Chapter 6

Skeletal System: Bones and Joints

Components of Skeletal System

 Bones
 Cartilages
 Tendons
 Ligaments

Bones of the Skeletal System

Skeletal System Functions
1. Support
2. Protect
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production

Extracellular Matrix
 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal system are all connective
tissues.
 Their characteristics are largely determined by the composition of their
extracellular matrix.
 The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance, and other organic
molecules, as well as water and minerals.
 Collagen is a tough, ropelike protein.
 Proteoglycans are large molecules consisting of many polysaccharides attaching
to and encircling core proteins.
 The proteoglycans form large aggregates and attract water.
 The extracellular matrix of tendons and ligaments contains large amounts of
collagen fibers, making these structures very tough, like ropes or cables.

Cartilage Extracellular Matrix

 The extracellular matrix of cartilage contains collagen and proteoglycans.
 Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas the water-filled proteoglycans make it
smooth and resilient.
 As a result, cartilage is relatively rigid, but it springs back to its original shape
after being bent or slightly compressed.
 It is an excellent shock absorber.
Bone Extracellular Matrix
 The extracellular matrix of bone contains collagen and minerals, including
calcium and phosphate.
 The ropelike collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the bone.
 The mineral component gives bone compression (weight-bearing) strength.
 Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals called
hydroxyapatite.

Shape Classification of Bones

 There are four bone shape classifications: long, short, flat, and irregular.
 Long bones are longer than they are wide; examples are upper and lower limb
bones.
 Short bones are approximately as wide as they are long; examples are the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
 Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened shape; examples are bones of the
skull and sternum.
 Irregular bones include the vertebrae and facial bones, which have shapes that
do not fit readily into the other three categories.

Long Bone Structures

Diaphysis:
 Shaft compact bone
tissue (on outside)
Epiphysis:
 Ends spongy bone tissue
Articular cartilage:
 covers epiphyses reduces
friction
Epiphyseal plate: site
of growth between
diaphysis and epiphysis

Medullary cavity:
center of diaphysis red
or yellow marrow

Periosteum: membrane
around bone’s outer surface

Endosteum: membrane that

lines medullary cavity
 Structure of Long Bone

Bone Marrow
 Bones contain cavities, such as the large medullary cavity in the diaphysis, as
well as smaller cavities in the epiphyses of long bones and in the interior of other
bones.
 These spaces are filled with soft tissue called marrow.
 Red marrow is the location of blood forming cells.
 Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
  In newborns most bones have blood making red bone marrow.
 In adults red marrow in the diaphysis is replaced by yellow bone marrow.
 In adults most red bone marrow is in the flat bones and the long bones of the
femur and humerus.

Compact Bone Tissue

Location: outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and thinner surfaces of other bones
Osteon: structural unit of compact bone includes lamella, lacunae, canaliculus, central
canal, osteocytes
Lamella: rings of bone matrix
Lacunae: spaces between lamella
Canaliculus: tiny canals transport nutrients and remove waste
Central canal: center of osteon contains blood vessels
 Structure of Bone Tissue

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue

 Spongy bone
 It is located at the epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones.
 It has trabeculae, which are interconnecting rods, and spaces that contain
marrow.
 It has no osteons.
 Spongy Bone Tissue

Bone Cells
Osteoblasts: responsible for the formation of bone and the repair and remodeling of
bone.
Osteocytes: cells that maintain bone matrix and form from osteoblast after bone
matrix has surrounded it.
Osteoclasts: contribute to bone repair and remodeling by removing existing bone,
called bone reabsorption.
Bone Formation
 Ossification is the formation of bone by osteoblasts.
 Bone formation that occurs within connective tissue membranes is called
intramembranous ossification.
 Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline cartilage is called endochondral
ossification.
 Both types of bone formation result in compact and spongy bone.

Intramembranous Ossification
 Intramembranous ossification occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone
within connective tissue.
 This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
 Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers and begin
depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae.
 The process begins in areas called ossification centers and the trabeculae
radiate out from the centers.
 Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat skull bone and mature
skull bones result from fusion of these centers as they enlarge.
 The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they may enlarge or be replaced
by compact bone.

Bone Formation in the Fetus

Endochondral Ossification
 Endochondral bone formation is bone formation within a cartilage model.
 The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
 Initially formed is a primary ossification center, which is bone formation in
the diaphysis of a long bone.
 A secondary ossification center is bone formation in the epiphysis.

Steps in Endochondral Ossification

1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the chondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a primary ossification center forms
diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely ossified and remaining cartilage is
articular cartilage.

Endochondral Ossification of a Long Bone

Bone Growth in Width
 Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone
or other connective tissue.
 As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of bones between the
periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in width, or
diameter.
 This process is called appositional growth.

Bone Growth in Length

 Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source of increased height in
an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
 This type of bone growth occurs through endochondral ossification.
 Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
 Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.
 The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
 Much of the cartilage that forms around the enlarged cells is removed by
osteoclasts, and the dying chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts.
 The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone lamellae on the surface of
the calcified cartilage.
 This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.

Endochondral Bone Growth

Bone Remodeling
Bone remodeling involves:
• removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
• deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
• occurs in all bones
• responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
• repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
• calcium ion regulation

Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network between 2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts enter the callus and form cancellous
bone this continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and cancellous bone.
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
 Bone is a major storage site for calcium
 Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood levels of calcium
 Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone
 Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone
 Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin

Calcium Homeostasis

Bone Anatomical Terms

Foramen:
• hole
• Example - foramen magnum
Fossa:
• depression
• Example - glenoid fossa
Process:
• projection
• Example - mastoid process
Condyle:
• smooth, rounded end
• Example - occipital condyle
Meatus:
• canal-like passageway
• Example - external auditory meatus
Tubercle:
• lump of bone
• Example - greater tubercle

Axial Skeleton
 The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the vertebral column, and the
thoracic cage.
 The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the braincase and those of the face.
 The braincase, which encloses the cranial cavity, consists of 8 bones that
immediately surround and protect the brain.
 The bony structure of the face has 14 facial bones.
 Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly connected to form the bulk of the
face.
 The mandible, however, forms a freely movable joint with the rest of the skull.
 There are also three auditory ossicles in each middle ear (six total).
Cranial Bones
Frontal bone
• Anterior part of cranium
Parietal bones
• Sides and roof of cranium
Occipital bones
• Posterior portion and floor of cranium
Temporal bones
• Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the cranium
• Temporomandibular joint
Sphenoid bone
• Forms part of cranium floor, lateral posterior portions of eye
orbits, lateral portions of cranium anterior to temporal bones
• Sella turcica
Ethmoid bone
• Anterior portion of cranium, including medial surface of eye
orbit and roof of nasal cavity
• Nasal conchae

Facial Bones
Maxillae
• Form upper jaw, anterior portion of hard palate, part of
lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors of eye orbits
• Maxillary sinus
Palatine bones
• Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral wall of nasal
cavity
Zygomatic bones
• Cheek bones
 • Also form floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit
Lacrimal bones
• Medial surfaces of eye orbits
Nasal bones
• Form bridge of nose
Vomer
• In midline of nasal cavity
• Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone
Inferior nasal conchae
• Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity
Mandible
• Lower jawbone
• Only movable skull bone

The Skull
The Skull
Paranasal Sinuses
Several of the bones associated with the nasal cavity have large cavities within them,
called the paranasal sinuses which open into the nasal cavity.
The paranasal sinuses are:
• Frontal
• Ethmoid
• Sphenoid
• Maxillary
 Paranasal Sinuses

Hyoid Bone
 The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U-shaped bone that is not part of the skull and
has no direct bony attachment to the skull or any other bones.
 The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being the only bone in the body
that does not articulate with another bone.
 The hyoid bone provides an attachment for some tongue muscles, and it is an
attachment point for important neck muscles that elevate the larynx.
Vertebral Column
 The vertebral column, or spine, is the central axis of the skeleton, extending
from the base of the skull to slightly past the end of the pelvis.
 In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones, grouped into five regions.
 The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar
and sacrococcygeal.
 The cervical region curves anteriorly.
 The thoracic region curves posteriorly.
 The lumbar region curves anteriorly
 The sacral and coccygeal regions together curve posteriorly
7 cervical vertebra
12 thoracic vertebra
5 lumbar vertebra
1 sacrum
1 coccyx
Atlas:
• 1st vertebra
• holds head
Axis:
• 2nd vertebra
• rotates head

Functions of Vertebral Column

 Supports body weight
 Protects the spinal cord
 Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
 Provides a site for muscle attachment
 Provides movement of the head and trunk
Vertebral Column
 Vertebra

Regional Differences in Vertebrae

 Sacrum

Thoracic Cage
 Protects vital organs
 12 pair of ribs
Sternum:
• breastbone

True ribs:
• attach directly to sternum by cartilage

False ribs:
• attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage

Floating ribs:
• not attached to sternum
 Thoracic Cage

Bones of the Pectoral Girdle

Scapula:
• shoulder blade
Clavicle:
• collar bone
Pectoral Girdle
 Scapula and Clavicle

Upper Limb Bones

Humerus:
• upper limb
Ulna:
• forearm
Radius:
• forearm
Carpals:
• wrist
Metacarpals:
• hand

Upper Limb Bones

 The Humerus

Ulna and Radius

 Bones of the Wrist and Hand

Pelvic Girdle
Where lower limbs attach to the body
Pelvis:
• includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
Ischium:
• inferior and posterior region
Ilium:
• most superior region
Acetabulum:
• hip socket (joint)
 Pelvis

Hip Bones
 Comparison of the Male Pelvis to the Female Pelvis

Lower Limb Bones

Femur:
• thigh
Patella:
• knee cap
Tibia:
• large lower leg
Fibula:
• small lower leg
Tarsals:
• ankle
Metatarsals:
 • foot
Phalanges:
• toes and fingers

Lower Limb Bones

Bones of the Thigh

Bones of the Leg

 Bones of the Foot

Articulations
 Articulations (joints) are where two bones come together.
 Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial,
according to the major connective tissue type that binds the bones together and
whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is present.
 Joints are also be classified in functional categories according to their degree of
motion as synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or diarthroses.

Structural Classification of Joints

Fibrous joint:
• united by fibrous connective tissue
• subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses
Cartilaginous:
• united by means of cartilage
• subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis
Synovial:
• joined by a fluid cavity
• Most joints of the appendicular skeleton

Functional Classification of Joints

Synarthrosis:
• non-movable joint
• Example – skull bone articulations
Amphiarthrosis:
• slightly movable joint
• Example - between vertebrae
Diarthrosis:
• freely movable joint
• Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations

Fontanels and Sutures

Structure of a Synovial Joint
Types of Synovial Joints
Types of Movement
Flexion: bending
Extension: straightening
Abduction: movement away from midline
Adduction: movement toward the midline
Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms down
Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis

Types of Movement
Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints
1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes