Aldersgate College Mathematics in the Modern World

College of Arts, Sciences and Education

Module 5: Mathematics as a Tool: Geometric Design

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
a. Apply geometric concepts especially isometries in describing and creating designs; and
b. Appreciate the contribution of geometric designs to the enrichment of the Filipino culture and
arts using concepts in geometry.

Learning Focus:
Mathematics is integrated in the symbology of culture and arts. In arts, counting and patterns
are the needed elements to produce the design and style. They are used to project aesthetics and logic
of any craft and create the real meaning of the structure especially of an artist. Culture utilizes
mathematics to enumerate and indicate the parts of a process of any practice and activities to show
and appreciate the repetitions on which way to start and where to end the flow. The direct and indirect
presence of parallelism, symmetry and similarity of process and structure tells us that there is
mathematics in arts and culture. The arrangement of colours, scaling, measurement and quantity of
materials required prove that mathematics exists.
In our culture, mathematics has really influenced a lot. The weaving of a localized materials
employs finite designs and repeating patterns in art forms that are based on symmetry and colored
symmetrical structures. The different algebraic structures can be used as a framework to distinguish the
artwork from a particular cultural community focusing on mathematics inherent in local designs that can
promote better appreciation for Philippine heritage and culture.
Mathematical ideas contribute to art like patterns, symmetry, tiling, geometry, Islamic art, higher
order geometry and topology; fractals, Fibonacci numbers and golden ratio. Mathematical operations
occur every day also in arts and even in science. In art, it is often used as an aesthetic element like a
kind of balance in which corresponding parts are not necessarily alike but only similar, a balance
between two objects.
In geometric shapes repeated tiling, the mathematical elegance of these designs is based on
grids constructed using only ruler or a pair of compasses. A tessellation is a covering of the plane by
shapes, called tiles so that there are no empty spaces and overlapped pieces. It represents the
dimensionality of space and with the mind’s ability to convert three-dimensions to two-dimensions.
The mathematics fractals have been used to remind us that the logic why buildings exist with
universal appeal and visually satisfying is because they provide a sense of scale.
The utility of mathematics goes beyond the mundane. Mathematics enables the development
of codes and ciphers that are useful to individuals and society. Mathematics exists anywhere, anytime
and in anything.

Geometry Concepts:
Geometry can help enhance one’s artistic prowess as well as enrich one’s own culture.
According to Rachel Bernstein and Eunice Lee (2011), Geometry is everywhere. We can train
ourselves to find the geometry in everyday objects and in works of art. Line, shape, form, pattern,
symmetry, scale, and proportion are the building blocks of both art and math. Geometry offers the
most obvious connection between the two discipline. Both art and math involve drawing and the use of
shapes and forms, as well as an understanding of spatial concepts, two and three dimensions,
measurement, estimation and pattern. Many of these concepts are evident in an artwork’s composition,
how the artist’s uses the elements of art and applies the principle of design. Problem – solving skills
such as visualization and spatial reasoning are also important for artists and professionals in math,
science and technology. By taking an interdisciplinary approach to art ans geometry, students can
identify and apply authentic connections between the two subjects and understand concepts that
transcend the individual disciplines.

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Building Blocks of Art:

Line
Lines vary in width, length, curvature, color, or direction.
Shape

Is an element of design but is also a very powerful tool in visual communication. When looking
at an object or image, 'shape' is the very first retinal impression that the human eye registers before
color, texture, space or anything else. Shapes are created by an enclosed area or line. They have the
characteristic of length and width. 'Contours' are the outlines or outer edge of a shape. 'Silhouettes' are
shapes that are filled in with a single tone or a color, usually black.
Shapes/plane figures are two-dimensional figures in which all points lie in the same plane. Shapes can
be open or closed, free-form or geometric.

● Geometric Shapes have uniform measurements and

are usually man-made. These two-dimensional shapes
can be manipulated with mathematics but lack any visual
information with regards to their location, scale or
orientation.

● Graphic Shapes are visual images or designs that

serve as a pictorial representation or may give the
viewer information when written words are not
adequate. Symbols stand for ideas, beliefs or actions.
Logos are emblems or symbols commonly used by
commercial enterprises, organizations or even
individuals to aid and promote instant public recognition.

● Organic Shapes are associated with the natural

world and may or may not have a name. These
free-form shapes have very few straight lines,
such as with leaves, plants, trees or animals.

Form
Forms/Space or solid figures are three-
dimensional (havinf height, width and depth), enclose
volume (or mass), and help us to understand physical
space. For example, a triangle, which is two-dimensional,
is a shape. But a pyramid, which is three-dimensional, is a

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form. Cubes, spheres, pyramids, cones, and cylinders are examples of forms. They can be literally
three-dimensional or they can have the illusion of three-dimensions.

Pattern and Repetition

Repetition is the recurrence of elements of art at regular intervals. When lines, shapes and
forms repeat in a predictable combination, they form a pattern. The pattern of this quilt is a tessellation,
a collection of shapes that fit together to cover a surface without overlapping or leaving gaps.
Tessellations can be seen in almost every brick wall, tiled floor or wall, quilt pattern, lace tablecloth,
fabric, and wallpaper pattern. Create your own tessellation using shapes that are congruent, or exactly
the same in size and outline. Make a simple tessellation using a regular polygon (a geometric shape in
shich all sides and angles look alike) such as a square, triangle, or rhombus (diamond) and trace the
shape repeatedly, side by side.

Balance
Balance is the arrangement of elements to create a sense of equilibrium and harmony. There
are three types of balance – symmetry, asymmetry, or radial symmetry.
a. Symmetry – it is a type of balance in which the shapes and patterns are identical on either
side of a central boundary; the two halves of a work mirror each other.
b. Asymmetry – it is an arrangement of parts in which the opposite sides, divided by a
central line, are not identical.
c. Radial symmetry – it is a form of symmetrical balance in which the elements of a
composition radiate from a central point in a regular, repeating pattern. Radial symmetry
can be found in nature in flowers, starfish, jellyfish, crystals, and snowflakes.
Proportion

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In art, proportion is the principle of design concerned with the size of relationships of parts of a
composition to each other and to the whole. In math, proportion is the ratio or the relation of one part or
another to the whole with respect to size, quantity, and degree.
Perspective
Perspective is a system for representing three-dimensional objects, viewed in spatial recession,
on a two-dimensional surface. The simplest form of perspective drawing is linear perspective, a system
that allows artists to trick the eye into seeing depth on a flat surface. Linear perspective uses sets
implied lines called converging or orthogonal lines that move closer together in the apparent distance
until they merge at an imaginary vanishing point in the horizon. One – point perspective uses lines that
lead to a single vanishing point; two-point perspective uses lines that lead to two different vanishing
points.

How to analyze geometric shapes

according to the level of geometric thinking?
Anlyzing geometric shapes can be done using the Van Hiele
Theory of Geometric Thinking. According to Pierre van Hiele, there are
five levels of thinking or understanding in geometry:

Level 0 – Visualization (Basic visualization or Recognition)

At this level, we use visual perception and nonverbal thinking. We recognize geometric figures
by their shape as a “whole” and compare the figures with their prototypes or everyday things (“it looks
like door”), categorize them (“it is / it is not a . . . “). We use simple language. We do not identify the
properties of geometric figures. We describe figures on the basis of their appearance.
Example: Squares and rectangles seem to be different.

Level 1 – Analysis (Description)

At this level we start analysing and naming properties of geometric figures. We do not see
relationships between properties. We think all properties are important. (There is no difference between
necessary and sufficient properties). We do not see a need for proof of facts discovered empirically. We
can measure, fold, and cut paper, use geometric software. We describe shapes on the basis of their
properties.

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Example: Rectangles have four right angles.

Level 2 – Abstraction (Informal Deduction or Ordering or Relational)

At this level we perceive relationships between properties and figures. We create meaningful
definitions. We are able to give simple arguments to justify their reasoning. We can draw logical maps
and diagrams. We use sketches, grid paper, and geometric software. We recognize the importance of
properties and the relationships among them, which assist students in logically ordering the properties
of the shapes.
Example: Simple deduction can be followed, but proof is not understood.

Level 3 – Deduction (Formal deduction)

At this level, we can give deductive geometric proofs. We are able to differentiate between
necessary and sufficient conditions. We identify which properties are implied by others. We understand
the role of definitions, theorems, axioms and proofs. We attain logical reasoning ability and proves
theorems deductively.
Example: Proofs can be written with understanding.

Level 4 - Rigor
At this level, we understand the way mathematical systems are established. We are able to use
all types of proofs. We comprehend Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. We are able to describe
the effect of adding or removing an axiom on a given geometric system. We establish and analyse
theorems in different postulations systems.
Example: Non Euclidean geometry can be understood.

Properties of the Levels

It is inherent in the Van Heile Theory that one considers the following properties.
1. Fixed sequence (order)
We cannot be at level N without having gone through level (N-1). Therefore, we must
go through the levels in order.
2. Adjacency
At each level, what was intrinsic in the preceding level becomes extrinsic in the current
level.
3. Distinction
Each level has its own linguistic symbols and its own network of relationships
connecting those symbols. The meaning of a linguistic symbol is more than its explicit
definition; it includes experiences which the speaker associates with the given symbol. What
may be “correct” at one level is not necessarily correct at another level.
4. Separation
Two persons at different levels cannot understand each other. The teacher speaks a
different “language” from the student who is at a lower level. The Van Hieles thought says that
this property was one of the main reasons for failure in geometry.
5. Attainment

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The learning process leading to complete understanding at the next level has five
phases – information, guided orientation, explanation, free orientation, integration, which are
approximately not strictly sequential.

Transformation
According to Jennifer Beddoe, (2003) in geometry, transformation refers to the movement of
objects in the coordinate plane.

Definitions of Transformation
Geometric transformations involve taking a preimage and transforming it in some way to
produce an image. There are two different categories of transformations:
1. The rigid transformation, which does not change the shape or size of the preimage.
2. The non-rigid transformation, which will change the size but not the shape of the preimage.

Types of Transformation
Within the rigid and non-rigid categories, there are four types of transformation. Three of them
fall in the rigid transformation category, and one is non-rigid transformation.

1. Rotation is rotating an object about a fixed point

without changing its shape or size.

2. Translation is moving an object in space

without changing its size, shape or orientation.
A translation is performed by moving the
preimage to the requested number of spaces.

3. Dilation is expanding or contracting an object

without changing its shape or orientation. This is
called resizing, contraction, compression,
enlargement or even expansion. The shape
becomes bigger or smaller.

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4. Reflection is flipping an object across a line

without changing its size or shape.

Congruent or Similar
Congruent
When one shape can become another using only Turns, Flips and/or Slides, then the two
shapes are congruent. (Using only Rotate, Reflect and/or Translate).

Similar
Two shapes are similar when we need to Resize for one shape to become another (we may
also Rotate, Reflect and/or Translate).

The Psychology of Shapes

From Siddanth Pillai (Kyla Darling, 2018), the most common shapes are rectangles, circles,
triangles, rhombuses, and hexagons. They can be broken down into something like the following:

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This psychology of shapes presents the shapes and their meaning. The perceived meanings
that rectangles/squares exude are balance and tradition, circles are for infinity, protection and feminity.
Triangles are for stability, energy and aggression. Rhombus are for vibrant and contemporary and
hexagon is for unity and balance.

According to Kayla Darling (2018) shapes are the bases of most images and designs. Different
shapes can evoke different meanings. Combining these shapes in different ways can create entirely
new meanings. For example, creating something out of rectangles and triangles could emphasize a call
to return to tradition.
Geometric Patterns
Geometric patterns are a collection of shapes, repeating or altered to create a cohesive design.

How to use geometric patterns in designs?

Kayla Darling enumerated 40 brilliant ways on how to use geometric pattern in the designs.

1. Use patterns to create images

Simple shapes, on their own, can be appealing; using

a variety of shapes to create a whole image, however, can
work even better. Liam Brazer’s Landshape illustrates
this well, using various shapes creates a vibrant
landscape. Keep in mind what kind of shapes will work
well for you subject and you can create something
spectacular.

2. Play with asymmetry

Not all geometric patterns have to be symmetrical;

sometimes creating something where shapes and lines
differ across the board can create a striking effect. This
poster illustrates the concept well, including mismatched
overlays and triangles across both sides to create
something more unique.

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3. Combine patterns with photos

Geometric patterns can be a great, creative way to

spice up ordinary photos. For example, Sorry Colour takes a
variety of photos and pastes them into shapes. The
collage ultimately offers an entirely different, unique
experience, giving the images more personality than if
they were displayed alone.

4. Use lighting and shadows creatively

Shadows and highlights can be used to enhance shapes and

sometimes create them, as shown by Seth Nickerson. Test
what you can do with shadows in your own patterns, from
making an almost 3D shape, to drawing attention to certain
parts of the image.

5. Connect shapes in unique ways

Shapes can create images; exploring how those

shapes connect can create new and interesting
effects. For example, Work Hard uses a variety of
geometric shapes, and creates a flowing image by
connecting them in different ways—for example,
connecting the edges of the title and the shape for
the individual’s head.

6. Make a Collage

Collage is a piece of art made by

sticking various different materials
such as photographs and pieces of
paper or fabric onto a backing. Try
making a collage out of different
shapes – something that guides

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viewers and makes your pattern easier to the eyes. Neo Lab, for example, uses diamonds of varying
sizes, connected by their sides.

7. Use Diagonals

Diagonals create a clear path for the eye to follow,

offering he bonus of a cohesive design. Finnish
Summer is a wonderful example, using diagonal
patterns projects a beautiful juxtaposition of images
and colors.

8. Create isometric patterns

Isometric patterns – or patterns that appear

to be three dimensional – can really make an
image pop, if used correctly. Isometric
Exhibition offers a great example, using
hard colors to create the illusion that the
shapes pop off the page. Used sparingly and
creatively, this can draw attention to specific
items or words.

9. Create patterns with font

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If you want to really stretch your creativity,

try using the typeface itself to create your
patterns. Next Level, Using a variety of
triangles and hard lines produces a jagged,
edgy effect. Creating patterns this way can
help with whatever tone you might like for
your site or product.

10. Play with symmetry

While asymmetry creates more free-

flowing, fun look, symmetry can be used
in geometric patterns to create something
more elegant. ICP showcases this
perfectly, especially on the cover, where
the top half of the image perfectly mirrors
the bottom.

11. Use patterns within patterns

If you want something more complex, including geometric

patterns within already existing shapes can be the way to go.
The top left and bottom right example are great examples, one
using squares to house patterns, the other using circles.

12. Keep it simple

Conversely, not everything has to be complex – simple

shapes can be just as appealing. There is beauty in
simplicity. Astrobrights Thank You Cards are great
examples, using only a few shapes and lines to create
appealing images.

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13. Think about different ways to use lines

Lines are the most basic elements of any shape; using

them creatively can help create new effects, and can create
a nice flow between images and information.
Europa is one great example, using simple lines to create
a candle—including the melting wax! Planetary Folklore is
another, creating a circle within the lines. Experiment with
simple lines, and see what you might be able to create.
14. Create a theme

Patterns on their own are great; patterns used

to connect images are even better, especially
when those patterns all relate to one another.
Take ADMCi, for example; the
images all have a connection through similar
colors and patterns that line their borders.
Choosing a pattern, and applying it
appropriately, can make formerly disparate
subjects connected, and can identify products
as “yours.”

15. Use Gradients

Everyone loves a good color

scheme; geometric gradients can
enhance that, making a gradient
background or image pop. Using
simple gradients between shapes, in
some cases makes the shapes
almost blend together, and in others
making them stand out even more.
For example, Carnival.

16. Create characters

Geometric patterns can create not only images but

also character.
Cubist Superheroes uses patterns to form already-familiar
individuals, but you’re not required to stick to existing
characters. Why not try making a mascot from simple
geometric shapes, and creating a simple guide from them, and
see where it takes you?

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17. Combine several different images

Shapes can be used to combine several

different images together – in ways that
may both be expected and unexpected.
Experiment with what images might work
well together – and how they might
change the image as a whole – and use
different shapes to make it all come
together.
For example, Jelle Martens
combines several different landscapes to create interesting collages.
18. Emulate and effect with shapes

Shapes can be incredibly effective if used to

resemble certain actions or consequences. For
example, Triangle uses a bunch of triangles to
replicate the effect of shattered glass. Using
shapes like this can add meaning and vibrancy to
images; at the very least, it creates a startling
picture.

19. Create a background

If you want something a little subtler, try sticking to

a simple geometric background. These can add a
little excitement to a website or presentation,
without being too obvious and distracting.

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20. Create overlapping shapes

Sometimes, all it takes is a simple trick to

create complexity – for example,
overlapping two shapes, illustrated
with Wanderlust. The image only
includes two hexagons, but the
overlap makes it look more complex
and refined. Experiment with how
different shapes overlap, and see
what might work for you.

21. Relate patterns to the subject

Try to give your pattern a purpose by relating it

directly to the subject. For example, La Fete du
Citron a Menton uses a leaf pattern to surround a
lemon, reflecting the subject matter.

22. Use patterns in the letters

You can create patterns within the letters, if
creating patterns with the letters themselves is too
busy for you.
For example, including simple lines on the
letter’s side.

23. Use a pattern to alter images

You can use patterns to alter parts of an already existing

image. Geometric Photography, for example, uses shapes to shift
around where certain pieces of the image are. Shifting different parts
of an image can create a different effect, and can create something
quite original.

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24. Choose colors that work together

Whenever using colors with geometric patterns, you’ll want to
make sure you have ones that work well together—especially if they
happen to be on shapes that border each other.
The second background on this page is a great example,
combining deep green and orange for a serious, professional look.
Poor color choice can be distracting, so brush up on color theory and
test how different colored shapes look against each other.
25. Use shapes that enhance the experience
Find shapes that fit and flow well together, and that create
a more seamless whole, rather than something that seems
thrown together. Ultra’s a wonderful example, with each
shape connecting to one another as you scroll down the page.

26. Create unique effects

You can use a lot of different styles and shapes to

create something completely your own. For example,
you can use shapes that create the illusion of a
reflection, such as in this case. Combining different
shapes, lighting, and colors can produce different
effects and illusions and gives you a lot of material to
work with.

27. Create a border

A border is a good way to enhance an image with shapes,

without being too distracting. Take Zeppe, for example, which
uses a geometric pattern to focus on its name.

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28. Add simple animation

With technology, we have the benefit of enhancing
various geometric patterns for the internet—like, for example,
adding simple, alternating animation between two geometric
patterns. Noir is a great example, as it uses a simple GIF to
switch between one set of lines and another, creating the
illusion of motion.

29. Make it subtle

Not everything has to be obvious; subtle shapes can be

just as effective as illustrated by Itaú Internacional, which
has shapes that nearly blend into the background. This flow
makes for a more professional look, while still adding some
creativity.

30. Use patterns to segment information

Patterns are a great way to separate and

categorize information, making it easier for viewers to
find.
Renováveis, for example, places each block of
information between diagonal lines. Nasty
Creatures takes a slightly different approach, with each
link being found in a separate blob of the “monster.”

31. Create hand-drawn patterns

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Traditional art appeals to nostalgia, and allows you to create something a bit more
personal, such as with these black-and-white vectors.

32. Use patterns to highlight certain elements

Patterns and lines are quite effective
at drawing the eye to certain elements. Oli
Lisher, for example, uses lines to draw
attention to the word “portfolio” and then
boxes in word examples. Think about what
elements in your work you’d like to highlight,
and use shapes to lead the eye to them.

33. Combine several patterns

You don’t have to stick to one
pattern—using multiple makes the image
more engaging. Showreel is a great
example, using a variety of circles,
splatters, and other shapes throughout
their site.

34. Choose uncommonly used shapes

No one says you have to stick

to the standard circles, squares, and
triangles; in fact, a design might work
better using less traditional shapes.
Fenix Music, for example, uses
speech bubbles and lightning bolts to highlight
certain elements, a design which works better
due to the connection to the subject matter.

35. Create a “web” between shapes

Lines are great at drawing the
eye to elements; why not use them to
create a web between different
subjects, like Kikk Festival does?

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Use it to make connections between several subjects, make a more appealing design, or
something else entirely.

36. Limit complex patterns

Complex patterns are great, but too many can be overwhelming. Fiore provides an
interesting. Know how and where to use your pattern, and you’ll be more likely to keep your
viewer’s attention.

37. Make it good in black and white

Not every pattern needs color; keeping it black and

white can be just as appealing, and can make a pattern
more widely applicable. Look at Helvetimart—the
pattern looks great without color, making the latter
unnecessary.

38. Incorporate real-life elements

If you want something that screams

“personal”, try including geometric patterns that
you see in your everyday workplace.
Take Yamaha, for example; the pattern on their
website matches the pattern on their building.

39. Accent other material

You don’t have to leave the
pattern on certain subjects—you can
branch across various products,
like Amie Bakery does, to make the
pattern more recognizable.

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40. Use patterns sparingly

Probably the simplest tip, but one of the easiest to

forget: less is more. Geometric patterns don’t
need to be plastered all over your page. The Tea
Factory is a great example of geometric patterns
done well, keeping them limited to their header.
Limit use to avoid overwhelming a viewer and to
give the patterns more impact.

Geometric concepts enriching Filipino Culture and Arts

According to Dr. De Las Penas (Versoza,2014) various geometric elements and algebraic
structures are present in the elegant colored repeating patterns of mat weaving. She highlighted the
fact that even without advanced mathematical training, the weavers are able to create, by hand,
complex geometric designs depicting advanced levels of geometry and algebra using a combination of
weaving and counting technique. Interestingly, these motifs are woven directly into the mats relying
only on a metal be print, without any need for paper or pencil. She stressed that an important feature
unique to Jama Mapun weaving is the “tupi” or fold. This fold allows the weaver to weave designs
directly into the mat by controlling the direction of a colored pandan leaf. This clever technique, she
perceives, will play a significant role in the development of mathematical theories in the geometry of
colored woven fabrics. It is clear that the Jama Mapun community can help enrich mathematical
education and research. Being part of this research, she and others found out the finite designs and
repeating patterns occurring in art forms of various Philippine ethnic communities are studied through
an analysis of their symmetry groups and colored symmetrical structures. The different algebraic
structures can be used as a framework to distinguish the artwork coming from a particular cultural
community. Another part of this research is the development of material for integrating an analysis of
Philippine art forms within the school or university curriculum. The interdisciplinary lessons can be used
to teach concepts of geometry and algebra, history, social studies, art and Philippine culture. It is
anticipated that this study’s focus on the mathematics inherent in local designs can promote better
appreciation for Philippine heritage and culture.

Geometry isn’t a subject one would immediately associate with the spiritual. The
Filipino weavers of centuries ago didn’t practice the geometry taught in schools today as we
know it, but they still abided by its universal principles found in nature. The fundamental unit
of a woven fabric is a basic geometric shape – the square. These woven square grids are
formed on a loom when vertical fibers, called the warp, meet horizontal fibers called the weft.
Thus the square forms the foundation of all woven textiles from any weaving community, just
as it does multiple geometric shapes. This repeating architecture of the square creates the
canvas upon which an incredible array of patterns can begin to emerge.

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