of the neckregion
• Thoracic vertebrae – 12 vertebrae of the thoracicregion
• Lumbar vertebrae – 5 vertebrae of the lowerback
• Sacrum – inferior to lumbar vertebrae – formed of fivefused
vertebrae - articulates with coxal (hip)bones
• Coccyx – or tailbone - most inferior region of the vertebral
column – formed of fused 3-4 vertebrae.

• There are regional characteristics of vertebrae -Specific regions of

the spine perform specific functions.
 Normal Vertebral Curvatures

• Four distinct curvatures give

vertebral column an S-shape
• Cervical and lumbar
curvatures– concave posteriorly
• Thoracic and sacral curvatures –
convex posteriorly
• Curvatures increase the resilience
of the spine
• In fetus, only thoracic and sacral
curvatures are found – C-shaped
fetus
 Normal Curvatures

Abnormal Curvatures
Cervical

Thoracic

Lumbar

Sacral
Scoliosis Kyphosis Lordosis
 The Rib Cage

The rib cage is composed of the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs

and their cartilages, and the sternum.
 The Ribs

• Consist of twelve pairs all connected to the thoracic vertebrae

• Ten pairs of ribs connect to the sternum via hyaline cartilage
“true and false”.
• The lower two pairs are “floating ribs” because they arenot
attached to the sternum.
 The Sternum (Breastbone)

• Protects the heart and lungs.

• It is shaped like a “dagger” made of the manubrium, the
body, and the xiphoid process.
THANK YOU