1 s2.0 S2352854022000626 Main

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ScienceDirect
Natural Gas Industry B 9 (2022) 427e447
www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/natural-gas-industry-b/
Research Article
Industrial status, technological progress, challenges, and prospects of

hydrogen energy
Caineng Zoua, Jianming Lia, Xi Zhangb,*, Xu Jina, Bo Xionga, Huidi Yua, Xiaodan Liua,
Shanyu Wanga, Yiheng Lia, Lin Zhanga, Sheng Miaoa, Dewen Zhenga, Hongjun Zhoub,
Jiani Songa & Songqi Pana
a
PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China
b
China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
Received 14 April 2022; accepted 25 April 2022
Available online 29 October 2022
Abstract
Under the requirements of China's strategic goal of "carbon peaking and carbon neutrality", as a renewable, clean and efficient secondary
energy source, hydrogen benefits from abundant resources, a wide variety of sources, a high combustion calorific value, clean and non-polluting,
various forms of utilization, energy storage mediums and good security, etc. It will become a realistic way to help energy, transportation,
petrochemical and other fields to achieve deep decarbonization, and will turn into an important replacement energy source for China to build a
modern clean energy system. It is clear that accelerating the development of hydrogen energy has become a global consensus. In order to provide
a theoretical support for the accelerated transformation of hydrogen-related industries and energy companies, and provide a basis and reference
for the construction of "Hydrogen Energy China", this paper describes main key technological progresses in the hydrogen industry chain such as
hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and application. The status and development trends of hydrogen industrialization are analyzed, and
then the challenges faced by the development of the hydrogen industry are discussed. At last, the development and future of the hydrogen
industry are prospected. The following conclusions are achieved. (1) Hydrogen technologies of our country will become mature and enter the
road of industrialization. The whole industry chain system of the hydrogen industry is gradually being formed, and will realize the leap-forward
development from gray hydrogen, blue hydrogen to green hydrogen. (2) The overall development of the entire hydrogen industry chain such as
hydrogen production, storage and transportation, fuel cells, hydrogen refueling stations and other scenarios should be accelerated. Besides, in-
depth integration and coordination with the oil and gas industry needs more attention, which will rapidly promote the high-quality development
of the hydrogen industry system. (3) The promotion and implementation of major projects such as "north-east hydrogen transmission", "west-
east hydrogen transmission", "sea hydrogen landing", and utilization of infrastructures such as gas filling stations, can give full play to the innate
advantages of oil and gas companies in industrial chain nodes such as hydrogen production and refueling, etc., which can help to achieve the
application of "oil, gas, hydrogen, and electricity" four-station joint construction, form a nationwide hydrogen resource guarantee system, and
accelerate the planning and promotion of the "Hydrogen Energy China" strategy.
© 2022 Sichuan Petroleum Administration. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Keywords: Green hydrogen; Hydrogen industry; Hydrogen production; Hydrogen storage and transportation; Hydrogen vehicles; Hydrogen application; Hydrogen
energy China; New energy revolution
This is the English version of the originally published article in Natural Gas Industry (in Chinese), which can be found at https://doi.org/10.3787/j.issn.1000-
09762022.04.001.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Xi Zhang).
Peer review under responsibility of Sichuan Petroleum Administration.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ngib.2022.04.006
2352-8540/© 2022 Sichuan Petroleum Administration. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communication Co. Ltd. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
428 C Zou et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 9 (2022) 427e447
1. Introduction hydrogen into the 14th Five-Year Plan and the 2035 Vision to
help to achieve the strategic goals of “peaking CO2 emissions
In recent years, extreme weather events have frequently and carbon neutrality” (hereinafter referred to as the “dual
occurred around the world. To achieve the goal of limiting carbon” goals). Owing to its vast territory, China has abundant
global warming to within 2 C by the end of the 21st century, renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, and tidal
many countries are making great efforts to promote the tran- energy. China's installed capacity for renewable energy ranks
sition of their energy system away from fossil fuels and toward first in the world, and it has great potential for supplying clean
low-carbon or carbon-free energy production. Especially in the and low-carbon hydrogen energy. At the 24th Winter Olympic
context of complex global geopolitics and ongoing local Games held in Beijing this year, China, adhering to the
regional conflicts, the structure of the global production and concept of hosting a green Olympics Games, used green
consumption of traditional fossil fuels and renewable energy hydrogen as the torch fuel, which showed the world China's
resources will be reshaped. The proportion of traditional coal, sincerity and efforts in fulfilling its carbon emission reduction
oil, and gas consumption may yet rise; however, the renewable commitments [1]. China has recently released a top-level
energy era will soon be here. Countries around the world will strategy for the country's hydrogen industry. Local govern-
recognize the extreme importance of energy security and will ments and enterprises are actively participating in the layout
unprecedentedly focus on energy production and consumption. of the hydrogen industry, gradually completing and improving
The revolution and industrialization of new energy technolo- the hydrogen technology chain. Thus, the hydrogen industry
gies will be highly valued and accelerated. chain is taking shape, and the strategy of “Hydrogen China”
As a renewable, clean, and efficient secondary energy has emerged.
source, hydrogen energy has many advantages: abundant To provide theoretical support to accelerate the develop-
sources, a high calorific value of combustion, clean and ment of hydrogen-related industries, accelerate the trans-
pollution-free usage, diverse utilization forms, the ability to formation of energy companies, and offer a basis and
be an energy storage medium, and safety. Therefore, it is an reference for the construction of Hydrogen China, this paper
important energy source for the energy transition and to explains the key technologies in the hydrogen industry chain,
achieve carbon neutrality. Hydrogen energy technologies are such as production, storage, transportation, and application,
being matured and gradually industrialized. As the world is and analyzes the current status and development trends of
faced with the increasing pressure brought by climate change hydrogen industrialization. This paper also discusses chal-
and natural disasters, hydrogen energy has attracted much lenges facing the development of the hydrogen industry and
attention and has become a strategic choice for the energy looks forward to its future with the aim of accelerating the
transformation of many countries. realization of global carbon neutrality.
According to the Global Hydrogen Review 2021 released
by the International Energy Agency and China's Medium and 2. Hydrogen production
Long-Term Plan for the Development of Hydrogen industry
(2021e2035), global annual hydrogen production is approxi- The hydrogen industry chain consists of production, stor-
mately 9000 104 t, of which China's annual production is age, transportation, refueling, and application. Hydrogen
3300 104 t (approximately 1200 104 t of the produced production technologies include production from fossil fuels,
hydrogen meets the quality standard of industrial hydrogen). production by water electrolysis, from industrial by-product,
According to a report produced by H2Stations on global and production from renewable energy resources, which are
hydrogen refueling stations, 142 new hydrogen stations respectively described below.
worldwide were opened in 2021, for a total of 685 stations
operating throughout the world. Asia has the highest number 2.1. Hydrogen production from fossil fuels
of hydrogen refueling stations (363 stations), which are
mainly located in China, Japan, and South Korea. There are Hydrogen production from fossil fuels refers to the
228 stations in Europe, mainly distributed in Germany, France, production of hydrogen through chemical pyrolysis or
the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. More gasification using fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural
than 20 countries or alliances around the world have released gas. The technical processes of this method are mature and
or formulated a national hydrogen energy strategy. The United low-cost. At present, most hydrogen is produced from fossil
States, which has long promoted the unique position and ad- fuels. However, large amounts of carbon dioxide are
vantages of hydrogen in the future energy system, has produced and emitted during this production process; thus,
captured market space in the hydrogen industry chain and the hydrogen produced from fossil fuels is called “gray
dominates the various technical links. The European Union, hydrogen”. When carbon capture and storage (CCS)
through early legislation on clean energy, supports the devel- technic is applied, the produced carbon emissions can be
opment of hydrogen energy and fuel cells. As early as 2017, effectively reduced; in this way, gray hydrogen can be turned
the government of Japan proposed a strategy of “building a into “blue hydrogen”. Hydrogen produced from fossil fuels is
hydrogen-based society ahead of other countries” and issued expected to be the main source of hydrogen for quite some
the Basic Hydrogen Strategy. In 2020, China incorporated time.
C Zou et al. / Natural Gas Industry B 9 (2022) 427e447 429
2.1.1. Hydrogen production from methane used in the production of hydrogen from coal gasification.
As the main component of natural gas, methane (CH4) has After undergoing the WGS reaction, the gas products are
the highest percentage of hydrogen content among all hydro- cleaned with low-temperature methanol, which is a low energy
carbons. Hydrogen production from methane by using natural consumption process, and CO2 and sulfur-containing gasses
gas as the raw material has the advantages of high hydrogen are removed.
production efficiency, low carbon emissions, and the capa- Hydrogen production from coal has been in development
bility for large-scale industrial production. Hydrogen produc- for more than 200 years and is thus quite mature. It is one of
tion processes from methane mainly include steam reforming the most economical technologies for large-scale hydrogen
of methane (SRM), partial oxidation of methane (POM), production and is especially suitable for countries such as
methane autothermal reforming (MATR), and methane cata- China that have an uneven distribution of fossil energy re-
lytic deposition (MCD). sources with abundant coal but insufficient oil and gas. The
The main hydrogen production processes from methane abundant and low-cost coal reserves make hydrogen produc-
and their advantages and disadvantages are shown in Table 1. tion from coal gasification economical; the cost of this type of
SRM is a process involving the catalytic conversion of hydrogen production is only RMB 8.3e19.5/kg [7]. However,
methane and steam to hydrogen and carbon oxides by using the equipment investment required for this technology rises
Ni/Al2O3 catalyst at high temperatures of 750e920 C and a with the expansion of the scale of hydrogen production, which
high pressure of 3.5 MPa [2]. The main steps are the gener- should not be ignored. In addition, the large amounts of CO2
ation of reformed gas or synthesis gas, wateregas shift (WGS) emissions and sulfur pollutants are a drawback. To reduce
reaction, and gas purification. SRM is a mature technology. energy consumption and improve hydrogen production effi-
POM is a process that converts steam, oxygen, and methane ciency, coal gasification with supercritical water will be a key
into hydrogen and carbon oxides and may follow catalytic or research direction for hydrogen production from coal [8].
non-catalytic reforming process depending on the reaction
with oxygen or steam. In the catalytic process, heat is provided
2.1.3. Hydrogen production from methanol
by controlled combustion, with a thermal efficiency of
Compared with natural gas and coal, secondary petro-
methane of typically between 60% and 75% [3]. MATR
chemicals such as methanol are abundant and easier to store
combines exothermic POM with endothermic SRM to increase
and transport. Hydrogen production from methanol has
hydrogen production and reduce costs through self-heating of
obvious advantages such as a low reaction temperature and a
the reaction system [4]. In MCD, methane is the only source of
simple hydrogen separation process; therefore, it has attracted
hydrogen; steam and oxygen are not involved. The process
much attention in recent years. At present, steam reforming is
does not produce carbon emissions and consumes less energy
the most widely used technical process for producing
than other processes [5]. Based on SRM, it will be the main
hydrogen from methanol [9]. Methanol and steam pass
trend for the simultaneous development of POM, MATR, and
through the catalyst bed at temperatures above 200 C. The
MCD depending on technological breakthroughs including in
main chemical reaction formulas are as follows:
the research and development (R&D) of efficient catalysts and
reaction devices to realize the combined advantage of effi- CH3 OH þ H2 O/CO2 þ 3H2 ð4Þ
ciency and economy.
Studies on the reaction thermodynamics and mechanism
have confirmed that the reaction is completed in two steps:
2.1.2. Hydrogen production from coal
methanol decomposition and the WGS reaction.
The main process of using coal to produce hydrogen is to
combine coal with oxygen or steam at high temperatures to
produce a gas mixture dominated by H2 and CO. High-purity Methanol decomposition CH3 OH/CO þ 2H2 ð5Þ
hydrogen is obtained after the gas mixture is subjected to
WGS reaction CO þ H2 O/CO2 þ H2 ð6Þ
WGS, acid gas removal, and hydrogen purification process [6].
The main reactions in for hydrogen from coal gasification are The process of methanol steam reforming is significantly
as follows: endothermic, and thus a stable heat supply must be ensured.
Catalysts for this technology are abundant and mainly include
Gasificationðmix with steamÞC þ H2 O/CO þ H2 ð1Þ nickel, palladium, and copper systems, such as CueZneAl
and CueNieAl. For the purification of hydrogen product, the
Gasificationðmix with oxygenÞC þ 1=2O2 /CO ð2Þ CO content can be removed through pressure swing adsorption
(PSA), WGS reaction, palladium membrane technology, and
WGS reactionCO þ H2 O/CO2 þ H2 ð3Þ CO methanation.
In the WGS reaction, the catalyst must have reliable ac- Hydrogen production from methanol features with advan-
tivity and a sufficient life cycle as well as sulfur resistance tages including its mature technology, abundant raw materials
capability owing to the sulfur content in coal. The sulfur- for convenient storage and transport, low reaction temperature,
tolerant WGS reaction process using the CoeMo catalyst high hydrogen yield, and simple separation process. It can
system has excellent sulfur resistance and a wide temperature meet the technical requirements of hydrogen production,
range (200e550 C); therefore, this catalyst system is widely especially on-site hydrogen production on a small and medium
Table 1
Main hydrogen production processes using methane and their advantages and disadvantages.
Method Principle Reaction condition Chemical equations Advantages Disadvantages
SRM Methane reacts Ni/Al2O3 catalyst at high Gas reforming: Mature technology Large equipment investment
with steam to temperature (750e920 C) CH4þH2O/COþ3H2 Reliable operation of Easy deactivation of catalyst
produce hydrogen and high pressure (3.5 MPa) WGS reaction: equipment Large carbon dioxide
and carbon oxides CO þ H2O/CO2þH2 Economical efficiency emissions
Methanation: Reasonable resources use
COþ3H2/CH4þH2O
POM Methane reacts Catalytic process Gas reforming (catalysis): High reaction speed Technical maturity lower than
with steam or temperature: 950 C, non- CH4þ1/2O2/COþ2H2 High selectivity SRM
oxygen to produce catalytic process temperature: Gas reforming (non- Small reactor volume Easy deactivation of catalyst
hydrogen and 1150e1315 C, both catalysis): High-purity oxygen, which
carbon oxides requiring high pressure and CH4þH2O/COþ3H2 increases the cost
catalyst WGS reaction: Large carbon dioxide
CO þ H2O/CO2þH2 emissions
Methanation:
COþ3H2/CH4þH2O
MATR By combining Reaction temperature: 700 C CH4þ1/2H2Oþ1/ Low energy consumption Lower technical maturity
with SRM and Water vapor/methane ratio: 4O2/COþ5/2H2 Low investment cost Easy deactivation of catalyst
POM, realize self- 1.5 Large carbon dioxide
heating of system Oxygen/methane ratio: 0.45 emissions
and improve
hydrogen
production
MCD Direct methane High temperature (980 C), CH4/Cþ2H2 Simple reaction process Not mature technology
pyrolysis to atmospheric pressure without Zero carbon emissions Easy deactivation of catalyst
produce hydrogen air and water, Ni catalyst
scale. However, the methanol is a secondary energy product greenhouse gas reduction rate of 83%, while the hydrogen
whose cost is higher than that of natural gas or coal, and thus production cost rose by only 8% [12].
this process is economically unfriendly. Furthermore, the Limited by the development status of CCS technology,
complete removal of CO is a challenge. In the future, this current blue hydrogen projects rely on the large subsidies
technology will focus on the development of catalysts and provided by governments and with very limited scale. Blue
reactors. At present, the leading companies in China producing hydrogen projects are mainly found in developed countries
hydrogen from methanol include Sichuan Ally Hi-Tech and such as Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, and
Sichuan Techairs; these companies have achieved hydrogen Japan. Blue hydrogen has a place in the hydrogen develop-
production efficiencies of 10 104 m3/h per single unit. ment plans of many multinational oil and gas companies such
as Chevron, BP, and Total. SK E&S announced that it aims to
2.1.4. Hydrogen production from fossil fuels with CCS become the world's leading hydrogen supplier by 2025 with an
CCS technology can significantly reduce CO2 emissions annual blue hydrogen production of 25 104 t. To promote
from the combustion of fossil fuels. Gray hydrogen can be the production of blue hydrogen, we should actively develop
transformed into blue hydrogen by combining hydrogen pro- CCS technology that is compatible with the popular processes
duction from fossil fuels with CCS technology, which can of hydrogen production from fossil fuels and vigorously
greatly reduce carbon emissions while meeting the demand for engage in basic R&D and application demonstrations to
low-cost and large-scale hydrogen production. reduce the cost of blue hydrogen. If the large amount of carbon
To produce hydrogen from natural gas by incorporating generated in hydrogen production from fossil fuels can be
SRM and CCS technology, the cost of hydrogen production utilized sufficiently on the basis of CCS, the price of blue
will rise from $2.08/kg to $2.27/kg for an SRM plant with a hydrogen will be further reduced.
daily hydrogen production of 379 t. However, combining the
MATR process with CCS can reduce the cost of blue 2.2. Hydrogen production by water electrolysis
hydrogen to $1.48/kg [10]. Burmistrz et al. [11] investigated
the carbon emissions from hydrogen production from coal Hydrogen production by water electrolysis generates
before and after adding CCS while employing different coal hydrogen and oxygen by dissociating water under the action of
types with different processes. Before adding CCS, the a direct current in which the hydrogen evolution reaction oc-
emissions ranged from 19.42 to 25.28 kg (CO2)/kg (H2), and curs at the cathode and the oxygen evolution reaction occurs at
after adding CCS the emissions ranged from 4.14 to 7.14 kg the anode. This technology can use electricity generated by
(CO2)/kg (H2). Other studies have shown that hydrogen pro- renewable energy sources; in this way, the process does not
duction from coal with CCS technology could achieve a produce CO2 emissions or other toxic and harmful substances,
and truly “green hydrogen” is obtained. The theoretical con- demonstration project of hydrogen production from wind
version efficiency of water electrolysis and the purity of power in China.
hydrogen obtained are high. However, hydrogen produced by
water electrolysis presently accounts for only 1% of the 2.2.2. Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis
hydrogen energy mix in China; the main limiting factor is the PEM water electrolysis has experienced rapid industrial
high cost [13], and the cost of the electricity accounts for development in recent years. Its hydrogen production
60%e70% of the total cost [14]. The processes for producing principle is the same as that of hydrogen production by AWE,
hydrogen through water electrolysis are mainly divided into but it uses a solid polymer cation exchange membrane
alkaline water electrolysis (AWE), proton exchange membrane instead of an asbestos diaphragm to separate the cathode and
water electrolysis (PEM), solid oxide electrolysis cells anode and to conduct conductive hydrogen ions. The
(SOEC), and other water electrolysis processes; these are hydrophilicehydrophobic microphase separation structure in
described below. the PEM causes the aggregation of hydrophilic clusters, thus
forming a proton transport channel. Currently, the hydrogen
2.2.1. Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) production capacity by PEM per electrolyzer is up to 400-
Hydrogen production by Alkaline Water Electrolysis, ALK Nm3/h, with operating temperatures of between 50 C and
has been in use for decades, and the hydrogen production ca- 80 C and an energy consumption of between 4.4 kWh and
pacity per single electrolyzer can reach up to 1000 Nm3/h (Nm3 5.0 kWh [17]. Hydrogen production by PEM is pollution-free
is the gas volume at 0 C and 1 atm, 1 atm ¼ 0.101325 MPa) and has a high operating current density, a high conversion
with an operating temperature of 70e90 C, an operating efficiency, and a high pressure of hydrogen produced. This
pressure of 1e3 MPa, an energy efficiency of 59%e70% [15], technology facilitates hydrogen transportation and has a
a current density usually less than 0.4 A/cm2, and an energy millisecond startup. It can adapt to the volatile characteristics
consumption of 4.5e5.5 kWh [16]. In an alkaline electrolyzer, of renewable energy power generation, and it is easy to
the cathode and anode consisting of nickel alloy are immersed combine with electricity production from renewable energy
in an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide with a con- sources. Therefore, it is currently an ideal solution for
centration of approximately 30%. The cathode and anode are hydrogen production by water electrolysis. However,
separated by an asbestos (or other porous material such as nylon hydrogen production by PEM requires the use of electro-
or polyester cloth) diaphragm. When the electrolyzer is ener- catalysts containing precious metals (platinum and iridium)
gized, the water molecules gain electrons at the cathode to form and special membrane materials, and thus its cost is high. Its
hydrogen and hydroxide ions. The diaphragm allows only hy- electrolyzer has a shorter service life than that of the elec-
droxide ions to pass through; the hydroxide ions lose electrons trolyzers used in AWE hydrogen production.
at the anode and are reduced to produce oxygen. Compared The core material for PEM hydrogen production is the
with other hydrogen production technologies, hydrogen pro- membrane. The majority of these membranes are produced by
duction by AWE can use non-precious metal catalysts, and the foreign companies, whose global market share accounts for
electrolyzer has a long service life of approximately 15 years, over 90%. The most common commercially used membrane is
making this technology cost competitive. However, the elec- the Nafion perfluorosulfonic acid membrane from the US
trolyte is a strong alkali, which is corrosive, and the asbestos company DuPont. The Nafion 211 has a conductivity of
diaphragm is harmful and not environmentally friendly. 140 mS/cm at 60 C. The US company Proton OnSite is a
Furthermore, its startup speed and hydrogen production speed leading manufacturer of PEM hydrogen generators and can
are slow; therefore, its adaptability to generate electricity from mass produce electrolyzers with a single stack of 2 MW. The
renewable energy needs to be further improved. company has operations in 72 countries worldwide. It has
Norway's Nel Hydrogen is the leading manufacturer of delivered more than 2000 water electrolysis hydrogen produc-
alkaline water electrolyzers and hydrogen generators. The A tion units and has a 70% market share of hydrogen production
series alkaline electrolyzers developed by the company can by PEM water electrolysis. China's PEM manufacturing enter-
produce hydrogen from 50 to 3880 Nm3/h, with a maximum prises face four major barriers: technology, market, talent, and
hydrogen production capacity of 8 t per day. The modular capital. Shandong Dongyue Group has developed products with
structure enables the company to deliver customized solu- performances close to those of DuPont Nafion. Regarding
tions based on the application needs of customers. The PEM electrolyzer manufacturing, Sungrow has established a
Guyuan Wind Energy-Linked Hydrogen Project, which hydrogen energy division. The company has partnered with the
started in 2015, is the first industrial application project in Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics of the Chinese Academy
China for producing hydrogen from wind power. The project of Sciences, and in April 2021 they launched the SEP50 PEM
has established a technical cooperation with Germany's electrolyzer, with a power of 250 kW. The SEP50 PEM is a
McPhy and Encon. The total investment is 2.03 billion yuan, PEM electrolyzer and is currently being mass produced in
which has been used to build a 10 MW hydrogen production China.
system that uses electricity from a 200 MW wind farm to
power the water electrolysis that produces hydrogen. After 2.2.3. Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs)
completion, its annual hydrogen production capacity is esti- Hydrogen production by SOECs is still in the preliminary
mated to reach 1752 104 Nm3, which will be the largest research stage. This technology has three components:
protonesolid oxide, oxygen ionesolid oxide, and CO2 co- 2.2.4. Other water electrolysis processes
electrolysis. All of them use solid ceramics as the electrolyte Anion exchange membrane (AEM) water electrolysis is
and need to react at high temperatures of 500e1000 C. another water electrolysis technology. Different from PEM, its
Because the high temperature decreases the Gibbs free energy exchange ions in the membrane are hydroxide ions instead of
change of the reaction, the equilibrium voltage required for protons. The relative molecular mass of the hydroxide ion is 17
electrolysis is lower. For example, the equilibrium voltage for times that of a proton, which makes its migration rate much
the electrolysis of water vapor at 800 C and 0.1 MPa is only slower than that of protons. This technology has a lower
0.85 V [18], which can save power and lower costs. Further- operating temperature, ranging from 40 C to 60 C, an
more, there is a good kinetic performance when using SOECs operating pressure below 3.5 MPa, an energy efficiency of
to produce hydrogen, with a conversion efficiency of nearly 60%e79%, and a current density of 1e2 A/cm2 [16]. AEM
100%, and the catalysts used are non-precious metals. However, electrolysis has several advantages. No metal cations exist, so
this technology has some drawbacks, including (1) the me- no carbonate precipitation forms to block the hydrogen pro-
chanical properties of the electrodes are not stable enough at duction system. Additionally, the materials used as electrodes
high temperatures; (2) high temperatures can shorten the ser- and catalysts are non-precious metals such as nickel, cobalt,
vice life of the glasseceramic sealing materials in the electro- and iron. Furthermore, this technology can produce high-purity
lyzer; and (3) breakthroughs are needed concerning the heating hydrogen, with good gas tightness and fast system response,
rate for the high-temperature reaction conditions to enable the amenable with the current renewable energy generation tech-
use of renewable power generation, which has volatile and nologies. However, AEM electrolysis has the following draw-
unstable output. backs: (1) the hydroxide ion conductivity of the membrane is
low; (2) the mechanical stability of the membrane is also low;
1) Protonesolid oxide technology uses proton-conducting and (3) the electrode structure and catalyst kinetics need to be
perovskites as the anode and nickeleceramic as the optimized. AEM technology for hydrogen production is mainly
cathode, and unlike the oxygen ionesolid oxide tech- in the laboratory R&D stage. Few commercialized anion
nology for hydrogen production, it does not need an membranes exist, and most are produced by foreign manu-
additional drying process. Therefore, it can simplify the facturers, such as the A201 from Japan's Tokuyama. This
system structure and save costs [19]. In addition, this membrane has a thickness of 28 mm, a tensile strength of up to
technology can maintain efficient electrolysis at rela- 96 MPa, and a hydroxide ion conductivity of 42 mS/cm. Some
tively low temperatures (500e700 C) [20], which im- AEMION membranes from Canada's Ionomr have better con-
proves durability and reduces the incidence of other ductivity, exceeding 80 mS/cm [27].
problems such as material degradation caused by
corrosion and contamination [21]. 2.3. Industrial by-product hydrogen
2) Commonly employed anode materials for the oxygen
ionesolid oxide technology include lanthanum A large amount of by-product hydrogen is produced in the
strontium-doped manganite and yttria-stabilized zirconia production processes of the chlor-alkali industry, coal coking
(YSZ) [22,23]. The cathode material is nickel-yttria- industry, and other industries. However, this type of hydrogen
stabilized zirconia (Ni-YSZ). However, this technology generation has not been fully exploited, mainly because of the
is hampered by poor stability and interlayer diffusion low purity of by-product hydrogen, high equipment and capital
over the long term. Kim et al. [24] introduced the requirements for purification processes, and low demand for
concept of hybrid-SOEC that uses the BaZr0.1- hydrogen in the downstream market. As the hydrogen industry
Ce0.7Y0.1Yb0.1O3-8 (BZCYYb) as the electrolyte and progresses and advances are made in hydrogen purification
combines proton-SOECs and oxygen-SOECs to realize technology and related industrial technology, industrial by-
an excellent stability for 60 h while maintaining ultra- product hydrogen will gradually become economically
high electrochemical hydrogen production. competitive.
3) CO2 co-electrolysis is an electrochemical method that
directly converts water vapor and carbon dioxide into 2.3.1. By-product hydrogen from coke-oven gas (COG)
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or a synthesis gas of Coke-oven gas (COG), a by-product of the coke-making
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In this technology, industry, is primarily composed of hydrogen (55%e60%),
water vapor and carbon dioxide are captured and recy- methane (23%e27%), and small amounts of CO and CO2.
cled to synthesize useful chemical products, such as Generally, a single ton of dry coal generates 300e350 m3
gasoline, methanol, and ammonia [25]. Carbon deposits of COG, which is an important source of by-product
often form during the reaction, which affects the hydrogen [28].
microstructure of the electrodes and degrades the elec- In the coke-making industry, wet quenching of coke is
trolyzer performance [15]. Xing et al. [26] prepared a commonly used to cool down the glowing coke by spraying
Cu-impregnated La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.5Mn0.5O3-8 (LSCM) water on it. During this process, the WGS reaction occurs and
cathode to enable steam/CO2 co-electrolysis. This generates large amounts of hydrogen. The hydrogen produced
cathode could withstand a co-electrolysis durability test in this process can be directly cleaned, separated, and purified
below temperatures of 750 C for more than 50 h. without additional production processes. Currently, coking-
making plants mainly use PSA technology to separate and chlor-alkali enterprises to participate in the development of the
obtain high-purity hydrogen from COG. For large-scale hydrogen industry with transformation from energy con-
hydrogen production from COG, deep-cooling air separation sumption into energy production.
and PSA are usually combined to separate hydrogen. Metal
membrane separation technology, which consumes less energy 2.3.3. By-product hydrogen from petrochemical processes
and can be operated continuously, is also expected to be By-product hydrogen from petrochemical processes mainly
applied for large-scale hydrogen separation from COG [29]. includes by-product hydrogen from refinery reforming, pro-
After subjecting COG to hydrogen separation, the main pane dehydrogenation, and ethylene production. Propane
component is methane, which can be further purified and used dehydrogenation technology for propylene production is a
to maximize the extraction of hydrogen from COG by process in which the CeH bonds of two adjacent C atoms in a
combining with SRM. propane molecule are broken under catalytic conditions at
The scale of hydrogen production from COG has consid- high temperatures, and a hydrogen molecule is removed to
erably developed, with a hydrogen production of 1000 Nm3/h obtain propylene (see reaction Eq. (8)). This process is
[30]. China's by-product coal gas, accounting for 20% of the increasingly common because of the abundant source of raw
hydrogen source, has a hydrogen production capacity of materials, high reaction selectivity, easy product separation,
811 104 t/a. The cost of directly separating hydrogen from high percentage of hydrogen produced, low impurity content
COG is relatively low, and hydrogen production from methane in the by-product gas, and its important collection and utili-
converted from COG can also be effectively realized. There- zation value.
fore, by-product hydrogen from COG has a larger economic
advantage than that of hydrogen production from natural gas CH3 dCH2 dCH3 /CH2 ¼ CHdCH3 þ H2 ð8Þ
and coal. The key to the development and application of Propane dehydrogenation is generally carried out in a
hydrogen production from COG lies in the development of circulating fluidized bed reactor or in a fixed-bed reactor.
hydrogen purification technologies and the downstream sup- High-purity hydrogen (content greater than or equal to
porting facilities in the coke-making industry. 99.999%) can be obtained by equipping the reactor with a PSA
or membrane separation device. For a propane dehydrogena-
2.3.2. By-product hydrogen from the chlor-alkali industry tion production line with an annual output of 60 104 t, the
The chlor-alkali industry uses a basic chemical process in crude hydrogen volume can reach up to 3.33 108 Nm3. By
which caustic soda (generally referred to as sodium hydroxide) 2023, China's production of by-product hydrogen from pro-
and chlorine gas are produced through the electrolysis of pane dehydrogenation is expected to reach 44.54 104 t/a.
saturated NaCl solution. Hydrogen is produced as a by- The propane dehydrogenation process can generate sufficient
product, which can be separated and purified by PSA [31]. hydrocarbon materials, and needs less expenses for hydrogen
Approximately 280 Nm3 (approximately 25 kg) of by-product purification. Therefore, this technique is economical, with
hydrogen can be produced from every 1 t of caustic soda [32]. costs of RMB 0.89e1.43 yuan/Nm3 [30]. With the continuous
The reaction equation is as follows: development and decreased costs of the propane dehydroge-
nation process, this technology will be increasingly used in the
2NaCl þ 2H2 O/2NaOH þ Cl2 þ H2 ð7Þ propylene synthesis industry. In addition, with the gradual
The chemical principle and process of hydrogen production development of petrochemical processes for by-product
from the chlor-alkali reaction are similar to those of hydrogen hydrogen production, such as the high-temperature pyrolysis
production from water electrolysis. The purity of the obtained of ethane for dehydrogenation and ethylene synthesis from
hydrogen can reach 98.5%, and the main impurities include dehydrogenation, together with various new gas separation
chlorine, oxygen, hydrogen chloride, nitrogen, and water and purification technologies, the utilization of such industrial
vapor, which are generally separated by PSA to obtain high- by-product hydrogen will become increasingly important [34].
purity hydrogen [31]. The cost of hydrogen production by a
large, advanced chlor-alkali plant is in the range of RMB 1.3- 2.4. Hydrogen production from renewable resources
1.5 yuan/Nm3, which is close to that of hydrogen production
from fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. Moreover, the 2.4.1. Photocatalytic hydrogen production
CO2 emissions throughout the whole life cycle of producing Photocatalytic hydrogen production is used to produce
by-product hydrogen from the chlor-alkali processes are hydrogen from water or organic matter by using photosyn-
1.3e9.8 kg (CO2)/kg (H2), which is 20%e90% lower than that thesis to drive the chemical reaction. Currently, hydrogen
of hydrogen produced by SRM. Therefore, by-product production through water photolysis is the most widely studied
hydrogen has a significant advantage in terms of reducing and the most promising photocatalytic hydrogen production
CO2 emissions [33]. By-product hydrogen from the chlor- technology. This process drives water splitting by using
alkali process has the advantages of high hydrogen purity, semiconductor materials as catalysts. According to the energy
abundant raw materials, mature technology, a high emission band theory of solids, when the incident photons have greater
reduction benefit, and a large development space. Vigorously energy than the band gap of the semiconductor photocatalyst,
developing the technologies needed for the purification and excited electrons in the valence band transitions to the con-
utilization of industrial by-product hydrogen would enable duction band, resulting in photogenerated holes and electron
pairs, respectively. The holes oxidize OH in water to produce 2hþ þ H2 O/1=2O2 þ 2Hþ ð14Þ
O2, and electrons reduce Hþ in water to produce H2 [35]. Metal counter electrode:
Taking a typical TiO2 nanocatalyst as an example [36], the
reactions of water photolysis hydrogen production are as 2e þ 2Hþ /H2 ð15Þ
follows:
Equation for overall reaction:
2TiO2 þ 2hv/2TiO2 þ 2hþ þ 2e ð9Þ
2TiO2 þ 2hv þ H2 O/TiO2 þ 1=2O2 þ H2 ð16Þ
2e þ 2Hþ /H$ þ H$/H2 ð10Þ The key to photoelectrochemical hydrogen production is to
identify semiconductor materials that can be used as photo-
2hþ þ 2H2 O/2H2 O þ /2HO$ þ 2Hþ ð11Þ electrodes with suitable forbidden bandwidth, sensitive optical
response, and high surface activity. The design and improvement
HO$ þ HO$/H2 O þ 1=2O2 ð12Þ of the photoelectrochemical cell structure, the optimization of the
The key to photolytic hydrogen production lies in the electrolyte formulation, and the introduction of co-catalysts are
development and design of photocatalysts, which require high the main research directions to improve the efficiency of photo-
light absorption efficiency, rapid carrier separation, high surface electrochemical hydrogen production [41]. As with photo-
catalytic activity, and long-term photochemical stability. Japan catalytic hydrogen production, photoelectrochemical hydrogen
is a leader in photocatalytic hydrogen production technology. production is also in the preliminary laboratory stage. Japan has
Domen and his team at the University of Tokyo recently been researching this technology for the longest and has the most
demonstrated photocatalytic solar hydrogen production from advanced technology in this field. In China, academicians Jincai
water at the 100 m2 scale that could operate safely for several Zhao and Can Li of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and their
months. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Explora- teams are producing cutting-edge research in hydrogen produc-
tion and Development has partnered with Beijing Perfectlight tion through water photoelectrolysis. For example, Li et al. [42]
Technology Company to develop a 5 m2 water photolysis sys- used gradient Mg doping to enhance the charge separation effi-
tem that can operate stably. Regarding basic research, little ciency of Ta3N5 materials and achieved a low onset potential of
disparity is found between domestic and international works. In 0.4 V and a high photoelectric efficiency of 3.25 ± 0.05%. Can
recent years, researchers have made some progress in the basic Li's group [43] designed a Co4O4/pGO/BiVO4/SnOx composite
research of photocatalysts. For example, Liu et al. [37] achieved as a photoanode. And by combining it with the organic polymer
large-scale, high-dispersion loading of single-atom Cu (mass PBDB-T:ITIC:PC71BM as photocathode, a hydrogen production
fraction over 1%) on TiO2, with a H2 generation rate of 101.7 efficiency of up to 4.3% was obtained. Although photo-
mmol/(g$h) from a water photolysis reaction that exhibited an electrochemical method has not yet reached the hydrogen pro-
apparent quantum efficiency of up to 56% at 365 nm. Domen duction efficiency needed for commercial application (10%), it is
et al. [38] designed and prepared a modified aluminum-doped still a frontier research area in the field of green hydrogen
strontium titanate (SrTiO3: Al) catalyst, enabling the water production.
photolysis reaction to achieve quantum yields of up to 96% at
350e360 nm. However, at present, the best hydrogen produc- 2.4.3. Microbial hydrogen production
tion rate of photocatalysis is only approximately 4%; thus, Microbial hydrogen production is a promising potential
practical applications are still far off. route for hydrogen production because of its simple process
and abundant raw materials. On the basis of the energy source,
2.4.2. Photoelectrochemical hydrogen production microbial hydrogen production methods can be divided into
Photoelectrocatalysis is a process in which the semi- two categories: photolysis and fermentation [44]. The energy
conductor photoanode absorbs photons under light irradiation source for microbial photolysis for hydrogen production is
to produce electronehole pairs. The holes oxidize OH solar energy. Some algae and photosynthetic bacteria can
directly at the photoanode to generate oxygen, while the perform photosynthesis to decompose substrates and produce
photo-generated electrons flow through a wire under the hydrogen under anaerobic conditions. In microalgae such as
applied bias, reach the metal counter electrode and reduce Hþ green algae and some cyanobacteria, the water photolysis re-
to produce hydrogen. This technology can effectively reduce action is catalyzed by hydrogenase. In some photosynthetic
the compounding of electronehole pairs, thereby improving autotrophic bacteria, photo-fermentation can occur under
the efficiency of hydrogen production. As early as 1972, anaerobic light conditions in which organic acids are decom-
Fujishima and Honda at the University of Tokyo, Japan ach- posed into H2 and CO2. For hydrogen production from mi-
ieved photocatalytic hydrogen production from water crobial fermentation, organic matter is fermented and
decomposition by using a TiO2 semiconductor single crystal decomposed to obtain hydrogen, and the energy sources are
film as an electrode [39]. The reactions of photocatalytic water biomass energy and chemical energy, such as industrial
decomposition are as follows [40]: wastewater or agricultural waste containing rich organic sub-
Semiconductor photoanode: strates. Common microorganisms for hydrogen production by
fermentation include hydrogen-producing Clostridium species,
2TiO2 þ 2hv/2TiO2 þ 2hþ þ 2e ð13Þ thermophilic bacteria, and Escherichia coli.
To date, 25 countries have conducted research on biological the following implications. (1) Currently, hydrogen production
hydrogen production among which China and the United from fossil fuels has the greatest cost advantage, and this cost
States are at the cutting edge of this field. However, the advantage still exists despite the cost increases after
research on biological hydrogen production is still at the combining with CCS technology. (2) The cost of industrial by-
laboratory stage and far from large-scale commercial appli- product hydrogen and hydrogen production by microbial
cation. In China, biological hydrogen production systems that fermentation is roughly equal to that of fossil fuels, but the
can reach an industrial scale and realize profits have not yet scale is limited. (3) The cost of water electrolysis hydrogen
appeared, and only a few individual laboratories have devel- production is two to three times of that from fossil fuels. This
oped pilot-scale projects. For example, Nanqi Ren and his is a large gap, and thus it is necessary to significantly reduce
team at the Harbin Institute of Technology have recently built the electricity cost, enhance the electrolytic capacity, and
the first demonstration project in China, where a 100 m3 reduce the costs of system construction. As the price for
organic wastewater dark fermentation facility was established electricity generated by solar photovoltaic cells decreases, by
for hydrogen production. The project has a daily hydrogen 2035 and 2050, the cost of the electricity used to produce
production capacity of up to 322 m3. Regarding basic research, hydrogen by AWE is expected to decrease by 37% and 50%,
Nissil€a et al. [45] obtained cultures enriched in Thermoa- respectively, and the corresponding cost of hydrogen produc-
naerobacterceae fermentative hydrogen-producing bacteria by tion will be RMB 18.7/kg and RMB 14.8/kg, which will be
heat-treating cellulosic plant and compost waste; these bac- nearly equal to that of hydrogen production from fossil fuels.
teria produce hydrogen through hexose fermentation and can On the basis of the projected development of the various
achieve a hydrogen production efficiency of 1.4 mol (H2)/mol hydrogen production technologies, we should comprehen-
substrate. Mann et al. [46] cultured a bacterial/algal cell sively consider three factors: the technological level, the car-
community aggregate that synergistically combined aerobic bon emissions, and the hydrogen production cost. We should
respiration and hypoxic photosynthesis to achieve continuous steadily push forward with the transformation from gray
hydrogen production for 168 h. The future development of hydrogen to blue hydrogen to green hydrogen to lay the
microbial hydrogen production will depend on continuous foundation for a low-carbon and environmentally friendly
breakthroughs in cultivation and screening technologies, hydrogen industry. In this way, we can support the develop-
hydrogen production process improvements, and hydrogen ment of the entire hydrogen industrial chain and help build a
production mechanism research. Hydrogen China.
2.5. Comparison of various hydrogen production 3. Hydrogen storage and transportation

technologies
Hydrogen storage and transportation technologies can be
In summary, the following observations can be made. (1) divided into two main categories: physical and chemical so-
Hydrogen production from fossil fuels is a mature technology lutions. Physical solutions involve the high-pressure gaseous
with a low cost and will dominate the market share in the state, low-temperature liquefaction, pipelines, and physical
immediate future. Its development mainly focuses on its adsorption. Chemical solutions involve inorganic hydrogen
combination with CCS/CCUS technologies to reduce carbon storage materials and organic hydrogen storage materials.
emissions and realize the transformation from gray hydrogen Inorganic hydrogen storage materials include metal hydrides,
to blue hydrogen. (2) Industrial by-product hydrogen has complex hydrides, compound hydrides, and chemical hy-
abundant sources and a large development space. Further de- drides; organic hydrogen storage materials include cyclo-
velopments will focus on gas separation and purification alkanes, nitrogen heterocycles, liquid ammonia, formic acid,
technology and improving supporting facilities. (3) Hydrogen and methanol. These are described in the next sections.
production through water electrolysis coupled with renewable
energy power generation will be the main way to produce 3.1. Physical solutions for the storage and
green hydrogen on a large scale in the future. It will be transportation of hydrogen
necessary to reduce the price of renewable energy power
generation, improve the efficiency of producing hydrogen via 3.1.1. High-pressure gaseous hydrogen storage
water electrolysis, and reduce the cost of such hydrogen pro- High-pressure gaseous hydrogen storage is the simplest and
duction. (4) Photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical most direct way to store hydrogen. In this method, hydrogen is
hydrogen production and other new hydrogen production compressed and stored in high-pressure vessels, generally under
technologies cannot yet meet the demands of large-scale in- pressures between 35 MPa and 75 MPa. This method has the
dustrial application; more basic research and demonstration advantages of fast charging and discharging of hydrogen,
applications are needed. relatively mature technology, room temperature operation, and
Hydrogen is the basis of the hydrogen industry, and one of a low cost. Its disadvantage is a low energy density of only
the main factors for the large-scale development and utiliza- 0.003 kWh (LHVHydrogen)/L (LHVHydrogen is the lower heating
tion of the hydrogen industry is the cost of hydrogen pro- value of hydrogen, 1 LHVhydrogen ¼ 33.3 kWh/kg) at atmo-
duction. Table 2 lists the calculated costs of the main hydrogen spheric pressure. Its energy density can be increased to 1.2 kWh
production technologies [33,47,48]. The compiled data have (LHVHydrogen)/L under 70 MPa, which is slightly higher than
Table 2 of adiabatic expansion of high-pressure hydrogen. This

Calculated costs of hydrogen production technologies. method has the advantages of a high mass density and small
Hydrogen production technology Cost RMB yuan/Kg storage tank volume, making it suitable for road trans-
Methane steam reforming 17.1 portation, marine transportation, and some aviation uses.
Methane steam reforming (combined with CCS) 18.6 Currently, the mass hydrogen storage density and volumetric
Catalytic decomposition of methane 13.5 hydrogen storage density can reach 5.5% and 71 kg/m3 [54],
Coal gasification 10.9
Coal gasification (combined with CCS) 12.9e13.9
respectively. Because the phase transformation enthalpy of
Alkaline water electrolysis 29.9 hydrogen is 0.45 MJ/kg, transforming hydrogen from the gas
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis 39.8 phase to the liquid phase consumes a large amount of cooling
By-product hydrogen from coke-oven gas 5.7e11.8 energy. Theoretically, liquefying 1 kg of hydrogen requires
By-product hydrogen from chlor-alkali industry 14.6e16.8 4e10 kWh of electricity, which accounts for approximately
Propane dehydrogenation 16.1
Photoelectrochemical decomposition of water 63.6
30% of its stored energy. In addition, to maintain the humidity
Microbial fermentation 15.8e17.4 of liquid hydrogen between 20 K and 30 K and to prevent
vaporization due to temperature rises during storage, the liquid
hydrogen storage tanks must meet strict adiabatic conditions,
that of lithium batteries (0.5 kWh (LHVHydrogen)/L) [49]. In necessitating complex production technologies and increasing
addition, because of the relatively low density of hydrogen, the cost of hydrogen storage [55]. Therefore, reducing the cost
hydrogen storage requires a much larger volume compared with of liquefaction and storage is the development direction for the
the storage of the same weight of gasoline or diesel. To avoid industrialization of cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage. The
hydrogen leakage and tank rupture, highly pressure-resistant liquid hydrogen technologies in Europe, the United States,
tanks are needed for high-pressure hydrogen storage [50]. For Japan, and other countries and regions are relatively mature,
vehicle-mounted hydrogen storage bottles, a new lightweight and liquid hydrogen storage and transportation have been
pressure-resistant hydrogen storage tank composed of a carbon applied at large scales. In China, liquid hydrogen technology
fiber wrapping and an aluminum/plastic liner has been used is mainly used in the aerospace field, but it is still in the initial
[51]. Internationally, 70 MPa carbon fiber-wrapped type IV stage in the other fields. Moreover, the core equipment needed
bottles have been widely used. For example, the ultra- for hydrogen liquefaction systems still depends on imports.
lightweight TriShield™ hydrogen tanks produced by IMPCO
in the United States can store hydrogen at 70 MPa with a mass 3.1.3. Hydrogen transportation through pipelines
hydrogen storage density of 7.5%; 70 MPa high-pressure Hydrogen transportation through pipelines can be divided
hydrogen storage bottles made by Dynetek in Canada have into two transportation modes: through dedicated hydrogen
been put into industrial production and employ an aluminum pipelines or by blending hydrogen into existing natural gas
alloy liner and carbon fiber/resin matrix composite-reinforced pipelines. Dedicated low-pressure hydrogen pipelines are
wrapping. The type IV hydrogen storage bottles produced by suitable for transporting hydrogen on a large scale and over
Faurecia in France employ an optimized carbon fiber structure long distances. As hydrogen needs to be transported at low
that reduces the weight by 15%e20%. In China, high-end pressures (operating pressure of 1e4 MPa), the energy needed
carbon fibers cannot be produced on a large scale owing to for hydrogen transportation by pipeline is lower than that of
immature technology and the high cost of composite materials; high-pressure hydrogen transportation, but the initial invest-
thus, 35 MPa type III bottles are mainly used at present. ment for pipeline construction is larger. Globally, hydrogen
Therefore, new materials for the manufacture of low-cost, high- transportation through pipelines has a history of more than 80
pressure hydrogen environments should be the focus of years. The United States and Europe have respectively built
research and development efforts [52]. For fixed, high-pressure 2400 km and 1500 km of hydrogen pipelines [56]. Europe has
gaseous hydrogen storage, large-diameter hydrogen storage launched the “European Hydrogen Backbone” initiative, under
tubes and steel belt staggered-winding hydrogen storage tanks which nearly 4 104 km of hydrogen pipeline network is
are mainly used. The 45 MPa hydrogen storage bottles devel- expected to be completed by 2040. China currently has several
oped by Shijiazhuang ENRIC Gas Equipment Co., Ltd. and two hydrogen transmission pipelines in operation. The
98 MPa vertical high-pressure storage tanks manufactured by JiyuaneLuoyang hydrogen transmission pipeline has a total
Zhejiang University and Juhua Group Co., Ltd. have been used length of 25 km, an annual gas transmission capacity of
in hydrogen refueling stations [53] in China. The high-pressure 10.04 104 t, and a design pressure of 4 MPa; it is made of
gaseous hydrogen storage and transportation is mainly used in L245 seamless steel pipe. The BalingeChangling hydrogen
hydrogen production plants, hydrogen refueling stations, transmission pipeline has a total length of 42 km and had an
chemical plants, and places with small delivery distance investment cost of 190 million yuan; this pipeline is made of
(<500 km), low hydrogen demand and scattered users. cracked carbon seamless steel pipe. The WuhaieYinchuan
coke oven gas pipeline has a total length of 216.4 km, an
3.1.2. Cryogenic hydrogen storage through liquefaction annual gas transmission capacity of 16.1 108 m3, and a
Cryogenic hydrogen storage through liquefaction is a design pressure of 3 MPa; it is composed of L245 straight
method of liquefying and storing hydrogen in tanks at cryo- seam double-sided submerged arc-welded steel pipe. The
genic temperatures and high pressures based on the principle JinlingeYanzi hydrogen pipeline has a total length of over
32 km, a design pressure of 4 MPa, and is made of 20-gauge volumetric hydrogen storage density of approximately 50 g/L.
steel pipe [56]. LOHCs are safe and convenient to store, transport, and
Owing to the existing infrastructure facilities, blending maintain, and they can be used with existing storage and
hydrogen into the existing natural gas pipeline network is also transportation equipments. LOHCs can also be repeatedly
considered to be a feasible solution for hydrogen trans- reused. Typical LOHCs are toluene [66], ethyl carbazole [67],
portation. The low blending ratio of hydrogen (volume frac- and dibenzyltoluene [68,69]. In February 2022, methyl-
tion between 5% and 10%) can make hydrogen compatible cyclohexane was used to store and transport hydrogen im-
with most existing pipelines. However, the feasibility of higher ported from Brunei by ship to the ENEOS refinery in Japan.
blending ratios largely depends on the specific situation of Germany's Hydrogenious Technologies plans to use diben-
each pipeline and the adaptability of terminal application zyltoluene as an LOHC to build the world's largest pilot plant
equipment to cope with changes in gas properties [57,58]. for storing green hydrogen at the Dormagen CHEMPARK,
Currently, the hydrogen blending capacity in Germany's gas which will be able to store approximately 1800 t of hydrogen
network is 10%. Germany aims to increase the capacity to in LOHC form per year. These hydrogen storage materials can
20% by 2025 and will upgrade some gas pipelines to meet the be used for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and they also have
demand for 100% hydrogen transmission in the future. significant advantages in large-scale storage and long-distance
hydrogen transportation. However, there are drawbacks such
3.2. Chemical solutions for the storage and as the large amount of energy needed for dehydrogenation.
transportation of hydrogen Thus, further breakthroughs in dehydrogenation catalyst
technology are needed to produce efficient and low-cost
3.2.1. Storage and transportation of hydrogen with solid dehydrogenation catalysts.
metal hydrides
Solid metal hydrides are used to store and transport 3.2.3. Hydrogen storage using liquid ammonia
hydrogen by using reversible hydrogen absorption/release of As a hydrogen-rich molecule, ammonia can be used an
hydrogen storage metal alloys when appropriate temperatures energy carrier for transporting hydrogen. The HabereBosch
and pressures are applied. The hydrogen molecules decom- process is the most common process for ammonia produc-
pose into hydrogen atoms on the surface of the hydrogen tion with a history of more than 100 years, and it is still used
storage alloy and then diffuse into and react with the alloy to for fertilizer production. Ammonia can be liquefied at tem-
produce metal hydrides in which hydrogen is stored in the peratures below 33 C [70,71]. In addition, ammonia can be
atomic state in the tetrahedral and octahedral voids within the liquefied at the ambient temperature of 20 C and approxi-
metal [59]. Metal hydrides have a high volumetric hydrogen mately 0.9 MPa. In conventional ammonia transportation, a
storage density, are safe, allow for high-purity hydrogen, have combination of cooling and pressurized storage is usually
a simple operation, are convenient for transportation, and are adopted. The volumetric hydrogen density of liquid ammonia
low-cost. The commercial uses of solid metal hydrogen stor- is 1.5 times higher than that of liquefied hydrogen [72,73].
age mainly include applications in submarines, nuclear power Therefore, more hydrogen can be transported in ammonia than
plants, power stations, hydrogen refueling stations, and in the same volume of liquid hydrogen. At present, industrial-
portable test equipment (Table 3). GKN Hydrogen of Germany scale ammonia transport by sea and pipelines is well devel-
makes various models of solid-state hydrogen storage systems, oped, and around 120 ports have facilities for ammonia import
from 10 kg to 265 kg, that can operate at low pressure and are and export globally [74]. Examples are the NuStar ammonia
100% recyclable with no capacity loss, thereby limiting ma- pipeline system in the United States with a total length of
terial consumption. ECD Ovonic in the United States uses a approximately 3200 km, and the TogliattieOdessa ammonia
hydrogen storage tank wrapped with lightweight carbon fiber; pipeline in Russia, with a total length of 2000 km. However,
the metal hydrides contained within can be used to store ammonia is a hazardous substance that can be toxic or lethal to
approximately 3 kg of hydrogen. Toyota's hydrogen-powered humans if it is absorbed through the skin or inhaled, even in
vehicles are powered by ECD Ovonic's technology. small doses. The use of ammonia as a hydrogen carrier has a
Currently, few applications of solid metal hydrides exist in lower overall conversion efficiency than that of other technical
China, and the technology is in the R&D and demonstration processes because hydrogen must first be chemically con-
stage. Future research will focus on improving the hydrogen verted to ammonia and then be converted back to hydrogen at
storage capacity of metal hydrides, reducing the material the place of application. The overall efficiency of the two
costs, and improving the recyclability of metal hydrides [60]. conversion processes is approximately 35%, which is close to
that of liquefied hydrogen (30%e33%) [75].
3.2.2. Hydrogen storage and transportation using liquid
organic compounds 3.3. Industrial development trends of hydrogen storage
Organic materials that are used for hydrogen storage are and transportation technology
usually in a liquid state and thus are also called liquid organic
hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) [65]. LOHCs store and release Transporting gaseous hydrogen through physical solutions
hydrogen through the reversible hydrogenation and dehydro- is the simplest form of hydrogen transportation. Blending
genation of liquid organic compounds, and typically have a hydrogen into existing natural gas pipelines or using dedicated
Table 3
Applications of solid metal hydrogen storage.
Country Project type Content
Germany Fuel Cell AIP System for submarines Fuel cell AIP for submarine produced by HDW adopts TiFe-based solid state hydrogen storage system,
which is the most successful commercial application to date.
Hydrogen refueling station Public carbon neutral refueling station at the new Berlin Brandenburg International Airport adopts metal
hydride storage tank, using 100 kg of material
Italy INGRID project Adopt solid-state hydrogen storage system with 1t of hydrogen storage capacity uses Mg-based hydrogen
storage materials.
Forsina Hydrogen Power Station A hydrogen power station using Mg-based materials for hydrogen storage, with a capacity of 1500g,
which can store 90g of hydrogen
China Fuel-cell vehicle Shenzhen Up PowerTech cooperated with Foshan FeiChi Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd. and
successfully developed the first low-pressure hydrogen fuel cell-powered buses in China.
Solid hydrogen storage station The first Mg-based solid hydrogen storage demonstration station was completed in 2020 in Jining,
Shandong Province, with a hydrogen refueling capacity of 550 kg/d, offering hydrogen for two bus lines.
Japan Hydrogen storage system Hydrogen storage system at a hotel in Sasebo City within the Huis Ten Bosch theme park in Nagasaki
uses an alloy storage tank, with a volume of 35m3 and storage pressure of 0.8 MPa
Source: References [61e64].
hydrogen pipelines or pressurized tanks are the most realistic decrease only if there are increased hydrogen demands, tech-
technical routes for hydrogen transportation today. However, nological breakthroughs, and infrastructure improvements.
owing to the low volumetric energy density of gaseous At present, hydrogen is mainly produced and used by a few
hydrogen and the limited transport distance, the demands for particular companies. For example, hydrogen is produced near
other hydrogen transportation options will inevitably increase. oil refineries and fertilizer plants where there is demand for
Similarly to other gases, hydrogen can be liquefied at low hydrogen. In the future, the hydrogen industry based on
temperatures and transported in a cold liquid state. In addition, renewable energy will depend on large-scale hydrogen storage
chemical solutions for storage, which convert hydrogen into and transportation technologies because hydrogen production
ammonia or use LOHCs, are promising potential technological facilities will not necessarily be near the place of application.
processes for hydrogen storage and transportation. Therefore, solving issues related to hydrogen storage and
At present, an important factor that restricts the develop- transportation will become more important. As it is very
ment of the hydrogen storage and transportation industry is the difficult to efficiently transport and store hydrogen, storage
associated costs, which increase with the transportation dis- and transportation technologies that have a low cost, high
tance. High-pressure gaseous hydrogen transportation has the density, and are safe will be needed to increase the industri-
highest cost, while hydrogen transportation through pipelines alization of hydrogen energy.
over long distances and in large volumes has the lowest cost, The oil and gas industry has mature energy security man-
as shown in Fig. 1 [76]. Although the costs of LOHCs, pipe- agement experiences, large network sites and systems, and a
lines (100 t/d), liquid ammonia, and liquid hydrogen for technical base and integration capabilities for resource plan-
hydrogen storage are about the same, LOHCs and liquid ning, refining, chemical production, oil and gas storage and
ammonia require additional costs for converting hydrogen into transportation, retail terminal construction, operation, and
the gaseous state at the terminal, as shown in Fig. 2 [76]. The maintenance. This experience, infrastructure, and other ad-
cost of hydrogen storage and transportation is likely to vantages can be used to quickly develop the hydrogen storage
and transportation industry. In terms of long-distance
Fig. 1. Relationship between cost and transportation distance for different Fig. 2. Cost of hydrogen conversion at terminals for liquid ammonia and
storage and transportation processes. LOHCs.
transportation, we can use the experience of the oil and gas energy through gas turbines. Hydrogen FCs have the advan-
industry in pipeline transportation and maintenance to tages of a high energy density, high energy conversion effi-
demonstrate and evaluate the feasibility of oil/gas trans- ciency, and zero carbon emissions, and include two main
portation with different proportions of hydrogen and build types: proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and
dedicated hydrogen pipelines as the demand for hydrogen solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs).
increases. We can use existing experience in compressed
natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage and 4.2.1. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
transportation to support short- and medium-distance trans- PEMFCs are composed of a membrane electrode, bipolar
portation on land. Furthermore, according to the required plate, electrolyte, and external circuit. They have the advan-
transportation distance, economic efficiency, hydrogen purity, tages of a low operating temperature, fast start-up, wide power
and other needs, we can use different storage and trans- range, and high stability. PEMFCs have been rapidly devel-
portation methods, such as liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, oped in the field of automotive power supply. As a key
LOHCs, solid hydrogen, or high-pressure gaseous hydrogen. component of fuel cells and electrolyzers, the PEM needs to
In coastal cities, we can use liquid ammonia, liquid hydrogen, have low proton conduction resistance, high current density,
and LOHCs for the international transportation of hydrogen by and high mechanical strength; these characteristics determine
ship. the efficiency and quality of PEMFCs. At present, the most
commonly commercially used membranes are Nafion mem-
4. Hydrogen applications branes of DuPont de Nemours, Inc. and Ballard's BAM
membranes. These membranes are limited by susceptibility
The development and utilization of hydrogen energy are to chemical degradation, poor proton conductivity with
important ways to rapidly achieve carbon neutrality goals, increasing temperature and high cost. To overcome these
ensure national energy security, and realize the transformation problems, Dongyue Group, cooperated with Thinkre New
to a low-carbon economy. Currently, hydrogen energy is Materials Co., Ltd., spent more than 10 years on the research
mainly used in energy, ferrous metallurgy, and the petro- and development of membranes to improve their perfor-
chemical industry. The release of top-level policies and the mance.. They realized the industrial production of PEMs in
rapid development of hydrogen energy technologies will China and reduced the cost. Furthermore, in terms of policy,
expand the application fields of hydrogen energy. Hydrogen China has attached importance to the research and develop-
energy will be widely used in energy storage, fuels, chemical ment of PEMFC. The Revolutionary Energy Technology
industry, and ferrous metallurgy. Innovation Action Plan (2016e2030) requires that PEMFC
power systems should realize a rated output power of
4.1. Hydrogen energy storage 50e100 kW, a system-specific power of greater than or equal
to 300 Wh/kg, a reactor-specific power of over 3000 W/L, and
As China has abundant renewable resources, we should PEMFC distributed power generation systems should have a
vigorously develop wind power and solar photovoltaic power service life of over 1 104 h by 2030. Meanwhile, by building
to realize the conversion of renewable energy to hydrogen a distributed power generation industrialization platform, we
energy. However, wind and photovoltaic power generations are should realize the application of 1e100 kW scale PEMFC
intermittent and random, which affect their continuity and systems in distributed power plants and other fields.
stability in access to the power grid and make it difficult to PEMFCs have a wide and diversified range of applications.
regulate peak usage in the power system. With the develop- Japan and Korea have relatively mature technologies related to
ment and improvement of hydrogen energy technology and the hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which have been applied to pas-
associated industry chain, the use of hydrogen storage systems senger cars, commercial vehicles, forklifts, and trains [78]. For
can improve the safety and stability of renewable energy example, Toyota released the second-generation Mirai
power generation [77]. Producing green hydrogen by wind hydrogen fuel vehicle in the end of 2020; its driving range was
power and photovoltaic power can not only effectively use increased by 30% by adding hydrogen fuel cells [79]. The East
abandoned wind and sunlight but also reduce the cost of Japan Railway Company released a test train powered by
hydrogen production. This method can improve the flexibility hybrid hydrogen fuel cell system and storage batteries, called
of the power grid while promoting the consumption of the Hydrogen-Hybrid Advanced Rail Vehicle for Innovation
renewable energy. In addition, hydrogen can act as a hub of the (HYBARI), which can travel 140 km on a single refueling.
energy network by connecting renewable energy with the Domestic large fuel cell stack suppliers, mainly including
power grid, gas network, heat network, and transportation Shanghai Hydrogen Propulsion Technology (SHPT), Sunrise
network to accelerate the energy transition process. Power, and Weichai Power, have also made great progress in
independent research and development. In 2021, the high-
4.2. Hydrogen fuels power hydrogen fuel cells independently developed by
SHPT had a rated power of 117 kW, and the system and the
Hydrogen energy can be used as end-use energy in the first-level components of the stacks were 100% domestically
power industry. Its chemical energy is converted into electrical produced [80]. Weichai Power released a new generation of
energy through hydrogen fuel cells (FCs) or into kinetic fuel cell engine with a power of 120 kW and a lifetime of more
than 3 104 h, contributing to the zero-carbon development of of total global power generation [84]. The most common fuel
the industry [81]. During the Beijing 2022 Winter Olympic for gas turbines is natural gas, which results in large carbon
Games, 710 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles were put into service emissions. The accumulation of impurities produced can cause
in Zhangjiakou, among which the hydrogen fuel cell buses had turbine corrossion, decrease energy conversion efficiency and
a driving distance of up to 406 km [82]. shorten service lifetime. The flame propagation speed of
hydrogen is approximately nine times that of natural gas,
4.2.2. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) which enables the turbine to operate from zero loads to full
SOFCs are all-solid-state power generation devices load capacity in around 15 min [85]. Therefore, replacing
composed of cathode, anode, electrolyte, sealing materials and natural gas with hydrogen not only improves the calorific
linking materials. Among them, the electrolyte is the core value and reduces carbon emissions but also endows the gas
component that determines the operating temperature and turbine with a higher load regulation capability.
power of the SOFC. Although it is limited by high operating Several large energy companies have developed hydrogen
temperatures of 600e1000 C and a slow start-up speed, fuel gas turbines. For example, General Electric has launched
SOFCs have broad development prospects because of their the first hybrid hydrogen turbine, which is located in Guang-
advantages such as wide range of fuel sources, high energy dong, China, expected to provide 1.34 GW of power by
conversion efficiency, and dispense with catalyst. Currently, blending hydrogen of 10% [86]. In addition, General Electric
developed countries and regions such as Europe, America, and plans to build the first hydrogen fuel power plant in America,
Japan have mature SOFC technologies, which leads them to they also strive to achieve 100% hydrogen combustion within
the early stage of commercialization promotion. America and 10 years. Japan's Mitsubishi Heavy Industries has successfully
Japan have developed hundred kW-class large-scale stationary tested a gas turbine with a hydrogen ratio of 30%. Siemens
power plants and kW-class residential combined heating and Energy has tested a 100% hydrogen-capable gas turbine pro-
power systems, respectively, both of which have achieved totype in Germany. Japan and EU Turbines have committed to
large-scale commercial operation. The leading companies in launching a 100% hydrogen-fueled heavy-duty gas turbine by
this regard include Bloom Energy (atmospheric pressure flat- 2030. However, no gas turbines are currently present in the
plate SOFC) and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (pressurized market that can handle pure hydrogen fuel with long lifetime.
tube-type SOFC). Comparatively, the level of SOFC devel- To vigorously develop hydrogen turbines, it is necessary to
opment in China is still in the laboratory stage and prototype solve the problems of tempering and high temperature in the
development stage, and no commercial SOFC systems have hydrogen combustion process. In this regard, there is a big gap
been produced. Furthermore, the degree to which enterprises between China and other countries; therefore, it is urgent to
have engaged in SOFC technology is low, and the SOFC in- release policy to support and deepen scientific research to
dustry chain is not complete. The core products required are realize the domestical production of hydrogen fuel gas tur-
all customized products, and no professional manufacturers bines as soon as possible.
have thus far been able to provide them.
SOFC applies to large commercial distributed and station- 4.3. Using hydrogen to produce chemical materials
ary power generation and combined heat and power genera-
tion. For example, using SOFC as a backup power source or At present, approximately 55% of the global hydrogen
even the main power source of communication base stations supply is used for ammonia synthesis, 25% for refinery hy-
can meet the high energy consumption demand of 5G base drogenation, 10% for methanol production, and 10% for other
stations and reduce environmental and noise pollution prob- industries [87]. With the continuous development of technol-
lems. In February 2022, to provide continuous power for off- ogy and industrialization in China, hydrogenation technology
grid base stations, a 3 kW-class ammoniaehydrogen fuel cell will increasingly come to be used in petroleum refining and
power station developed by the College of Zijin Mining, other petrochemical fields.
Fuzhou University, realized successful power generation and
stable operation, which laid the foundation for promoting 4.3.1. Hydrogenation in petrochemical engineering
hydrogen fuel cells to provide backup power for large-scale Hydrogenation technology is the main method to produce
communication base stations. clean oil products and improve product quality and is the core
of refiningechemical integration. The hydrogenation processes
4.2.3. Hydrogen turbines used in the petrochemical industry mainly include hydro-
Gas turbines are internal combustion-powered machines cracking of heavy oil to produce aromatics and ethylene,
that convert the chemical energy of fuels into kinetic energy, hydrodesulfurization of residual oil to produce ultra-low sulfur
which are core equipments in the fields of power generation fuel, hydroconversion of poor catalytic diesel and gasoline to
and shipbuilding. Compared with coal-fired power generation produce high-octane gasoline, C3 fraction hydrogenation to
units, gas turbines have the advantages of high-power gener- remove propyne and propadiene, heavy aromatics hydrogena-
ation efficiency, low pollutant emissions, a short construction tion to remove alkyls, and benzene hydrogenation to produce
period, a small footprint, low water consumption, and flexible cyclohexane. Hydrogenation has the disadvantages of high
operation and regulation conditions [83]. The power gener- investment and operation costs and high energy consumption.
ating capacity of gas turbine power plants accounts for 23.1% Therefore, research on petrochemical hydrogenation has
focused on the development of active component systems, for internal combustion engines, turbines, and fuel cells. The
carriers, and nanocatalysts to improve the activity and selec- technology used for the industrial hydrogenation of CO2 to
tivity of hydrogenation catalysts and reduce the amount of methanol is moving from the industrial demonstration stage to
hydrogen consumed and the overall process costs [88]. large-scale commercial application. Japan, Iceland, and the
United States have built pilot plants. Iceland's Carbon Recy-
4.3.2. Using hydrogen to synthesize chemical products cling International (CRI) adopted emissions-to-liquids tech-
Hydrogen is used as a raw material to synthesize many nology for green methanol synthesis, which uses renewable
chemical products, such as ammonia and urea. Ammonia is energy to produce approximately 4000 t of methanol per year.
mainly obtained using the HabereBosch process, and its en- It is an advanced technology that is currently used in com-
ergy density is higher than that of hydrogen. Ammonia can be mercial operations. China's Henan Shuncheng Group has
used to store energy and generate power without producing signed an agreement with ICR to use CRI's technology to
carbon dioxide emissions [89]. It can be stored as a liquid at build a 100,000-ton CO2 hydrogenation to methanol project.
room temperature and at 10 atm, making it suitable for The process will use hydrogen to synthesize methanol,
transportation. In addition, there are well-established infra- methane, and hydrocarbons. By synthesizing these com-
structure facilities for transporting and handling liquid pounds using hydrogen, the hydrogen produced from renew-
ammonia, which will facilitate the scale-up of ammonia uti- able energy sources can be effectively stored and transported.
lization. Ammonia is able to react with CO2 to form urea and This method overcomes the safety and cost challenges in the
is an important nitrogen fertilizer and a sustainable hydrogen hydrogen industry that are related to hydrogen production,
carrier [90]. It is stable, nontoxic, environmentally friendly, storage, and transportation. This method is a convenient use
and easier to store than hydrogen. The HabereBosch process of clean energy and provides solutions for the transition to
for synthesizing ammonia was invented over 100 years ago; green energy.
thus, the process has been well developed, and it remains the
predominant method for ammonia synthesis worldwide. 4.4. Hydrogen as a reduction agent
However, the hydrogen required to produce ammonia is
mainly produced from fossil fuels through a process that has In the steel smelting process, coke is used as the reduction
high carbon emissions. Enterprises in the ammonia industry agent for iron ore, and this process generates a large amount of
are trying to develop new ammonia preparation processes such carbon emissions and harmful gases. Ferrous metallurgy is
as ammonia synthesis via nitrogenase, photocatalytic the second-largest source of carbon emissions in China,
ammonia synthesis, electrocatalytic ammonia synthesis, and it is urgent to develop deep decarbonization technologies.
ammonia synthesis via cyclic processes, and supercritical Applying hydrogen instead of coke as a reduction agent pro-
ammonia synthesis. These new ammonia synthesis processes duces only water as a by-product, which would significantly
are still immature and have problems such as low efficiency, reduce carbon emissions and promote the transformation to
unstable reactions, and low cost-effectiveness; therefore, they clean metallurgy. Several countries have technical examples
need to be further improved. The future development direction with hydrogen ferrous metallurgy technology, such as the
is to use hydrogen produced from renewable resources, which HYBRIT project in Sweden, the SALCOS® (Salzgitter Low
could significantly improve existing processes and reduce CO2 Steelmaking) project in Salzgitter, the H2FUTURE
greenhouse gas emissions. project in Voestalpine, and the Carbon2Chem project in Ger-
many. Steel companies in China have also developed hydrogen
4.3.3. Using hydrogen to synthesize fuels metallurgy plans, as well as built demonstration projects and
Hydrogen can react with carbon dioxide to synthesize put them into operation. However, these demonstration pro-
simple carbon-containing compounds such as methanol, jects are still at the industrial test stage. there are serveral
methane, formic acid, and formaldehyde. After being lique- problems remain such as incomplete infrastructure facilities,
fied, these compounds with high energy density are easy to lack of relevant standards, high costs and the safety of
store and transport and less explosive than hydrogen. As liquid hydrogen. Currently, the main factor that restrains hydrogen
fuels, they can essentially realize zero carbon emissions, ferrous metallurgy technology is the cost of hydrogen pro-
which makes them suitable carriers for the storage and duction. According to the experience of the HYBRIT project,
transportation of renewable energy in addition to power hydrogen ferrous metallurgy will increase the cost by 20%e
transmission. 30% [91], leading to the steel not competitive in the market.
Methanol is an important chemical raw material that is However, with the policy of “carbon-neutral” in China, the
used to produce many compounds such as formaldehyde, development of hydrogen ferrous metallurgy is urgent. In
dimethyl ether, propylene, ethylene, and gasoline and has actual production, “green hydrogen” is the most suitable fuel
high market demand. It has a high hydrogen content of 12.6% for ferrous metallurgy. If the cost of “green hydrogen” pro-
(mass fraction) and a high energy density of 5.53 kWh/kg, duction can be reduced, the progress of green metallurgy can
making it an important liquid fuel and hydrogen carrier. It can be accelerated, and the environmental benefits will eventually
be used for PEM fuel cells after being converted into cover the additional costs. Using hydrogen for steel metallurgy
hydrogen and carbon monoxide or be used directly in meth- is necessary to achieve the goal of deep decarbonization in the
anol fuel cells. Methanol can also be directly used as a fuel steel industry.
5. Challenges and prospects and downstream components needed for hydrogen en-
ergy to form an industrial chain.
In the context of the dual carbon goals, we must promote 5) The current demand for hydrogen is low and dominated
the strategic significance of hydrogen energy, analyze the by its use in hydrogen fuel cells and energy carrier ve-
technological progress in the production, storage, and appli- hicles, which are currently immature technologies and
cation of hydrogen energy, examine the associated challenges small in scale. Although hydrogen is an energy carrier,
and opportunities, and actively promote the realization of the the demand for it has not been fully developed in
Hydrogen China strategy. traditional energy-intensive industries or in new
hydrogen energy application scenarios.
5.1. Major challenges 6) The technical standards related to hydrogen energy have
not been fully developed; few guidelines regarding
At present, the development of the global hydrogen in- hydrogen quality, storage, and transportation, hydrogen
dustry is in its infancy, and hydrogen still accounts for a very refueling stations, and safety are available. To regulate
low percentage of end-use energy consumption. Although the the development of the hydrogen energy market, it is
countries with plans for using hydrogen energy possess 75% urgent to formulate sound international, national, and
of the aggregate global economy, the hydrogen industry has industrial standards regarding the technical processes,
not formed a complete chain as a joint force to facilitate the devices, equipment, production, and operation condi-
production and routine activities, due to several factors. tions of new hydrogen energy areas, such as hydrogen
production from renewable energy, liquid hydrogen
1) The key materials and equipment components for storage, and industrial green hydrogen.
hydrogen production are technically demanding, com-
plex, and costly, and the technology gap is wide between
countries and sectors. Some key technologies are still 5.2. Future prospects
monopolized by foreign countries. For example, for the
core component of hydrogen production by PEM, the 5.2.1. Prospects for hydrogen energy industrial chain
Nafion perfluorosulfonic acid membrane produced by development
DuPont has more than 90% of the global market share. As with the current development of the natural gas industry,
Therefore, it is difficult to make breakthroughs in China is building a hydrogen energy industrial system that will
technology. consist of hydrogen production, storage, transportation, refu-
2) Hydrogen production by water electrolysis is the most eling, and application (Fig. 3) [92]. Below, we describe the
promising way to realize the mass production of green prospects of the future development of hydrogen in view of the
hydrogen, but its cost is still too high, mainly because technological challenges, economic efficiency, and the layout
of the price of electricity. Therefore, it still cannot and planning of the hydrogen industry in relation to the
completely replace hydrogen production from fossil various links of the industry chain.
fuels in the short term. At present, hydrogen production
using water electrolysis accounts for less than 2% of 1) Hydrogen is a secondary energy source. In terms of
the total hydrogen production in China, and we still hydrogen production, to achieve zero carbon emissions,
need to rely on hydrogen production from coal to the development of hydrogen will inevitably rely on
guarantee the supply of hydrogen energy in the near technological breakthroughs in renewable energy sour-
future. ces such as solar and wind power. The economic ad-
3) Owing to constraints in the distribution of renewable vantages of green hydrogen can be realized only by
energy resources in China, there is a large mismatch reducing the costs of both electricity and equipment.
between hydrogen production and hydrogen use in both Compared with Japan, Korea, and other countries, China
time and space, and a connected hydrogen storage and has a larger territory, including the vast deserts, grass-
transportation network has not yet been formed. The lands, and offshore resources, which can provide abun-
northwest region of China has abundant wind and sun- dant renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, and
light resources, but the demand for hydrogen is mainly tidal energy. Therefore, we have inherent advantages in
in the economically developed and densely populated developing green hydrogen, which can accelerate the
southeast region. realization of the Hydrogen China strategy.
4) Compared with the petrochemical energy industry, the 2) For long-distance transportation, hydrogen will be
hydrogen industry is still emerging, and there is no mainly transported together with natural gas through
overall plan for the required infrastructure and facilities. existing gas pipelines or by dedicated hydrogen pipe-
For example, there is a severe shortage of supporting lines to be built. For short and medium distances,
facilities such as urban hydrogen refueling stations, various storage and transportation technologies will be
hydrogen transmission pipelines, and purification sys- combined and developed according to local conditions.
tems for industrial by-product hydrogen. Therefore, it is With technological breakthroughs in hydrogen produc-
difficult to effectively integrate the incomplete upstream tion, the concept of a green hydrogen economy will be
Fig. 3. Diagram of the hydrogen industry chain with green hydrogen as the core (Source: reference [92]).
realized through the large-scale use of hydrogen trans- 1) We should strive to make technological breakthroughs in
mission networks for downstream application such as the field of hydrogen production from renewable energy,
industry, transportation, and construction activities. actively promote pilot- or demonstration-scale projects,
3) In terms of hydrogen application, with the gradual in- construct clean, low-carbon, and low-cost hydrogen
crease in industrial and technological development, production systems in places with abundant wind and
hydrogen fuel cells are highly expected to be the pri- sunlight resources (such as Yumen, Xinjiang, Qinghai,
mary change in the transportation field. In the chemical Daqing, and Jilin), and continuously carry out research
industry that uses hydrogen for oil refining, ammonia in hydrogen production by seawater electrolysis, pho-
synthesis, methanol production, and steelmaking, green tocatalytic hydrogen production, microbial hydrogen
hydrogen will gradually replace gray hydrogen. In other production, and other technologies to gradually increase
traditional energy-intensive industries, hydrogen energy the proportion of green hydrogen in end-use energy
will also replace fossil fuels and act as an energy carrier consumption. Specific practices include: (1) intensify
for the energy supply. In building construction, the research on the mechanisms of photocatalytic hydrogen
distributed combined supply of green hydrogen energy production and hydrogen production via water electrol-
for cooling, heating, and power will be an important way ysis using renewable energy; conduct fundamental
to conserve energy and reduce emissions. Meanwhile, research on hydrogen safety involving hydrogen brittle
additional hydrogen energy application scenarios will be failure, low-temperature adsorption, leakage, diffusion,
gradually developed. combustion, and explosion; and accumulate indepen-
dently researched and developed core technologies. (2)
Develop low-cost, efficient, long-lasting PEMs for water
5.2.2. Approach for implementing the hydrogen China electrolysis hydrogen production, solid oxides for water
strategy electrolysis hydrogen production, high-power alkaline
According to the Energy Transition Commission, the global water electrolysis for hydrogen production, and other
demand for hydrogen in 2050 is expected to be 3.6 108 t in key technologies. (3) Build zero-carbon industrial parks
the industrial and hydrogen fuel cell sectors [93]. Hydrogen in Northwest China where there are abundant wind and
energy has become a strategic direction for the energy tran- sunlight resources, construct clean, low-carbon, and
sition in developed economies such as the European Union, low-cost hydrogen energy production systems, and
the United States, Japan, and South Korea. The global launch pilot- or demonstration-scale projects. (4)
hydrogen industry chain is gradually forming, and the global Explore methods to use hydrogen to realize seasonal
consensus holds that hydrogen energy will be efficiently used. energy storage, improve the utilization rate of wind and
China is actively following the development trends of the sunlight, enhance the peak regulation of power grid
hydrogen industry, intensifying the independent R&D of systems, and integrate renewable energy with power
hydrogen energy production and application technologies and grids, gas networks, heat networks, and transportation
related equipment, and accelerating the implementation of the networks to overcome the mismatch between the loca-
Hydrogen China strategy. tions of renewable energy production and consumption.
2) We should rely on the rich experience of the energy 5.2.3. The role of oil and gas companies in implementing
industry in infrastructure construction, storage, and the hydrogen China strategy
transportation; explore solid-state, cryogenic, high- The Hydrogen China strategy will help to achieve the dual
pressure, LOHC and other methods; promote the con- carbon goals. Oil and gas companies will play an important
struction of hydrogen energy infrastructure facilities; lay role in the implementation of the Hydrogen China strategy.
out the construction of medium- and long-distance
hydrogen transmission pipeline networks; build 1) Oil and gas companies can use the abundant wind and
hydrogen refueling stations at ports that require many sunlight resources in their oil and gas fields to vigor-
heavy trucks and along high-speed transportation routes; ously develop hydrogen production from renewable
accelerate the construction of a safe, stable, and efficient energy resources to ensure the supply of green hydrogen
national hydrogen energy supply system; and gradually in the market. In combination with breakthroughs in
build a convenient and low-cost hydrogen transportation hydrogen production by water electrolysis, off-grid
network. Specific practices include: (1) strive to make hydrogen production using photovoltaic and pressure
technical breakthroughs in solid-state, cryogenic, and differential power can also be developed. Oil and gas
high-pressure, organiceliquid technologies; launch companies can undertake large pilot- or demonstration-
pilot- or demonstration-scale transportation projects that scale hydrogen production projects that use renewable
blend hydrogen in natural gas pipelines; and dedicate energy to support the development of clean energy and
hydrogen-specific pipelines to realize the safe and effi- the green transformation in their oil and gas fields. The
cient transportation of hydrogen. (2) Lay out and abundant renewable energy sources such as tidal energy,
construct hydrogen refueling stations; orderly promote wave energy, offshore solar energy, and wind energy in
the construction of a hydrogen refueling network sys- the eastern offshore oil fields will also contribute to
tem; convert and expand existing gas station facilities to offshore hydrogen production and will help to expand
allow for hydrogen refueling stations; and explore new the entire hydrogen industry chain.
modes of hydrogen refueling stations that integrate 2) By-product hydrogen from oil and gas refineries can be
hydrogen production, storage, and refueling. (3) Take supplied before the green hydrogen market is mature.
full advantage of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles with short The North China Petrochemical Company of China
refueling times, long driving ranges, low carbon emis- National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) has built a 500
sions, and no pollution to promote pilot- or Nm3/h by-product hydrogen purification plant that can
demonstration-scale projects of hydrogen fuel cell ve- produce 4750e5500 kg per day of hydrogen with a
hicles in heavy-duty and long-distance transportation. purity of nearly 100% at full capacity, which can serve
3) We should integrate the large-scale development of green nearly 1000 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles [94].
hydrogen in Northeast China, North China, and North- 3) Oil and gas companies have both inherent and late-
west China (referred to as the “Three Norths” area) and mover advantages in the construction of hydrogen en-
layout an offshore hydrogen production area off the ergy infrastructure facilities. By further investigating the
eastern coast of China. We should actively guide the use ability to blend hydrogen into existing natural gas
of hydrogen energy in industries with high energy con- pipelines in China, oil and gas companies will continue
sumption and high emissions, such as the chemical and to launch pilot- or demonstration-scale transportation
steelmaking industries, transportation, and energy stor- projects by blending hydrogen in existing natural gas
age and power generation, and intensify the independent pipelines and dedicated hydrogen pipelines to realize the
research and development of hydrogen energy applica- safe and efficient transmission of hydrogen.
tion technologies and related equipment, replace fossil 4) Oil and gas companies have a solid foundation for
fuels with hydrogen in industrial areas, and build a building a sound hydrogen supply system. By leveraging
complete industrial chain system for the hydrogen in- the advantages of the oil and gas refueling station network,
dustry, with green hydrogen as the core. Specific prac- these companies will transform the existing refueling
tices include: (1) research, develop, and apply hydrogen stations and construct new hydrogen refueling stations to
metallurgy technology with hydrogen as a reducing agent form a hydrogen refueling network. By exploring new
and explore the use of hydrogen energy as a high-quality models of hydrogen refueling stations that integrate
heat source in industrial production; (2) expand the hydrogen production, storage, and refueling, they can
application scale of hydrogen energy as a substitute for build stations that integrate oil, gas, hydrogen, and elec-
fossil fuels and actively guide the transformation from tricity. In this way, a modern and complementary energy
high-carbon to low-carbon processes for ammonia syn- supply system will be accelerated.
thesis, methanol synthesis, refining, and coal-to-oil and
gas; and (3) promote the use of hydrogen as a secondary China's major oil and gas companies are actively engaged
energy medium and make breakthroughs in applying in the layout of the hydrogen industry throughout all levels of
hydrogen in large-scale energy storage and distributed the industry chain. According to its overall plan, which takes
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Industrial status, technological progress, challenges, and prospects of

2.5. Comparison of various hydrogen production 3. Hydrogen storage and transportation

Table 2 of adiabatic expansion of high-pressure hydrogen. This

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