MAC 205 Theories of Mass Communication

MAC 211 Theories of Mass Communication
MODULE 1: THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

Unit 1 Overview of Communication
Unit 2 Characteristics of Communication
Unit 3 Elements of Communication
Unit 4 Forms and Context of Communication
Unit 5 Concept of Mass Communication
Unit 6 Functions of Mass Communication
3.0 What is Communication?
Communication is difficult to define.

Different scholars have defined communication severally but relying seriously upon their
different fields of study. Hence, in communication we have scholars of sociology, psychology,
anthropology, linguistics, engineering, mathematics etc defining communication to suit their
various purposes. Some of these scholars are:
Stevens (1950), who defines communication as:"The discriminatory response of an organism to

stimuli From the use of the words – ‘discriminatory’, ‘response’ and ‘stimuli’, it becomes obvious
that this scholar is a psychologist.
Hovland (1948), defines it as: "The process whereby an individual transmits stimuli, usually
verbal, to influence the behaviour of another individual". He, however, prefaces this definition by
saying that "communication is the sharing of meaning ..." Hovland has given an anthropocentric
perspective to this definition. Hence, the definition is "Human Centred" Hovland is said to be the
father of modern "Rhetorics". This is because he has done a lot of works and researches on
PERSUASION. That is, how to use persuasion to change people's attitudes.
Schacter (1951) - as:"The mechanism by which power is exercised". This scholar is a political
scientist. How does his definition affect communication? When two people communicate, power
is at play. This definition is relevant to the significance and importance of communication. In the
political context, power is a very important weapon. The government often wants to monopolise
power and of course, muffle the press”. Communication, they say, is power; hence, if you can
catch people's wind by manipulating them through communication, then you are fully in control.
America for instance has tried to colonies the world through their media.
Cooley (1909): "The mechanisms through which human relations exist and develop all the
symbols of the mind together, with the means of conveying them through space and presenting
them in time". This scholar is a sociologist. He has brought in the 'symbolic - interactionist
perspective of sociology into communication. This perspective has a lot of implications for
communication as this theme of 'interactionism' is a very important tool for determining the role
of communication in a society.
4
Steinfatt (1977): "The process of exchanging mutually understood symbols".
Sarbaugh (1988): "The process of using signs and symbols which elicit meaning in another
person or persons".
Both Steinfatt's and Sarbaugh's definitions are based on the context of symbols. Sarbaugh's
definition is more inclusive than Steinfatt's because he brought in the use of signs. Also the
concept of 'meaning' is more explicit in his definition than in Steinfatt's definition where the
concept is only implicit. However, both of them have approached communication from the
linguistic or psycho-linguistic points of view.
Furthermore many Nigerian communication scholars have different views as what to constitute
communication.
Nwankwo (1973): “An interaction between a minimum of two symbolic systems…”
Ugboajah (2001): The process which involves all acts of transmitting messages to channels
which link people to the languages and symbolic codes which are used to transmit such messages.
It is also the means by which such messages are received and stored. It includes the rules,
customs and conventions which define and regulate human relationships and events
Folarin (2003): Any means by which a thought is transferred from one person to another.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Communication is the mechanism by which power is exercised. Discuss.
3.2 Communication Cycle
Communication is a fundamental part of all our lives. The range of methods we can use to
communicate with each other is growing all the time. We can communicate using everything
from a note stuck on the fridge door to video-conferencing.
But no matter which medium we choose, the underlying structure or communication cycle
remains the same. If we are unsure of what we wish to communicate, or transmit it badly, we run
the risk of not being understood by other people. Every communication therefore involve the
following cycle;
Aiming: We need to think about just what want to communicate and to whom. It suggests that we
'Aim' what we want to say, how we'll say it, what we want the other person to do with the
information. This is the stage in which we think particularly about how we will communicate the
information and to who we wish to communicate with.
Encoding: Once we have organised our thought, we begin to choose words or image to express
them. Our choices in terms of language and images are influenced by our sets of assumptions,
5
experiences, status, education, gender, mood etc. this is very important to ensure clear
communication and understanding. We therefore, have to consider what language to say it in,
what we assume of the receiver and are these assumptions correct? We also have to consider what
the Receiver may be assuming about US. Their assumptions may hinder and change what we say
Transmitting: it is vital to transmit what you wish to say clearly and at the right time. We need
to be able to transmit the message that we wish to communicate in right format and at the correct
time. We need to consider if there will be any distractions to hinder our communication attempt,
if we need to summarize and if we can add anything to increase the clarity of what we are trying
to say.
Receiving: Depending on whether you receive information from other people in spoken or
written format, you will have to use different means of interpreting and storing that information.
When we receive the information from someone, if they are speaking, we must take into account
that we think three times faster than we speak, and therefore, it is much easier for a speaker's
words to get muddled up with other thoughts and distractions.
Decoding: This is the opposite of encoding. If the Sender has transmitted the information
correctly and has given enough attention to what they are saying, including their body language
and tone of voice, then you should be able to decode their message effectively. We may
sometimes feel that some Senders are not approachable in certain circumstances, but we must
remember, the meaning of the message is the responsibility of the Sender and not the Receiver
Responding: This is the last stage in the communication cycle. At this stage, the receiver has the
chance to ask any questions and this also gives the Sender the chance to realize if they have
missed out any stages in the Communication Cycle
Communication is a fundamental part of all our lives. Describe a personal communication

experience using the six steps Communication Cycle?
3.3 Functions of Communication

Why do we communicate? By nature, we are social beings who need others to survive and thrive
in our community. Communication therefore, allows us to form communities, assert and
differentiate our personalities, and accomplish a variety of tasks. We also use communication to
bridge the gap between people and to form common ground. In this study, we will look at
communication functions in five specific ways.
• Communication helps us assert and differentiate our personality

From the moment we were born, we were engaged in the communication process. Our parents
talked to us, read books to us, and played games with us. It is through communication that we
learned our name and gender; we learned about love, frustration, and fear; and we learned how to
be part of a family. Specifically, communicating with others helped us to create who we are. For
example, what does it mean to be a girl in our society? Well, that all depends on whom you ask.
6
In some families, it means to take care of all the household chores like cooking, cleaning, and
laundry. Although social expectations are changing and some families share all the household
responsibilities, in many homes, gender stereotypes dictate who does what.
• Communication helps us create communities

We all live and interact in a co mmunity of some kind just by virtue of living in a house,
apartment, or dorm. But communities are more than geographic locations. Communities are also
created by shared meanings for symbols. These shared meanings bind people together in support
or work networks. So, someone who lives hundreds or thousands of miles from you could be part
of your social community because you both share a similar language or symbol system.
• Communication forms and strengthens relationships

Through communication, we form human bonds that, in turn, form our friendships, families, and
work relationships. We fall in love using communication. We solve problems at work by
communicating with our co-workers, and we create lasting friendships by sharing stories,
experiencing new things, and being supportive of one another. It is through communication that
we share our emotions and feelings.
• Communications helps us to influence others

Communication allows us to sell products, campaign for an issue or candidate, debate a topic in
class, and get the other person to think like us. Persuasion is an integral part of our lives because
it allows us to influence people and sell our views to them.
• Communication conveys and creates information

Communication helps us create information and knowledge. We learn from one another and use
that information to develop new ideas and concepts. Communication allows us to find
information that will help us fulfill our needs. In our knowledge base world today, the
information you are distinguish by the level of information communicated to you, through several
media of communication, e.g. Internet, Radio, Television, Print Media etc.
Communication is simply who you are? Explain this in relations to the functions of
communication.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Communication is what gives life a meaning. Remove communication and the world is grounded.
Communication is the foundation for effective and meaningful living. It is the cycle that binds all
human processes together. It is the reason you are who you are; it the reason that relationship is
working for you; it the reason why people respect and adore you. Communication is simply who
you are.
7
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to establish that communication controls every human activity. It
broadly gives attempted an overview of communication. Communication as the wheel that drives
human life cycle therefore revolve around six steps cycle namely; aiming, encoding, transmitting,
receiving, decoding and responding. We further highlighted several ways in which
communication adds meaning to our lives - from us asserting and differentiating our personality,
creating communities and strengthening relationships, helping us to influence others, to
conveying and creating information.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

• Define communication.
• Explain the difference between encoding and decoding.
• Write a two page essay on how communication helped you create a sense of self in your
organization.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Stevens, S. S. (1950): ‘A Definition of Communication’ The Journal the Acoustical

Society of America, 22
Hovland, C. (1948): November 12), "Social communication," Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society
Schacter, S.(1951): ‘Deviation, Rejection, and Communication’ Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 46: p. 191.
Cooley, Charles H. (1909): Social Organization. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,
p.10
Thomas M. Steinfatt (1977): Human communication: An Interpersonal Introduction.

Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
Sarbaugh, Larry E. (1987): Intercultural Communication (rev. ed.). New Brunswick, NJ.
Nwankwo, R. L. (1973) Communication as Symbolic Interaction: A Synthesis. The

Journal of Communication, 23 (3), pp 195-215
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Characteristics of Communication

The nature of communication is basically the exchange of information between people. It
therefore required a sender and a receiver for communication to take place. Or simply put,
communication is reciprocal. So at any time the sender is sending a message, the receiver is also
8
sending messages. Effective communication thus, entails the sender encoding a message and
transmitting it to the receiver and the receiver successfully decoding the message.
The nature of communication, therefore, can be explained by the following characteristics of

communication:
 Two or more persons:
Communication involves at least two people.

• Sender: Who has a message to communicate?
• Receiver: Who gets the message and converts the message into thoughts?
 Message:
Message is information, ideas, opinions or emotions that are transmitted to the receiver. It drives
communication and without it there will be no communication. The message must have substance
to be effective. In other words, the sender of message must have something really worthwhile for
the receiver. For example, botanical names of plant will be of less interest to a student learning
commerce, likewise marketing principles to a biology student. For communication to be
successful, the receiver should first of all understand the message. For this, the sender must speak
in a language that is known to the receiver.
 Two-way process:
Communication is a two way process. At least two people are needed for successful
communication. Sender sends message and receiver receives the message and thereafter makes
feedback. Communication can take place only when there are at least two persons. One person
has to convey some message and another has to receive it. The receiver, however, need not
necessarily be an individual. Information may be conveyed to a group of persons at a time. For
example, in classroom, the teacher conveys information to a group of students. If the receiver
needs any clarification, he can ask the sender of message immediately in the case of face to face
of telephonic conversation. Communication may also be sent by means of letters, circulars etc. If
a letter is sent, the receiver may respond to it either by way of a reply letter or as per the mode
desired by him or by the sender.
 Verbal or non-verbal:
Communication can be verbal or non verbal. Verbal communication means written or spoken
language or words. Non-verbal communication means facial expression, gestural expression etc.
The two can occur jointly or separately depending on the situation or environment.
 Formal or informal:
Formal communication follows established channels, while informal communication does not
follow the official channel. For instance, while formal communication respects and follows
9
established hierarchy, informal communication allows any individual to convey information to

anybody else freely without having to bother about the hierarchy. For example, in formal
communication a worker who wants to convey any information to the managing director can only
do so on the secretary’s permission. He cannot bypass the secretary and have direct contact with
the managing Director. On the other hand, informal communication involves conversation with
friends, peers, gossiping etc.
 Upward, Downward or Horizontal
Communication may flow up and down and also from side to side. While upward communication
starts from lower level and is transmitted to upper level of an organization, downward
communication is just opposite to upward communication. Horizontal communication occurs
within the same level.
 Continuous process
Communication is dynamic, a continuous process. The aim of communication is regularly to
create mutual understanding, trust, credibility and implementation of decisions quickly. So it is an
unending process. Sharing or exchanging information is an ongoing activity. As long as there are
human there will be communication. James Price Dillard and Michael Burgoon (1995) state,
"Communication processes are a fundamental part of virtually every part of human social life".
 Process of Exchange
Message or information is exchange and follows some sequential steps: Sender => Medium =>
Receiver. For instance, the sender sends a message using medium to the receiver and receiver
receives the message and makes feedback to the sender.
Communication processes are a fundamental part of virtually every part of human social life.
Justify this statement in view of characteristics of communication.
3.2 Attributes of Communication
The characteristics of communication can further be explained with understanding of some

specific attributes of communication. In general, an attribute is a feature or characteristic of
something. Colour, for example, is an attribute of your hair. (Rouse, 2005). Several
communication experts including Folarin (2002) highlighted some specific attributes of
communication in their works. These attributes are:
• Intentional and Unintentional
Communication can be intentional or unintentional. Intentional communication occurs when we

communicate with a specific goal in mind. It can be verbal or non verbal. Unintentional on
another occurs with the sender unaware of it.
10
• Systematic
Communication follows a specific process starting from the source, through the Channel to the
receiver and then the feedback.
• Dynamic Process
Communication is evolving. It improves with time and experience and age.
• Interaction and transaction
Communication is both an interaction and transactional process involving a source and receiver
that impacts one another in the process of communication.
• Personal
Communication strives on making meaning. The source and receiver must have a personal
understanding of meaning of signs and symbols they share for communication to be effective.
• Continuous
Communication gives life meaning, it comes and end with a person’s life.
• Irrevocable
Once a message is sent, it cannot be withdrawn. Only the intended meaning can be changed or
modified.
• Complex
Communication occurs in many forms and at different levels.
• Consummatory
Communication provides satisfaction to the communicator.

Communication occurs in many forms and at different levels. Highlight four forms and levels of
communication and describe the common features of each.
11
3.3 Barrier to Effective Communication
We will conclude this unit with a review of barriers to effective communication. Note that your
understanding of these barriers to effective communication is a first step in improving your
communication skills. Brian G. Wilson in his business communication lecture notes divided these
barriers into four major parts: encoding, transmitting, decoding and response barriers.
Encoding Barriers
The process of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a message requires skill and
knowledge. The under listed are basic encoding barriers:
 Insensitivity to Receiver
A breakdown in communication may result when a message is not adapted to its receiver.
Recognizing the receiver’s needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the
sender in preparing a successful message. If a customer is angry, for example, an effective
response may be just to listen to the person vent for awhile.
• Lack of Basic Communication Skills
The receiver is less likely to understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the
precise words needed and arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
• Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject
If the sender lacks specific information about something, the receiver will likely receive an
unclear or mixed message. Have you shopped for an item such as a computer, and experienced
how some salespeople can explain complicated terms and ideas in a simple way? Others cannot.
• Information Overload
If you receive a message with too much information, you may tend to put up a barrier because
the amount of information is coming so fast that you may have difficulty comfortably interpreting
that information. If you are selling an item with twenty-five terrific features, pick two or three
important features to emphasize instead of overwhelming your receiver with an information
avalanche.
• Emotional Interference
An emotional individual may not be able to communicate well. If someone is angry, hostile,
resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to receive the
intended message. If you don’t like someone, for example, you may have trouble “hearing” them.
12
Transmitting Barriers
Things that get in the way of message transmission are sometimes called “noise.” Communication
may be difficult because of noise and some of these problems include:
• Physical Distractions
A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant can destroy communication. If an E-mail message
or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver
may not be able to concentrate on the message because the physical appearance of the letter or E-
mail is sloppy and unprofessional.
• Conflicting Messages
Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver may result in incomplete
communication. For example, if a person constantly uses jargon or slang to communicate with
someone from another country who has never heard such expressions, mixed messages are sure to
result. Another example of conflicting messages might be if a supervisor requests a report
immediately without giving the report writer enough time to gather the proper information. Does
the report writer emphasize speed in writing the report, or accuracy in gathering the data?
• Channel Barriers
If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may cease.

Detailed instructions presented over the telephone, for example, may be frustrating for both
communicators. If you are on a computer technical support help line discussing a problem, it
would be helpful for you to be sitting in front of a computer, as opposed to taking notes from the
support staff and then returning to your computer station.
• Long Communication Chain
The longer the communication chain, the greater the chance for error. If a message is passed
through too many receivers, the message often becomes distorted. If a person starts a message at
one end of a communication chain of ten people, for example, the message that eventually returns
is usually liberally altered.
Decoding Barriers
The communication cycle may break down at the receiving end for some of these reasons:
• Lack of Interest
13
If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the message, the reader may read the
message hurriedly or listen to the message carelessly. Miscommunication may result in both
cases.
• Lack of Knowledge
If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled with technical information, communication

will break down. Unless a computer user knows something about the Windows environment, for
example, the user may have difficulty organizing files if given technical instructions.
• Lack of Communication Skills
Those who have weak reading and listening skills make ineffective receivers. On the other hand,
those who have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on listening, have less
trouble hearing and interpreting good communication. Many people tune out who is talking and
mentally rehearse what they are going to say in return.
• Emotional Distractions
If emotions interfere with the creation and transmission of a message, they can also disrupt
reception. If you receive a report from your supervisor regarding proposed changes in work
procedures and you do not particularly like your supervisor, you may have trouble even reading
the report objectively. You may read, not objectively, but to find fault. You may misinterpret
words and read negative impressions between the lines. Consequently, you are likely to
misunderstand part or all of the report.
• Physical Distractions
If a receiver of a communication works in an area with bright lights, glare on computer screens,
loud noises, excessively hot or cold work spaces, or physical ailments, that receiver will probably
experience communication breakdowns on a regular basis.
Responding Barriers
The communication cycle may be broken if feedback is unsuccessful.
• No Provision for Feedback
Since communication is a two-way process, the sender must search for a means of getting a
response from the receiver. If a team leader does not permit any interruptions nor questions while
discussing projects, he may find that team members may not completely understand what they are
to do. Face-to-face oral communication is considered the best type of communication since
14
feedback can be both verbal and nonverbal. When two communicators are separated, care must be
taken to ask for meaningful feedback.
• Inadequate Feedback
Delayed or judgmental feedback can interfere with good communication. If your supervisor gives
you instructions in long, compound-complex sentences without giving you a chance to speak, you
may pretend to understand the instructions just so you can leave the stress of the conversation.
Because you may have not fully understood the intended instructions, your performance may
suffer.

Focusing on Information Overload as a barrier to effective communication. Justify the impact of
the many and varied promotional messages through Radio, Television, SMS and Newspapers by
Telecommunication Companies.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The nature of communication is basically the exchange of information between people. It is best
described by understanding of some specific characteristics of communication. And a better
understanding of these characteristics requires good knowledge of some attributes and barriers to
effective communication.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to describe communication as a key driver of every form of human
activities. We highlighted specific characteristics of communication including involvement of
two or more person, message, a two-way process, verbal or non verbal, formal or informal,
upward, downward or horizontal, a continuous process, and a process of exchange.
Furthermore, we highlighted some scholarly views of some specific attributes of communication

which among others are intentional and unintentional, systematic and dynamic process, personal,
interaction and transactional process etc. we end the unit with a highlight of some established
barriers to effective communication.
15
Communication may be difficult because of ‘noise’. In view of the peculiar nature of the National
Open University of Nigeria, highlight and describe some barriers that may hinder effective
communication between the university and the student.

James Price Dillard & Michael Burgoon (eds.) (1995), Communication Research:
Communication and Social Influence, Vol. 22, No.4, London: Sage Periodicals
Press, p. 397.
Sambe J.A. (2005). Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books Limited
Uyo, A. O. (1989). Mass Communication Media: Classification and Characteristics. New

York: Civilities, 1987.
Margaret Rouse, Editorial Director: (2005), www. techtarget.com/definition/attribute
Brian G. Wilson in www.marin.edu/buscom/index_files/Page565.htm. May 16, 2012.
16
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Communication Process

Communication is the interdependent process of sending, receiving, and understanding messages.
As you will discover, communication is a dynamic process, a process that changes from one
communication setting to the next. Although it is difficult to predict the ways your ideas will be
interpreted by others, certain components are always present in the communication process:
people, a message, encoding, decoding, the channel, feedback, the context, and noise (Figure 1.
1). Understanding these components will give you both an awareness of the communication
process and a working vocabulary to help you formulate and dissect messages.
Activities/ Purposing Encoding Transmitting Receiving Responding

Elements
Source X X
Message X
Channel/
Medium
Receiver X
Noise X X X
Feedback X
Meaning X
(Figure 1.1)
Mass Communication research involves any of these elements of the communication process. The
researches tend to find out what goes on in the process before information is brought to us as
news.
Lasswell's paradigm sums up these elements that are at work in the communication process thus:
Who say what in Which Channel to Whom with What Effect?
17
This model also sums up the activities that go on in communication. Here, someone, (who) says
something (what) through (which) medium/channel to someone else (whom) which brings about
some response (effect).
So, in mass communication, one can analyse any of the elements of communication and such
research will be categorised according to the element being researched. Hence, when we carry out
research on the:
i. Source: We are doing Control Analysis
The source invariably controls communication, so it is a very important element of

communication. For instance, how will a media organisation handle an advertisement that carries
unfavourable news about the organisation? Is the organisation likely to produce/ present the
unfavourable advert as it is to the audience? Is it going to use its control as the source of
information to adjust certain things on the advertisement or drop the advertisement completely?
In doing a control analysis, one could research - the Editors, Columnists reporters etc analysing
their: qualifications, work-orientations, ideologies, training, dispositions etc. Control analysis can
also be done on the ideological set-up of the media organisation itself.
(ii) Message: Content Analysis
When we do a content analysis, the researcher may want to analyse the message of
communication. What is message? How is it presented to the audience by the different media
organisations?
Berlo has a good piece on message.
He looks at message from the point of view of its Elements and Structure. That is, what are the
components of message? (codes presented in form of signs and symbols), what is the structure
of a message - is the message inferential or substantial? Berlo sees message in terms of
CODES. Codes: are signs and symbols that give expression to content. The content of different
newspapers and TV/Radio can be the same but the codes used by each of these media
organisations/ must definitely be different.
This is because different media organisations use different codes. For instance, if one is producing
for a TV house, he has to know the codes used for video tapes, unlike a journalist who reports for
a newspaper. Each media organisation has its own codes. Berlo sees message in terms of: the
codes used to package the information, the content and the treatment of such information.
(iii) Channel/Medium: Media Analysis
What one can research under Media Analysis include: the kinds of media of communication that
exists, their characteristics, their significance (importance) and the kind of relationship that exists
between them. How do these media organisations operate? Will a particular message sent through
the mass medium affect people the same way it will, if sent, through the interpersonal medium?
18
What are the powers of the various media? What makes a particular medium (e.g. the radio) more
potent than another (e.g. film)?
(iv) Receiver: Audience Analysis
The receiver is the target audience of media organisations. So researches can be conducted to find
out their - nature, aspirations, needs, beliefs, motifs, social status, and how they can be satisfied.
All these contribute to their reactions and responses towards media message. One can also
research on what makes the audience yield to some messages and reject others. The reason for
their choice and preference of one medium to another and of course what makes some audiences
"Obstinate" to the messages of communication, as observed by Wilbur Schramm (1954).
The Audience Analysis of a researcher can fall under the categories of:
• Demographics: Here we study the age, sex, educational background, economic and social
status of the audience. What effects do these have on an audience's behaviours towards
mass media messages?
• Psychographics: This is the study of needs, dispositions, aspirations, inclinations,
individual differences and the relationship of the mass audience.
(v) Meaning:
This is not often mentioned in mass communication research studies because it is abstract and we
cannot see it; but then it is one of the elements of communication.
Meaning: Is the set of responses we have to any stimulus or message. It is “…a person's inner
response to a message - the internal experiences the message evoke” (Silo, 2007).
(vi) Noise:
Noise is not an element of communication process per se, but it can come in at any point in the
process of communication. If this happens, there is disruption in the process and hence, its
interference with the meaning of the messages being sent across. Consequently communication
becomes ineffective because there is no "sharing of meaning" which is what communication is all
about. So, NOISE is anything that interferes with the process of communication.
(vii) Feedback:
This is the response of the receiver to the original message sent by the source. It is reactions of the
receiver which could be exhibited cognitively (through thinking), affectively (through emotional
responses) or behaviourally (through physical actions). It is this feedback that the source gets
which he now uses to re-structure his subsequent messages, if need be.

19
The communication process is incomplete without feedback. Using a personal experience story,
justify the importance of feedback in the communication process.
3.2 Activities of Communication
Every element of the communication process engages in an activity. Communication theorists try
to explain what happens in the communication process. In any communication process, the
elements involved perform certain activities in order to ensure an effective communication. These
activities are:
ACTIVITIES
Activities/ Sending
Elements Purposing Encoding Transmitting Receiving Decoding Responding
Source
Message
Channel/
Medium
Receiver
1. Purposing:
The purpose of any communication, more often than not, is in the mind of the source. This is the
intension of the source which he has in mind. He gives substance to this purpose when he codes
them into messages.
Hence, when we communicate, we are "purposing". Both source and receiver are purposive
communicators because both of them have some intensions. The source and the receiver are not
actually different in the activities they carry out except that they are reverse in action. According
to Osgood’s Model of Communication,
20
both the source and the receiver are doing the same thing simultaneously. They both function as
the encoder, interpreter and decoder. Much as the purpose of communication is in the mind of the
source, the initial response is also in the reaction of the receiver.
2. Encoding
This simply means translating our purpose into symbols that can be understood by the receiver.
Steinfatt defines communication as "the . . . sharing of mutually understood symbols". According
to him, the source can also be the message. For instance, in a ‘kidnap case’ where the person
kidnapped needs to be seen physically before the ransom being demanded is paid, if the person
passes before his relations so as to confirm that he is still alive; then the person becomes the
message. Message is the central element of communication around which every other thing
revolves.
3. Sending
This involves a lot of channels. The message of communication needs to be transmitted

through any of the various channels of communication. Sending is a very important activity in
the process of communication because if a message is conceived, coded but not sent to the
receiver, then no communication takes place. It means the message is still within the scope of
the source, yet to get to the receiver.
4. Receiving
Without receiving the message, there cannot be any decoding and, hence, no communication.
If Edward writes a note or sends a message to Cyril and Georgette forgets this letter in her
handbag, it means Cyril has not received the message. The meaning which Edward wants
Cyril to get becomes pending and therefore no sharing takes place and of course no
communication occurs.
5. Decoding
21
This depends on the type of communication; whether it is interpersonal non-mediated or personal

mediated etc.
• For the "interpersonal non-mediated", decoding is done directly by the human elements
involved (i.e. the source and receiver). Decoding is the translation of the symbols into
understandable meaning by the receiver. This is done when the message gets to its
destination.
• For the interpersonal mediated type of communication, decoding does not occur
immediately. Example: in electronic communication, say, the telephone, the handset first
receives the message, transmits it to the receiver (person) who now decodes the message
at its destination.
6. Responding
This is usually shown through feedback from some overt behaviour in the receiver. Responding
to the message takes place when the receiver . has hot the message, decoded it and yielded to it.
Responding is therefore about the last lap of the communication process in which the receiver
reacts to the message of communication.
The communication process is an ADDITIVE process because one thing leads to the other. It is a
chain of events that sums up to achieve the purpose of communication. Any break in this chain
affects communication e.g. if one writes a letter without posting it, the communication process
stops only at the encoding stage. If one receives the letter without decoding it, the communication
stops at the receiving stage, hence, no sharing of meaning and thus no effective communication.
Note, however, that decoding or and comprehending are not synonymous with YIELDING. One
may comprehend a message but refuse to yield to it.

The communication process is an ADDITIVE process. Write a two page essay to justify the
statement.
3.3 Effects of Communication
This is, perhaps, the most controversial aspect of communication. No other aspect of
communication has provoked much controversy, generated much interest and aroused much
feeling as the "Effects" of communication. Effects bother on: What communication does to those
who engage in it, what it brings about in them and of course what those who engage in
communication do with it. Effects can be looked at also from various angles. It can be seen from
the point of view of affecting:
1. An Object:
Knowledge is one such object that communication can have effect on. This is because through
communication the body of knowledge one has within him increases. This increase in knowledge
22
store subsequently affects the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, dispositions and behaviours (these
are all objects). The effect of communication on these objects leads to change in behaviour. This
change in behaviour could be positive (as in an enhanced personality) or negative (as in the case
of cultural alienation).
2. Level:
The level at which communication takes places determines the kind or scope of effect that
communication will have. Hence the effect of communication routed through my students who
are reputable pressmen to the head of state will be more significant and plausible than that effect
of some communication I engaged in with the Chairman of my Local Government Area. Effects
of communication can therefore be on local, communal, state, regional, national and global levels.
The concert Steve Wonders and other notable musicians performed some years ago (to improve
the conditions of the less - privileged in the world) had a very global effect. Many people came
from various parts of the world to attend the show and by so doing, contributed a lot to the course
of that programme.
3. Duration
The effect of communication can be:
i. Transient
This type of effect is short-lived or can be said to be consumatory. A good example of this is the
type of effect the advert messages, sales-bonanzas; promotional strategies have on the buyers.
This type of effect is very ephemeral and often fizzles out as soon as these promotional tools
(strategies) are withdrawn. It is the kind of effects we get from information for immediate use.
ii. Permanent
This is the long-time effect of communication on people. It is instrumental effect of

communication which culminates in attitudinal and behavioural changes. This in turn creates
permanent change in the individual. The lectures given to students, for instance, inculcate in
them, stills that will make them professionals in their different fields of study. This is long time
effect of the messages of communication on the totality of their persons.
iii. Immediate, Delayed or Intermittent
The immediate effect of communication is that which shows the audience or receiver of a
message of communication responding instantly to the stimulus received. A good example is the
reaction of the "Area boys" in Lagos immediately the death of Late Bashorun Abiola was
confirmed on the Network news.
23
The effect of communication is said to be delayed when the message of communication does not
spur an immediate reaction on the receivers of the message. If a person is suddenly and tactlessly
informed that he has lost a deal' one through a fatal motor accident. the person may not show any
serious abnormal behaviour. If five days later the person starts behaving abnormally and talking
out of tune, then it means the person is exhibiting a delayed effect of the communication message
passed on to him five days earlier on.
Some media messages can have intermittent effects on the individuals. The issue of June 12
elections and the post-June 12 election crises which come up intermittently (anytime those who
feel aggrieved about that issue remember it) is a good illustration of the intermittent effect of
communication on the audience.
As earlier mentioned, the effect of communication has generated a lot of controversies among
scholars say media messages have direct effects on the audiences others say the effects are
indirect and yet another group contend that media messages do not have any effect on the
individuals at all. The climax being the fact that Defleur in (…) believes that the effect of mass
communication is very powerful and dangerous on the society, hence, the notion of:

The effect of communication is said to be delayed when the message of communication does not
spur an immediate reaction on the receivers of the message.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Everyone communicates, some better than others. Understanding the communication process can
help you improve communication with relations, course mate, colleagues or friends. In both the
communication process and activities of communication; the communicator develops an exact
idea about concepts, beliefs or data that he wants to convey. Then he translates the idea into
words, symbols or some other form of message which he expects the receiver to understand. The
communicator picks out an appropriate medium for transmitting the message. The message is
then received by the communicatee. The communicatee acts upon the message as he has
understood it. Finally, the effectualness of communication is assessed through response or
feedback. If the communication brings in the desired changes in the actions, it is said to be
successful communication.
Furthermore, successful communication is expected to have certain effect on both the sender and
the receiver. These effect has been categories as transient, permanent, immediate, delay or
intermittent.
5.0 SUMMARY
24
In this unit, we identify and describe communication as an ongoing, dynamic process that changes
from one communication setting to the next. We discuss the various components that are always
present in the communication process: people, a message, encoding, decoding, the channel,
feedback, the context, and noise. We also used the activities of communication: purposing,
encoding, sending, receiving. Decoding and receiving to explain the process. We conclude the
unit with insight on the effect of communication which can be transient, permanent, immediate,
delayed or intermittent.
Communication process is a chain of events that sums up to achieve the purpose of

communication. Draw a prototype of the NOUN Communication activities cycle and explain how
effective these activities are in imparting knowledge on the students.
Berlo D. K. (1960), The process of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart, &
Winston
W. L. Schramm (1954), “How Communication Works,” in The Process and Effects of

Mass Communications, ed. W. Schramm. Urbana: University of Illinois Press
H. D. Lasswell (1948), “The Structure and Function of Communications in Society,” in
The Communication of Ideas, ed. L. Bryson, 37–51. New York: Knopf.
25
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.0 Types of Communication
There are many types of communication. The three general categories are:
• Human communication
• Animal communication
• Machine communication.
These -major categories can be further sub-divided into classes:
1. Human Communication
This is communication among human beings. Man can communicate with himself well as with
other people. Hence, we have: intra-personal, interpersonal, group, organizational, institutional
public and mass communication.
26
i. Intra-personal
In intrapersonal communication, one communicates with himself especially as it relates to

activities occurring within the body systems. Intrapersonal communication is the basis of human
communication Okunna (1994). According to her type of communication involves the exchange
of messages between the brain and the sense organs of the body. E.g. someone may be
considering various factors within himself before he takes a decision on a particular issue. At
times one’s body mechanisms may communicate some information to the person, e.g. some sins
in a female can communicate the onset of her monthly period. Also some physiological changes
in a young man can communicate the onset of puberty to him e.g. the growing of beards and
deepening of voice.
ii. Interpersonal
Interpersonal Communication is that between two or more individuals. According to Okunna

(1994), it is communication that goes on between people, mostly in a face-to-face situation. Such
a situation makes it possible for feedback to be immediate. Feedback is given in the form of both
verbal and non-verbal cues because the person participating in the face to face communication
can utilize word as well as gesture and other non-verbal cues to indicate that messages are being
clearly received and understood.
iii. Group communication
Group communication has to do with communication between different groups of people. It is a

form interpersonal communication because it is mostly in a face-to-face situation and feedback is
most time immediate. A good example group communication are lecture, round table discussion,
a political rally, evangelical crusade etc.
iv. Organizational communication
Organizational communication is communication between different set-ups, e.g. department;

units- or segments of an organization, e.g., when the Vice-Chancellor of a university is holding
talks with deans in the various faculties or the heads of the various departments. Also the
management of an establishment may hold discussions with the heads of units of the different
segments of the organization.
Organizational communication is the heart of all these forms of communication, the reason being
that most of the life activities are carried out in one organization or the other. Besides,
communication flow is very important in any organizational set-up otherwise there will be a
severe dearth of information. This situation could cripple the organization, a fact that could
further affect productivity and subsequently affect the welfare of the society. The problems that
lack of communication in an organization can cause are many and endless, hence the importance
of organizational communication.
v. Institutional communication
27
Institutional communication refers to communications between different institutions in the

society. Institutions here refer to organisations or social structures that have something similar.
Examples are the Broadcasting Organisations of Nigeria (BON), Manufacturing Association of
Nigeria (MAN), National Universities Commission (NUC), Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), and
Nigerian Medical Association (NMA). There can be communication between any of these
institutions whenever the need arises.
vi. Public and Mass Communications
Public and mass communications are somewhat problematic because people tend to use them
interchangeably. This is very wrong and, thus, has created some confusion in the past. Public
communication is the communication among people of common interest and, perhaps, of same
social background, e.g. communication between members attending political parties, social clubs,
village meetings etc.
Mass communication, on the other hand, is communication between a source or few sources and a
larger and heterogeneous audience. In this case, the target audience does not have same interests
or social backgrounds. They can only be reached through a mechanical device, hence, it is a
mediated form of communication to a larger audience who are all reacting or responding to the
stimuli of that communication.
Social communication is the combinations of all these forms of communication discussed above.
Human communication encompasses much more than mere written and oral speech but also
includes: music, pictorial arts, theatre etc, and in fact, all forms of human behaviours. Hence, we
have verbal and non-verbal communication.
vii. Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is the specific ways of transmitting messages, using words and symbols to
represent real objects and ideas. The counterpart of verbal is non-verbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is the mode (form) of communication that includes all forms of
transmission of messages not represented by words and symbols. So, it comprises sign language,
action or movement language and pictorial language.
Examples of non-verbal communication are:
 Chronemics - Communication through use of time.

 Kinesis - Communication through body movements (up to700, 000
body signs abound)
 Proxemics - Communication through use of space e.g. a white
man who chooses to stand up in a bus rather than sit near a
black man communicates racism or racial segregation.
• Occulesics - Use of eye contact in discussions.
• Haptics - Use of touch to communicate feelings
• Objectics - Choice and use of objects. For instance, one's choice of
28
clothes tells a lot about the individual.

 Voclics - Communication through changes in human voice e.g. a
sudden change in one's voice tone during a communication
process can communicate annoyance.
 Paralinguistics - Communication through tone, pitch, e.g., sighing.

 Metacommunication - Communication that is beyond just what the person is
saying. One needs to listen well or read in between the lines
to understand it. E.g., speaking in biblical tongues, reading
some philosophical works
2. Animal communication
Animal communication is communication between animals. Typical examples are when animals
pursue one another away from each others’ domain. Also when a dog, fowl, goat, lizard gives its
opposite gender a hot chase for amorous purposes. At times animals communicate to their owners
e.g. the wagging of tails by dogs when welcoming their 'masters'.
3. Machine communication
Machine communication is the kind of communication we get through machines. A typical

example today is the use of computers to gather, process, store and retrieve information and
transmit it to the appropriate quarters whenever the need arises. Other information technology
includes the fax machines, Emails, Voice-Mails, M-NET, Satellites, Cable networks, Internet etc
and their various decoders. Recently improvement and sophistication in technology have elevated
the importance and application of this form of communication.

Intrapersonal communication is the basis of human communication. Discuss
3.2 Context of Communication:

Every communication process takes place in a given context. Communication does not occur in a
vacuum. The context determines other things that will happen in the communication process.
What therefore is context?
29
This is the situation, circumstance or the background in which communication takes place.
Etymology:
The word is of a Latin origin meaning - 'Con' 'with', and 'Testerel’ ‘text'. Inferentially,
this means the text (message) and-with the other variables. In communication, we look at
the source, the receiver and the other variables (elements). So, what binds all of them is
the particular context in which they operate at any given time. Hence, in communication
we can look at the: economic, technological, physical, sociological, cultural and other
educational contexts- in which communication occurs. In a lecture hall, for instance, the
social context of communication will be:
• The students in the class, their number, social status, relationships, dispositions,
educational levels etc.
• The teacher - the kind of lectures he or she delivers, the way he or she delivers lectures,
the way he or she relates to the students etc.
Other determinants of the context of communication are: Time and place of communication and
the size (number) of the participants in the communication process.
 Time
Time can be looked at from various angles. For instance, if get a phone call at 12 mid-day and
another at 12 mid-night, the communication of these two separate calls will not have occurred in
the same context. That of 12 mid-day may be under a normal circumstance, while that of 12
midnight has a note of urgency and emergency about it. In the villages, if one whistles at night, it
is believed that the person is communicating with spirits. This would be a cultural context,
whereas whistling in the day time would be communication in the normal social context.
 Number of Participants
The number of the participants in a given communication can determine the context. For instance,
the kind of lecture a teacher delivers in a 20 man class is definitely going to be different from that
delivered in a 250 man class. This is because the time spent to teach a particular concept would
differ in both classes. The level of understanding the level and scope of attentiveness and the
level of interest generated would also differ. Hence the smaller class can operate under a less
formal, relatively friendly and of course a more sociable context than the large class which is very
likely to occur under a more formal and oppressive class situation.
 The Place
30
The venue of communication can also give an insight into the context of that communication. If a
teacher moves his or her ‘religious studies ’ lecture to a church pulpit and presents it beautifully
well, then the context of that communication changes from that of a lecture to a "church sermon".
Also, if we move our lectures from this lecture site to the "Alpha Beach" as part of our Easter
Jamboree, the lecture would not have been given in the normal, strict, academic educational
context. It changes to a social context.
How does the context of communication affect effective communication?
If communication takes place in a wrong context, the communication is not likely to be effective
because the other variables in the communication process will not fall in place , so, there will be a
break in the chain of communication and this will interfere with the sharing of meaning. In this
way, the essence of that communication is lost.

Every communication process takes place in a given context. Highlight and discuss the various
communication contexts.
3.3 Significance of Communication

What is the importance of communication, what roles does it perform in the social circles;
communities, organisations and the entire nation? What can we do with communication; what
roles does communication perform or play both in human and non-human systems?
Communication is inexplicably inter-twined with human existence. We can hardly separate

communication from anything we do. Regarding the human linguistic experience, two scholars –
Sapir and Whorf (quoted in Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) hypothesised about the influence of
language (communication) on our perception. This hypothesis posits that:
• Without language, we cannot think;

• Language influences perception, and
• Perception is influenced by our thinking patterns.
By this hypothesis, language is seen as a critical aspect of culture. To a great extent,

language determines how we perceive the world around us. We can hardly think about
anything we do not have words for in our language.
The significance of communication can also be appreciated when we look at the key-roles
communication performs for us. Some of these roles include:
1. Self Actualization
31
This is a very important role as it ranks highest on at Abraham Maslow's ‘Hierarchy of Needs’. It
is the greatest need man wants to achieve. Through communication, man gets information on
health issues, education, occupation and other novelties. He uses the information he or she gets to
improve his or her lot and thus meaningfully integrates himself or herself into his or her social
milieu. Conversely, he also gets information on the threats that abound in the society and so
prepares himself or herself to reach to them socially and reasonably.
2. Liberation
Communication liberates an individual and so makes him to know the truth; the truth that he has
some social and political rights in the society, and also the truth which helps him to appreciate the
fact that he is free to express himself. This "freedom", however, is not the freedom to trample on
other people's freedom; but the "freedom to be civil and show respect for other people's own
freedom". By being free, the individual then overcomes fear and consequently feels protected in
his society.
3. Socio-Politico-Economic Mobilisation
Communication is very significant and important for the level of mobilisation required to develop
a country. Without communication either on an interpersonal or mass levels, it may not be
possible to gather and educate the citizenry towards appreciating and accepting some
developmental programmes for their society/communities. This is the simple reason why most
programmes (which do not involve their beneficiaries in the planning phases) fail,
The fact that communication is ubiquitous shows how important it is and its significance to
human nature. This issue can, therefore, not be overemphasized

Highlight and discuss the importance of communication in your journey for self actualization.
8.0 CONCLUSION
We shall conclude this discussion of the significance, types and contexts of communication in the
words of Opubor, quoted in Okunna (1994); … Communication is the sharing of experience. It
may involve two people interacting in a face-to-face situation; it may involve one person telling
folktales in the presence of a participating group; it may involve many people reading the thought
of one person, or hearing his voice over the radio. All of these are instances of sharing of
experience.
9.0 SUMMARY
32
In this unit we highlighted and discussed the significance of communication, as well as the
different types and contexts of communication. On the significance of communication we
highlighted the importance communication in self actualization, socio-political-economic
mobilization and liberation. We also look at the impact of timing, audience size and place on
successful communication. Recognizing every type of communication as a sharing of experience,
we highlighted the various types of communication: Human, animal and machine
communication. Further describing human communication as the most complex, we highlighted
the various types of human communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, organizational,
institutional, public and mass communication.
1. How does communication create our sense of self?

2. Describe the different types of communication and their significance in nation building.
Okunna, Chinyere Stella (1994): Introduction to Mass Communication. Enugu: New

Generation Books.
Opubor, Alfred (1985): ‘Mass Communication and Modern development in Nigeria,’

uoted In Okunna, C. S. (1994). Introduction to Mass Communication. Enugu,
New Generation Books.
Thomas M. Steinfatt (1977): Human Communication: An Interpersonal Introduction.

Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill,
33
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Mass Communication?

The term “mass communication” is used in a variety of ways, which, despite the potential for
confusion, are usually clear from the context. These include: (a) Reference to the various
activities of the mass media as a group, (b) The use of criteria of a concept, “massiveness”, to
differentiate among media and their activities and (c) The construction of questions about
communication as applied to the activities of the mass media. Significantly, only the third
definition does not take the actual process of communication for granted. (Debanjan, 2010)
In the Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, Mass Communication is the term used to describe the
academic study of the various means by which individuals and entities relay information through
mass media to large segments of the population at the same time. It is usually understood to relate
to newspaper and magazine publishing, radio, television and film, as these are used both for
disseminating news and for advertising.
Mass communication is a very complex process, much more complicated than interpersonal
communication. This is because every single message sent through mass medium is transmitted
through an elaborate system of machines and individuals. (Okunna, 1994)
Sydney Head (1976) suggests that the term mass communication must imply at least five things:
(a) Relatively large audience (b) Fairly undifferentiated audience composition (c) Some form of
message reproduction (d) Rapid distribution and delivery (e) Low unit cost to the customers.
Barker (1981) defines Mass communication as the spreading of a message to an extended mass
audience through rapid means of reproduction and distribution at a relatively inexpensive cost to
the consumer. In each case, a message is transported from its original source to a widespread
audience through an intermediary channel such as radio, television or news paper.
In the opinion of Mehta (1979) mass communication is concerned with transmitting information,
thoughts and opinions, entertainment, etc. at a time to a large number of audiences of different
characteristics.
Agee, Ault and Emery (1979) define mass communication as a process of sending a message,
thought and attitude through some media to a large number of heterogeneous audiences.
So far, you have an idea about mass communication. We can now define mass communication as
a process in which professional communicators design and use intermediary channels (radio,
television or newspaper) to disseminate messages quickly at a time to a large number of
heterogeneous but widespread and fairly undifferentiated audiences separated from a source by a
great distance.
34
Ordinarily, transmitting information to many persons is known as mass communication. Identify

key difference between mass communication, group and public communication.
3.2 Characteristics of Mass Communication

The following characteristics of mass communication distinguish it from other form of
communication;
• Communication is Mostly One Way
Mass communication is mostly a one way communication, unlike other forms of communication,
it does allow for immediate feedback. But the trend is fast changing in this era of ‘let the people
be carried’ along and technological advancement there is increasing audience participation in
mass communication.
• Audience Has Great Deal of Choice
Audience of mass communication message has a great deal of choice of media programmes or
channels to view or listen to. The many increasing number mass media of communication has
increase the choice of the audience.
• Reach Large and Vast Audiences
The audience of mass communication is heterogeneous and lives far apart yet they receive the
message at the same time.
1. Aim Messages to Attract Largest Audience Possible
Mass communication message is intended for a largest audience possible. That is why the scope
of mass media coverage area equates to its effectiveness.
• Influence Society and Are, In Turn, Influenced by Society
Mass communication message is intended to influence society and the media are in turn expected
to be influence by the society.
Professor John B. Thompson of Cambridge University, quoted in the Wikipedia Free
Encyclopedia, highlighted five characteristics:
35
• Mass communication comprises “both technical and institutional methods of production

and distribution" This is evident throughout the history of the media, from print to the
Internet, each suitable for commercial utility.
• It involves the "commodification of symbolic forms", as the production of materials relies

on its ability to manufacture and sell large quantities of the work. Just as radio stations
rely on time sold to advertisers, newspapers rely for the same reasons on their space.
• It separates contexts between the production and reception of information"
• Its "reach to those 'far removed' in time and space, in comparison to the producers".
• Information distribution" - a "one to many" form of communication, whereby products are

mass produced and disseminated to a great quantity of audiences.

An audience of mass communication message has a great deal of choice. Discuss this in view of
increasing media seeking audience attention in Lagos.
3.3 Importance of Mass Communication
With the advancement in information and communication technology, mass communication has
become inseparable part of the human life. Though the history of mass communication is
comparatively recent, it has become indispensable in today's society, which has become
dependent on mass communication.
a. National Development
Radio and Television have invaded almost every corner of the country. People sit glued to watch
television. Research has also proved the effectiveness of these media in informing and educating
people. Hence mass communication is one of the important inputs for the development of the
nation.
They become more aware of the country's problems and issues as well as help people develop
understanding of the social problems. They also contribute to increased understanding of culture,
politics, and economy etc.
b. Information Dissemination
Radio, television, newspaper, movies are used widely as means of mass communication for
information. Today, mass communication brings people closer by developing common
understanding of event or issue. We are dependent on mass communication not only for
information, entertainment and politics but also education, science, religion, charities, agriculture
and transportation.
36
As people become more literate, individualistic and cosmopolitan, the use of mass
communication channels becomes more and more important as there are many areas of common
concern and interest to people about which people want to know. Today's society has become far
too complex to function only through interpersonal or group communication. There are many
important messages of common concern which have to reach effectively to masses at a time.
c. Entertainment
Mass communication is woven into our day-to-day existence. We use mass media to satisfy our
need for entertainment or enlightenment. In more developed nations, people depend more on
mass communication channels for knowledge, entertainment and decision making.
d. Education
In a multicultural country like Nigeria, mass communication media is effectively becoming a

popular medium for mass education. Thus, mass communication has an important role to play in
enlightening the masses to raise the standards of their living and improve quality of life.
Communication with rural people is difficult and challenging, as many of them live in
inaccessible and isolated villages. In this situation, mass communication is the only alternative for
reaching them breaking all the barriers of physical distances and illiteracy.
e. Socialization
In one way or another, almost every major social activity in modern life depends on the use of
mass communication media to greater or lesser extent.
Mass communication is important for socialization of people because changes in subtle areas such
as the socialization of the individual in regard to knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs, can be brought
about through mass communication by using media like television and cinema.
f. Behaviour Change
Mass communication becomes very important while communicating ideas intended to change
behaviour of people right from developing awareness to adoption of an innovation. When people
are exposed to an increasing flow of information, they find themselves in a position which
necessitates a change in their aspiration, attitude and effort.
g. Better Standard of Living
37
Frequent exposure to mass media can create the urge for a higher standard of living. There is
adequate research evidence throwing light upon the potentialities of individual medium of mass
communication as well as a total effect of mass media exposure in changing cognitive and
affective behaviour of rural people for a better standard of living.
h. Transmission of Attitudes
Mass communication plays an important role in the transmission of attitudes, perceptions and
beliefs. Mass media like television and radio are influential force when the same ideas, people, or
behaviours, occur consistently from program to program and presented in a stereotype manner. i.
Job Creation
Mass communication has developed into an industry and has provided jobs to millions of people,
enabling them to earn their living.

Write a two-page essay on how mass media has help shape your life.
3.4 Media of Mass Communication

Mass media is simply classified into two broad groups – the print and electronic media. The print
media comprise books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, etc. The electronic media comprise
radio, television, and other mass media that rely on electric power to reach their audience.
The Print Media
The print media are the oldest of all media of mass communication, (Okunna, 1994), Starting
from ancient times, the print media have proliferated all over the world. They have also remained
popular channels of mass communication, in spite of the phenomenal development of the
electronic media in the modern world.
Explaining the advantage of the print media over the electronic media, Merrill and Lowenstein
(1979), quoted in Okunna (1994), stated that the print media have innate advantage over the radio
and television. These advantages accrue despite the overwhelming popularity of the electronic
media and their ability to attract the mass-mass audience. The outstanding advantage of print
media is reviewability. ... The print media do not exist in ‘time’ in the same manner as sound and
motion media. They may be previewed, scanned, or reviewed at the convenience of the reader.
One word, one chapter, one picture, or one advertisement can be examined and analyzed at the
reader’s leisure. The permanence and accessibility of words written on paper offer advantages
that sound and motion media are so far unable to equal, even with the arrival of the age of
electronic video recording.
38
However, a major disadvantage of the print media is illiteracy and poverty. The inability of many
people to read constitutes a great barrier to communication through the print media. Another great
barrier is the inability of several people to afford the cost of buying print media materials. For
instance, with increasing demand on the meager incomes of most Nigerians, majority people no
longer afford the cost of newspapers and magazines.
The Electronic Media
All media that depend on electric power to transmit their message to the audience are classified
under electronic media. Examples are cinema, radio, television, internet, and telephone. Although
the telephone is a two-way communication device, unlike mass media which refers to media that
can communicate a message to a large group often simultaneously, modern cell phones are no
longer a single-use device. Most cell phones are equipped with internet access and capable of
connecting to the web which itself is a mass medium.
Today, marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellite, and broadcast commercials and
advertisements directly to cell phones, unsolicited by the phone's user. This transmission of mass
advertising to millions of people is a form of mass communication.

Write a two-page essay on the history of Television in Nigeria.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Mass communication involves communication with mass audiences. It is a very complex process.
One major challenge with mass communication is the complex nature or characteristics of the
Sender (far away from the receiver), the Channel (divers and competitive), Message (mostly one
way), the receiver (heterogeneous, have choice), and Feedback (not immediate). Despite these
complexities, mass communication plays a major role in information dissemination, education,
nation building, transmission of attitude, job creation and so on. Further advancement in
information and communication technology has increased our reliance on media of mass
communication in directing affairs of our society.
5.0 SUMMARY
The unit has been able to briefly explain the concept of mass communication, and also show the
characteristics of the concept which include the mostly one way nature of the message, large and
vast audience, media choice and source influence. The unit further explored the importance of
mass communication, information dissemination, education, nation building. Others are
transmission of attitude, behaviour change, socialization, better standard of living, and job
39
creation. The unit ends with a highlight of the various media of mass communication, television,
radio, magazine, newspaper and Internet.

Differentiate mass communication from other forms of communication, highlight characteristics
of mass communication and describe the role of mass communication in national development.
Okunna, Chinyere Stella (1994): Introduction to Mass Communication. Enugu: New

Generation Books.
Banerjee Debanjan (2010), Mass Communication: Trends, Traits and Theories, ‘Journal
of Media and Communication Studies’, Vol. 2(5), Academic Journals.
Baran S. J. (2000): Introduction to Mass Communication. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield
Wikipedia.com
40
 .
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
Understanding the various functions of mass communication is very important for effective
application of theories of mass communication. Wright (1960), quoted in Wikibooks, identifies
some key functions of mass communication.
3.1 Surveillance
The first function of mass communication is to serve as the eyes and ears for those of us seeking
information about our world. In every society, the mass media carefully watch what goes on and
report this in the news. In this way, the members of the society become aware of what is
happening around them. They also know the threats and opportunities that abound in their
societies and avail themselves of this. This is called the "Watchman" function of communication.
Media serve as watchman. Some use the word ‘informer’. Mass media serve as the ears, eyes and
voice of the audience. We accept their reports and use them as a basis for shaping our thoughts,
attitudes and actions. For instance, the advertisements make known to us the new products. They
help the customer to make purchasing decisions
When we want to find out the latest news about what’s happening, we can turn on the television,
surf the Internet, or read a newspaper or magazine. We rely on mass communication for news and
information about our daily lives such as the weather, stock reports, or the start time for a game.
3.2 Correlation
The second function mass communication serves for the society, according to Lasswell, is
correlating the response of the whole society to the environment – that is, developing public
opinion. Communication helps to create consensus in a society on key issues. An informed or
enlightened opinion is essential for a healthy democracy.
41
Correlation addresses how the media present facts that we use to move through our society.
Various groups of people abound in every society. Some of these groups have their own different
views about life. Their aspirations are also quite different. If all these people are working
separately in isolation, then the society will not be conducive for them to live in. So what
communication does is to bring together all the different views of these groups of people in the
society so that they can work hand in hand with one another. This is achieved through discussions
or the mass media.
3.3 Entertainment
Mass media provide us with an escape from daily routines and problems by entertaining us
(Zillmann and Bryant, 1986). Media like soft sale magazines and entertainment-TV keep us up to
date on the doings of our favorite celebrities. We watch sports on television, go to the movies,
play video games, and listen to our ipods and radios. Most mass communication simultaneously
entertains and informs. We often turn to media in our leisure time to provide an escape from our
boredom and relief from the predictability of our everyday lives. We rely on media to take us
places we could not afford to go or imagine, acquaint us with bits of culture, and make us laugh
or cry. Entertainment can have the secondary effect of providing companionship and/or catharsis
through the media we consume.
3.4 Transmission of Culture

Mass communication media is a vehicle to transmit cultural norms, values, rules and habits.
Consider how you learned about what is fashionable to wear or what music to listen to. Mass
media plays a significant role in the socialization process. Mass Communication tries to transmit
the past culture of a society, from one generation to the other. Through verbal/non-verbal, formal
or informal communication, the child in a society gets to know the norms and values of his/her
society and thus keeps to them. This is a social process.
3.5 Social Mobilization

Mobilization is another critical function of the mass communication media. It functions to
mobilize people during times of crisis (McQuail, 1994). With instant access to media and
information, we can collectively witness the same events taking place in real time somewhere
else, thus mobilizing a large population of people around a particular event
3.6 Validation/Status Conferral
The mass communication media function to confer social status and prestige on individuals,
culture, causes or events. Lazarsfeld and Merton (1971) observed that mass communication
functions to validate the status and norms of particular individuals, movements, organizations, or
products. The validation of particular people or groups serves to enforce social norms.
42
The media validate particular cultural norms while diminishing differences and variations from
those norms. A great deal of criticism focuses on how certain groups are promoted, and others
marginalized by how they are portrayed in mass media.
Highlight and discuss key functions of the mass communication media in Nigeria.
3.2 Criticisms of the Media of Mass Communication

Mass communication media influence societies in a number of ways. They exert enormous impact
in shaping up society. In performing their functions the media attract severe criticism from the
public, especially among people who resist change in lifestyle and social norms. We will review
some key areas of general criticism of the Media mass communication as highlighted in
(ZeePedia.com)
 Conceal more than they reveals

A major criticism against mass communication media is that they only tell people half-truths. It is
believed that a better part of a story falls victim to media gate-keepers. For instance, at crisis
times like wars or political chaos, media only tell facts which the interest groups want to appear
before masses.
• Exaggerate
It has become a habit of media to blow up out of proportion some issues of sensitive nature which
creates so much panic among the people (authorities) who then instead finding a lasting solution
of those issues just try to hush up the issues.
• Sensationalize
Perhaps the most commonly leveled charge against media is their chronic approach to
sensationalize matters of routine life. In a murder story the media would go to find some juicy
thing out of nothing. A small tip from any person around may make a media person to build a
spicy story which may attract common people. More than often, the facts on which media build a
story prove wrong by later investigations.
• Damage cultural and family traditions

The way certain things appear in the mass media is seen a direct attack on peoples' lifestyle, belief
and normal social life. For instance, behaviour of characters in a radio or TV drama, dancing in
films and smoking and drinking actions all have invited severe disapproval of common people
who strongly argue that such an attitude of media is hurting the cultural norms and the family set
up. As a result, people do not allow certain TV channels be tuned, or some magazines to be
dropped at their homes.
• Bias
43
Media bias at times is too clear to be ignored. Siding with political parties, or showing despise to
certain government functionaries, at times persons like ministers, is a common sight. But it
works both sides; the government controlled media in all the countries show a visible tilt towards
the government while giving a bashing to the opposition, and on the other hand private sector
newspapers and TV channels remain occupied to lash out at the government actions and allow the
opposition to drag matters in the public which should have been talked about in the parliament.
Media bias is some times visible on regional, ethnic and linguistic grounds, only damaging a
society rather than bringing people closer.
• Commercialism: Trend is to mislead people

Although it is a slightly modern phenomenon, media are largely considering their commercial
interest more than what common people expect from them on pure professional grounds.
Advertisements are one way of wooing the media in the favour of rich, or influential.
• Pictures of killings unethical

Photos revealing a true fact in an ugly manner leave a bad taste in the mouth of many. Large
portions of the media blatantly refuse to follow ethics, which may cause intense pain to common
people. For instance, photo of a slain person dipped in a pool of blood, or headlines which
describe a crime in most horrible details upset the consumer public.
• Private life, obscenity
All people, including acclaimed celebrities have a private life. Media for their personal interest,
keep peeping into the private life and affairs of famous people and report matters to the public
which may ruin the lives of the stars.

Identify and discuss major criticism of the media in Nigeria
4.0 CONCLUSION
The mass media are the vehicle through which we inform, explain, and win support for a cause,
program or event. We get information about our world, nation and local affairs from the mass
media. This fact gives both print and electronic media important functions that include
surveillance of the environment, correlation of our society, transmission of culture, social
mobilization, and entertainment and status conferral. Apart from these functions, the media are
seriously under criticism for failing in their assumed duties. The major criticisms against the
media include concealing more than it reveals, exaggeration, sensationalization, bias, unethical
representation and promoting cultural imperialism.
44
5.0 SUMMARY
s
In this unit, we have been able to identify key functions of the media and some major criticisms
against the media. The functions highlighted above include surveillance of the environment,
correlation of our society, Transmission of culture, social mobilization, entertainment and status
conferral. Criticisms on the media discussed include concealing more than their reveal,
exaggeration, sensationalization, bias, unethical representation, promoting cultural imperialism
and non respect of one’s private life.

In every society, the mass communication media carefully watch what goes on and report this in
the news. Discuss the effectiveness of the Nigerian media in the discharge of their surveillance
function in last thirteen years of democratic rule and highlight major criticism of the media in
Nigeria.
Wright, C. R. (1960): Functional Analysis and Mass Communication. ‘Public Opinion

Quarterly’
Elliott, D. (2004): The Essential Role for News Media. Phi Kappa Phi Forum,
Zillmann, D., & Bryant,. J. (Eds.) (1986): Perspectives on media effects. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
McQuail, D. (1994): Mass Communication: An Introduction (2nd). Newbury Park, CA:

Sage.
Lazarsfeld, P. F, & Merton, R. K. (1971): Mass Communication: Popular Taste, and

Organized Social Action. In W. Schramm & D. Roberts (Eds.), The process and
effects of mass communication Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
ZeePedia.com, May 16, 2012
45
 .
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Theory

Generally speaking, the term theory is a multifaceted term. It means a number of different things,
depending on the context. In mathematics and the sciences, for example, a theory is a tested and
testable concept which is used to explain an occurrence. For students of the arts, “theory” refers
to the non-practical aspect of their work, while lay people refer to unproven ideas and speculation
as theories. The multitude of meanings for this word can get confusing, but the intent is usually
clear from the context; a mathematical paper talking about a theory, for example, is probably
referring to a theory in the scientific sense. (www.wiseGEEK.com)
There are as many definitions to the term as there are many theories of communication.
However, only a few of these definitions would be looked at so as to present the basic
components of a "theory". There is no exact definition of "theory". So here are some notable
definitions:
1. A theory is a general law that states the relationship between two or more variables.
2. A theory is a proposition that explains what happens between variables.
3. "A theory is a statement that purports to account for or characterize some phenomena"
(Barnum, 1990).
4. "A theory is a provisional explanatory proposition, or set of propositions, concerning

some natural phenomena and consisting of symbolic representations of
a. the observed relationships among (measured) events,
46
b. the mechanisms or structures presumed to underlie such relationships, or

c. (any) observed data in the absence of any direct empirical manifestation of the
relationships”.(Marx, 1976).
5. "A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena"(Kerlinger, 1986)
6. "Not until one has (concepts), and propositions stating the relations between them, and the
propositions form a deductive system not until one has all three does one have theory."
(Homans, 1964).
7. A set of constructs linked together by relational statements that are internally consistent
with each other (Berger and Chaffee)

A theory is built upon one or more hypotheses, and upon evidence. Discuss
3.3 Attributes of a Theory
Communication scientists try to evaluate theories to see how sound they are before adopting
them. The following list of attributes is what communication scholars look out for, in good
theories.
• Explanatory Power
The theory should be able to give plausible explanation for the phenomena it was constructed to
explain. Also a good theory should be able to explain a good range of phenomena. The greater the
number of phenomena a theory explains, the more powerful the theory.
• Predictive Power
A good theory should be able to predict events. It is however, possible that a theory may predict
an event but may not be able to provide plausible explanations to that event.
• Parsimony
Simple theories are usually preferred to complex ones. Assuming that both simple and complex
theories predict events and explain them equally well, it should be realized that "the complexity
of a theory is directly related to the complexity of the reality it seeks to explain".
• Internal Consistence
47
The internal logic of a theory should be easily assessed without carrying out any test. For
instance, a theory states that "students who work hard excel in their exams and subsequently
in life". This theory and the variables therein should be easily assessed even without having to
carry out empirical/scientific tests.
• Heuristic Provocativeness
A good theory should be able to generate new hypotheses which will expand the horizons of
Knowledge. For instance, if a theory states that "those who drive while drunk die of motor
accidents, this very theory should be able to generate the hypothesis that "if those who get
drunk are chauffeur-driven, they will live very long lives".
 Durability
A good theory should be able to stand the test of time. It should be a statement or
proposition that can stand for a long time without being flawed. On the other hand, some
scholars contend that good theories are those that can be proved false. For instance, Popper
(1963) "suggests that theoretical propositions should be attacked from a variety of angles to
see whether they can withstand efforts to disprove them".

Using the six attributes of theory, evaluate the agenda-setting and gate-keeping theory of mass
communication
3.3 Uses and Functions of Theories
Fawcett and Downs (1992) say that theories allow us to impose order on naturally unordered
experiences. They provide a systematic way of viewing random or chaotic experiences. Theories
also give us a structure with which to look at the experiences, or at the data derived from the
measurement of the experiences and order and analyse the data in a coherent manner. "The
function of a theory then is to describe, explain or predict limited properties of reality"
Bernard Cohen in 1994, drawing from the work of Larry Lauden in 1982 in Zeepedia, proposes
that the central function of theory is to solve problems. According to Lauden:
"The first and essential acid test for any theory is whether it provides acceptable answers to
interesting questions."
Theories can be used to address a number of type's problems. According to Lauden it can begin
with three types of problems:
Empirical problems
Conceptual problems
48
Practical problems
• Empirical problems
An empirical problem is "anything about the world which strikes us as odd or otherwise in need
of explanation".
• Conceptual problems
Conceptual problem exists when a particular theory exhibits inconsistencies that need to be
clarified
• Practical problems
The utility in solving practical problems has historically played a major role in both assessing and
promoting theory construction. Within the field of communication, the role of theory in dealing
with practical or applied problems is particularly important. Communication scholars often
confront applied issues such as how to improve the provisions of health care how to enhance the
effectiveness of problem solving organizational groups.

Theory provides a systematic way of viewing random or chaotic experiences. Describe the
various uses and functions of theory.
3.2 Specific Definition of Communication Theory
The specific definition is as it affects communication as a discipline. In other words, what do we

regard as theory in the communication field?
Communication theory is a set of constructs linked together, relational statements

consistent with each other and that explain what happens in communication. A set of
propositions that show the relationship between the various variables that are at work
in the communication process.
Theories are very important in communication because they are the foundation stones on which
the practice of communication operates. Communication requires very sound theories for there to
be an effective communication process. Hence, Kurt Lewin's assertion that "there is nothing so
practical as a sound theory". Good theories make for practicability of the phenomena
(events/activities) in communication.
Another way one can look at communication theory is by seeing it as propositions concerning the
various things we do in communication. In communication theory, we try to explain the various
phenomena that constitute communication. Communication is a universal phenomenon, hence all
49
other fields of study/disciplines use it. As scholars from these other fields borrow from
communication they also, in some ways, influence communication, by introducing some of their
own ideologies into the field of communication. Some of these ideas borrowed from other fields
are
• The term ‘feedback’ which is borrowed from the field of Engineering, from
'Cybernetics'
• The 'diffusion of information' is borrowed from Chemistry from the diffusion of gases.
• Information metabolism is borrowed from biology from the metabolic processes of the
human body (biology).
So the communicator looks beyond the field of Sociology and the Arts and borrows from other
fields. He or she has to be broad-minded, rather than narrow-minded otherwise, he or she will not
be able to practice his or her profession effectively.
From the foregoing, the most central concept in the various definitions of theory is the word
PHENOMEMA. What therefore is a phenomenon?
Phenomenon
This is anything we can observe directly through our senses or indirectly through our mind. So a
phenomenon, precisely put, is a THING. It can be anything one can think of. Hence,
communication is a phenomenon. There are categories of phenomena:
 Consequence - Pass/Fail
 Activity - Lecture
 Thing/Being - Student/Communications/Car
 Condition/State - Poverty/Wealth/Peace/Joy etc
 Occurrence - Rainfall/Earthquake/Flood
 Events - Matriculation/Inter-house
sports
Variables are properties of phenomena. They are also phenomena in themselves.
Describe a phenomenon and distinguish between theory and phenomenon.
4.0 CONCLUSION
50
We end this unit with Okenwa’s (2002) summary note on theory. According to him, a theory is a
set of propositions, consisting of defined and interrelated constructs. It sets out the interrelations
among a set of variables, and is so doing, presents a systematic view of the phenomena described
by the variables. A theory explains phenomena. It does so by specifying what variables are
related to what variables and how they are related, thus enabling researchers to predict from
certain variables to certain other variables (Okenwa, 2002).
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have been able to highlight and summaries some scholarly views on the basic
components of a theory. We identify theory as are a set of logically interrelated propositions,
presented in a systematic way which describe and explain social phenomena. We further
highlighted key attributes of good theories to include its Explanatory Power, Predictive Power,
Parsimony, Internal Consistence, and Durability. Finally we identify empirical problems,
conceptual problems and practical problems as three key problems a theory is meant to solve.
There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including the arts and sciences. Using the
various attributes of theory highlight the importance of theory in mass communication.

Okenwa Nnamdi S. (2002): The Mass Media Theories and Realities. Enugu: Bismark
Publications.
Kerlinger, Fred N. (1986): Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Homans, George C. (1964): “Bringing Men Back In.”, American Sociological Review.
Vol 29, No 5
51
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Significance of Theory in Mass Communication

Basically, human beings have reasons for doing most of the things they engage in. Since
communication is a very intricate activity of human beings, we have various reasons for
communicating with one another. These reasons have become so significant that conscious efforts
have been made by reputable scholars (both from other disciplines and within the field of
communication) to understudy the various elements of communication Chief among these are: the
‘audience’ and the ‘effects’ of communication. To achieve this, efforts were also concentrated on
the study of the environment in relation to what happens in the communication process. The
result is the massive list of theories of mass communication which erupted. Okenwa (2002) sets
out a definitive understanding of theories of mass communication in which some germane
statements stand out quite distinctly:
52
• No theory presents a complete picture of the realities in communication situations.

• No theory is totally independent; there is always a link between and among the
various mass communication theories.
• No theory is an end in itself. Theories, especially in mass communication, are a means
to an end; that end is the examination and explanation of communication behaviour,
encounters and activities.
As earlier on identified in the previous unit, a theory is a set of interrelated constructs . . . which
present a systematic view of a phenomenon. Communication is a great phenomenon for human
beings, hence the need to study the theories of mass communication as they are expected to
present vividly to us the relationship between "communication and reality". According to the
social psychologist Kurt Lewin (1958), "there is nothing as practical as a good theory" According
to him, good theories help us to put facts in• their basic understandable forms (i.e.
their real perspectives) and also to predict events even before they occur.
Okenwa further stated that most mass communication theories examine various aspects of the
communication phenomena with the purpose of helping to enhance the understanding of mass
communication situations. Such situations include the examination of human attitudes, behaviour
and habits, how and why they differ. Other situations like message diffusion and the impact of the
media are still some of the issues that are highlighted in some of the theories
Other reasons why we study theory include:
• It helps scholars to hypothesis and eventually discover other unknown and unobserved
phenomena.
• Theory is a guide to discovering facts; it stimulates questions on areas which are lagging
and thus, initiates research in those fields.

What are your reasons for the study of mass communication theories?
3.2 Approaches to the Study of Mass Communication Theory

Christopher de la Torre’s contribution in eHow.com lays a foundation for understanding mass
communication, and then describes two approaches to studying it.
1. Foundation for understanding mass communication
• History
53
To understand how mass communication is necessary for both individual and society, it's helpful
to look at communication in a historical context. It has developed dynamically over time,
increasing in complexity and meaning. Contemporary modes of communication can be
understood better by studying the stages of communication that have led up to them. These stages
include signs and signals, speech and language, writing, and printing.
• Different Theories
The study of mass communication has produced several schools of thought that attempt to explain
its origins and predict the future of current practices. For instance, "structural and functional"
theories focus on the rules, traditions and institutions of a society, while "interactionist" theories
look at the ways different types of people interact within a society. "Interpretive" theories study
how people think of their own experiences while "critical" theories look at how and why certain
groups of people use communication to control other groups.
2. Approaches to Study of Mass Communication Theory
• Information Distribution
One approach to studying mass communication is to look at how the information is distributed.
Methods include publishing, broadcasting and digital communications, and can utilize media as
sophisticated as the Internet or as basic as graffiti on a brick wall. The idea is to make sense of the
journey of the message, from sender to receiver. What is the purpose of the message? What is the
intended outcome? How and why does the sender choose which medium to use?
• Media Effects
Another approach is to look at the effects of communication on the audience -- specifically its
ability to persuade or manipulate how people think and what they talk about. Rhetoric (the study
of persuasion), philosophy and psychology all intersect with communications studies, in that they
explain why particular messages are chosen and who the messages benefit the most. In
contemporary society, it is also important to look at commercialism, politics and celebrity culture
when studying mass communication because in many cases these elements are now inseparable

Identify and describe the two approaches for the study of mass communication theory.
3.3 Limitation of Mass Communication Theory Effects
• Mass Communication as a younger Discipline
54
A key limitation of mass communication theories is that mass communication, according to

Okenwa (2002), is a much younger discipline than the majority of the other disciplines in the
social sciences such as Psychology, Sociology and Political Science. The implication is that
majority of mass communication theories are borrowed from these disciplines, which as Okenwa
explained, implies that mass communication theories are no more than explication of theories
from other disciplines.
• Impact of Messages
We will view message impact in two ways. On the one hand, the mass media disseminate a wrong
message to the wrong audience. In which case, the message will make little or no impact on the
audience, contrary to Okenwa’s assertion that messages emanating from the media are designed
to have an intended impact on the members of the audience.
On the hand, a mass media message may be ineffective owing to the audience attitude. According
to Okenwa, the attitude of the audience member to the message, his or her perception of the
media and the media message, his or her personal or previous experiences, the existence of
competing stimuli may be some of the major factors that can determine message impact.
He or she, therefore, maintains that this is primarily why it is wrong to overstress the impact the
media can have as highlighted by many mass communication theories.
• Concept of Media World

Most theories of mass communication portray the mass communication media as capable of
powerful effects. For instance, the Cultural Norms Theory ascribes to the media the capacity to
create new norms in society, reinforce existing norms and also modify existing norms (Okenwa,
2002)
According to Okenwa, such fundamental portrayal of the media easily presents the media as not
only capable of powerful effects, but it equally plays down on the capacity of the audience
members to possess characteristics that would enable them to resist or even reject media
stimuli… such as audience perception of the media: selective exposure, selective perception,
selective attention. We will look at these in detail in subsequent units.
The degree of mass communication media success in influencing society depends completely on
the media. Discuss.
3.0 CONCLUSION
Communication is a very intricate activity of human beings, we have various reasons for exposing
ourselves to mass communication media and the media effect us in different ways. To maximize
impact of mass communication media, therefore, we looked at the various approaches for study of
55
mass communication and a review of limitation maximizing the impact of mass communication
theories.
4.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we highlighted the significance and approaches to study of mass communication. We
noted that theory helps scholars to hypothesise and eventually discover other unknown and
unobserved phenomena. It is also a guide to discovering facts; it stimulates questions on areas
which are lagging and, thus, initiates research in those fields. We also identified information
distributions and media effects as key approaches for the study of mass communication. We
finally looked at the recent formation of mass communication as a field of study, the message
impact and the concept of media world as major factors limiting mass communication effects.

No theory is an end in itself. Theories, especially in mass communication, are a means to an end;
that end is the examination and explanation of communication behaviours, encounters and
activities. Justify this statement in view of the significance and limitation of mass communication
effects.
Okenwa, S. N (2002): the Mass Media: Theories and Realities. Enugu: Bismark
Publications
Kurt Lewin (1958): Field Theory in Social Sciences. New York. John Wiley
eHow.com
56
UNIT 3 RESEARCH, MODEL, PARADIGM AND THEORY IN MASS

COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Relationship between Theory and Research
3.2 Difference between Theory and Practice
3.3 Models of Mass Communication
3.4 Paradigms of Mass Communication
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading.
0.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will examine the relationship between theory, research, model and a review of the
narrative paradigm of mass communication.
1.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you will be able to;
• Describe relationship between theory and research

• Explain the difference between theory and practice  Differentiate models and theories of
mass communication
• Describe the narrative paradigm.
2.0 MAIN CONTENT
2.1 Relationship between Theory and Research
Theory and research are close]y related through the scientific method. Research and theory go
hand in hand; theory guides and stimulates research, while research tests and stimulates theory
development. This results in more adequate theories and better/clearer facts. So, just as facts
57
underlie theories, so do theories underlie facts, each bringing the other to precise scientific
formulations (Osuala, 1982).
Granted the above submission, therefore, one can conveniently posit that the various theories of
mass communication we study help us to appreciate better what happens in the communication
process in real life. By so doing, the student of mass communication gets stimulated towards
asking further questions in the field of communication. Hence, the need to carry out research
which will provide the needed answers to such questions.
Mass communication theories enable us to understand the behaviour of the mass audience. These
theories also help to develop hypotheses on other aspects of mass communication, e.g. a study of
the "Media (newspaper) ownership patterns and the public" can be traced to some hypotheses on
the "Agenda-setting" and "Gate-Keeping” functions which eventually became theories. Such is
the kind of symbiotic relationships that exist between theories and hypotheses, and by extension
research.

Theory sand research are close]y related through the scientific method. Discuss
2.2 Difference between Theory and Practice
It is, however, pertinent to mention that often, some of the variables of a theory can influence
or impinge on the practice of a particular theory. Hence, if a theory becomes impracticable it
may be due to the influence of these intervening variables beyond the communicators'
control. For instance, if in a lecture class some students are sleeping, others are eating and
some others chatting away their time, then a theory which states that a teacher who delivers
his or her lectures diligently will produce successful students is not likely to work out. This
is because the performance of the students in this class where the majority is inattentive to
the lecture is bound to be poor and unsuccessful, unlike students in a controlled class
situation where most of the students are likely to excel.

A general law that can stand the test of time is a theory while those that cannot be put to practice
is not a theory. Justify
3.3 Theory Formulation
Theory formulation follows established scientific Process.
a. Conceptualization: This the inquiry stage, terms are identified and defined
58
b. Operationalization: At this stage a specific meaning is giving for the term previously
identified and defined.
c. Observation: This is the research stage; in-depth study is carried on the terms.
d. Analysis: At this stage an objective evaluation identified data is done
e. Testing: This is the hypothesis testing stage; outcomes of previous analyses are tested.
f. Generalization: This is the general application stage; the outcome of the test is further
generalized.
g. Theory: Theory is formulated.
h. Law: Theory over time becomes a law through years of continuous testing.
3.4 Models of Mass Communication
Anything that shares differences in its features also must share similarities in the features. Thus,
Okunna (1999) explained that a model is very closely related to a theory. According to her, the
two concepts are so closely related that there is little or no consensus among scholars and
theorists on the difference between a theory and a model. In relating efforts to distinguish a
theory from model, Okunna citing Littlejohn (1978) in Udofia (1991), says that a theory is
“explanation” while a model is “a representation”.
The Powerful Effects Model
This model finds relevance in a general believe that the mass media have the capacity to influence
people’s thoughts, behaviour and action. People fear that the mass media can induce violent
behaviour on youths, particularly when they expose themselves to violent programmes or cultures
over time on television.
Okunna (1999) says that the mass media are believed to have powerful and direct effects on
people. This is the view of the ‘Powerful Effects’ Model of mass communication. According to
her, this model of mass communication effects believes that persuasion is the main effect of mass
media. This model, she said, dominated thinking and research about the mass media in the 1930s
and 1940s.

A theory is an explanation while a model is a representation: Identify and describe the meeting
points of the two concepts.
3.5 Paradigm of Mass Communication

Paradigm simply is a pattern, model or an example of something. Kuhn (1996) describes
paradigm as the model that scientists hold about a particular area of knowledge. Different
scholars have developed different models for communication and by extension mass
communication as an area of knowledge. For our study, we consider the narrative paradigm.
59
Narrative Paradigms
In narrative paradigms, communications is essentially seen as stories. The Narrative Paradigm
was proposed by Walter Fisher. According to Fisher (1987) and highlighted in Wikipedia free
encyclopedia, all meaningful communication is a form of storytelling or giving a report of events
and so human beings experience and comprehend life as a series of ongoing narratives, each with
their own conflicts, characters, beginnings, middles, and ends.
Individuals are able to distinguish what makes a story legitimate by using what Fisher refers to as
narrative rationality. Rationality consists of two factors: coherence and fidelity.
Coherence
Fisher defined Coherence as the degree to which a story makes sense structurally. Is the story
consistent, with sufficient detail, reliable characters, and free of any major surprises? The ability
to judge coherence is learned, and improves with experience.
Fidelity
Narrative Fidelity is concerned with whether or not the story is true. Fisher establishes five
criteria that affect a story’s narrative fidelity
• questions of fact that examine the values embedded in the story, either explicitly
or implicitly
• questions of relevance that consider the connection between the story that is told
and the values being espoused
• questions of consequences that consider the possible outcomes that would accrue
to people adhering to the espoused values
• questions of consistency between the values of the narrative and the held values of
the audience
• questions of transcendence that consider the extent to which the story’s values
represent the highest values possible in human experience
Evaluation of Narrative Paradigms
Fisher offers a humanistic model of communication in that individuals take sometimes complex
information and transform it into narratives. This characterizes humans as "storytelling animals"
exchanging messages with each other, and that each message is judged as credible in terms of its
consistency and by reference to the values and beliefs of the audience. But, not all human
discourse follows the story form and his reference to the subtext of the speaker's or writer's own
narratives is less than compelling.
60
More over, he fails to specify how critics are to make their choices between narrative probability
or fidelity, and provides no criteria for testing narrative probability. It seems that the critic
becomes "a standard unto himself", disposing of more traditional rationality without anything
convincing to replace it, e.g. it is not acceptable in most formal contexts that a storyteller would
be judged superior in credibility to an expert witness. Finally, the logic of good reasons is
inadequately developed, as it fails to consider how values can be presented in argument and, once
presented, how the "relative worth" of one value can be evaluated against that of another.
Criticisms
Some major critics on Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm include:
I. Rowland (1989), who believes that narrative theory should be applied strictly to
communication that fits classic narrative patterns, because the generality with which
Fisher applies narrative theory undermines its credibility.
II. William Kirkwood (1992), who observes that Fisher's logic of good reasons focuses
on prevailing values and fails to account for the ways in which stories can promote
social change. In some ways, both Kirkwood and Fisher agree that this observation is
more of an extension to the theory than a punishing critique.
III. Turner (2007), who argued that some forms of communication are not narrative in the
way that Fisher maintains. Science fiction and fantasy novels or movies do to
conform to most people values, they often challenge values (Turner 2007)

Communication is a form of storytelling. Discuss this in relation to the narrative paradigm of
communication.
4. CONCLUSION
On the one hand, research and theory go hand in hand; theory guides and stimulates research
while research tests and stimulates theory development. On another hand, a theory is an
explanation while a model is a representation. While paradigm is described as a pattern model or
an example that scientists hold about a particular area of knowledge; narrative paradigm is
describes communication as a story telling process. Generally, therefore, Mass communication
theories enable us to understand behaviours of the mass audience
5. SUMMARY
This unit has described the relationship between theory and research, emphasizing that research
and theory go hand in hand and further the eight steps of theory formulation. We also highlighted
61
the difference between theory and practice: model and theory, explaining that a theory is an
explanation while a model is a representation. We also examined the Narrative Paradigm, which
holds that communication is a story telling process.
6. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Highlight and discuss the eight steps of theory formulation?
7. REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
E. Osuala (1982). Introduction to Research Methodology. New York: Exposition Press,

Smithtown
Okunna S. C (1994). Introduction to Mass Communication. Enugu: Abic Publishers
Baran, S. & Davis, D (2008). Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future,
5th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Fisher, Walter R. (1984). "Narration as Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of

Public Moral Argument." in Communication Monographs, Volume 51 (1984)
Kirkwood, William G. (1992) "Narrative and the Rhetoric of Possibility" (Vol. 59, Issue 1
Rowland, Robert C. (1989). "On Limiting the Narrative Paradigm: Three Case Studies" (Vol.56,
Issue 1)
Kuhn, Thomas S. (1996). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd Ed. Chicago and London:
Univ. of Chicago Press
62
UNIT 4 MASS COMMUNICATION AUDIENCE AND EFFECTS

CONTENTS
1.0Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Mass Communication Audience
3.2 Mass Media Audience Effects (Selective Process)
3.2.1 Dissonance Theory
3.2.2 Individual Difference Theory
3.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will take a closer look at mass communication media audience, which is
the primary target of all mass media massages. We will review peculiar characteristics of
the audience to determine impact on media effectiveness. We will also examine factors
that influence audience selective process and mass communication message effects.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit you will be able to:
 Describe the Mass Communication Audience and its characteristics

 Identify factors that determines audience selective processes, and
 Explain the effects of mass communication on the audience
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Mass Communication Audience

A good knowledge of the characteristics of mass communication audience is crucial to
understanding of how mass communication theories work. According to Okenwa (2002), mass
communication is simply the transmission of information and ideas to a largely dispersed,
heterogeneous audience simultaneously.
Flower (2008) explained that all audiences have their own opinions and these are based on
cultural backgrounds and the ability of humans to select, compare and discuss opinions with
others. She also held that the communication we are receiving is mediated, but the audience now
63
chooses which media they want to use. Media are basically a product. No product will sell if there
is not a willing buyer. The media may be a powerful tool, but it is the audience demand and
audiences feedback that shapes the message and presentation of mediated content. Flower argued
that audiences are not passive receivers of mediated mass communication, and are capable of
influencing popular culture through active participation.
The producers of media contents therefore should work with an image of the audience and what it
wants. A focus on audience is advantageous, as the mass communication media must work to
satisfy the audience.
3.1.1 Characteristics of Mass Communication Audience
• Anonymous Audience
The mass media communicators communicate to unspecified audience. These audiences are
anonymous. In Okunna (1994), anonymity is taken to mean that members of the mass
communication audience generally are not known to one another, in addition to their being
unknown to the communicator who sends all of them message. The communicator knows she has
a large audience out there, but who they and who make up the audience is largely a matter guess
work and intuition on the part of the mass communicator.
The anonymity status of the mass communication audience therefore makes it very difficult to
measure the overall effectiveness of mass media effect on the audience.
• Heterogeneous Audience
The audience of mass communication message has diverse backgrounds. Okenwa stated that mass
communication is simply the transmission of information and ideas to a largely dispersed
heterogeneous audience simultaneously
Okunna (1999) explained that members of the audience belong to different educational levels,
tribes, races or even nationalities; they have different religions and cultures; they are of different
ages and genders. According to her, these demographic differences make the mass
communication audience truly heterogeneous.
The heterogeneous nature of mass communication audiences poses great challenge in formulating
uniform audience effect theories for the study mass communication media effect
• Large Audience
One of the criteria for mass communication media rating is its capacity to reach a large audience.
Okunna affirmed that one characteristic of the mass communication audience is that it is very
64
large, and a mass media message is able to reach members of this audience simultaneously (at the
same time).
For instance, the NTA prides itself as Africa’s largest television network because of it capacity to
reach the largest number of viewers simultaneously. The NTA’s large network of audience is
therefore regarded as its key competitive advantage.
• Scattered Audience
Another important characteristic of mass communication audience is that the audience is

physically separated in space and time from one another. Okunna stated that apart from being
separated from the mass communicator in space the audience is also separated from the
communicator in time.
Football and sporting championship broadcasts currently attract the highest audience across the
globe. Global attention was focused on the London Olympic Games which have been estimated
to attract the highest audience in the history of the Olympics. The audience was scattered all over
the world and watched the various sporting activities at different times.
• Active Audience
The mass communication audience is very active in individual choice of mass communication
medium and programmes. Okunna stated that different members of the audience for different
reasons are active in choosing which of mass communication to expose them to; to listen to radio,
for instance, rather than read a magazine.

The effectiveness of mass communication derives mainly from the ability of the mass media to
reach a large audience. Discuss.
3.2 Understanding Mass Media Audience Effects

A good understanding of how and why an individual audience reacts (selective processes)
differently to the same mass communication media message or information is significance to
understanding of the importance of audience in mass communication process. Though the mass
media have been adjudged to have limited effect on the audience, the truth remains that people
seldom want to be changed, either by mass media or any other factor. The attitudes which people
already hold are strong barriers to change. In fact, the mass media are more likely to reinforce the
existing attitudes and lifestyles of members of the media audience, than to change them. This
reinforcement itself is an important effect of mass communication. Effects should not be
understood solely as a complete change of attitude and behaviour (Okunna, 1999).
65
To understand the make-up of mass communication, we will take a close look at two important
theories of media effects that has been popularly described as Limited Effects Theories the
Dissonance and Individual Differences Theory - to buttress the Selective Process
3.2.1 Dissonance Theory
The Dissonance Theory is an example of Limited Effects Theories of mass communication. It
explains why the mass media do not often have persuasive or conversion effects on their audience
(Okunna, 1999). It takes the focus away from the mass society, confirming that the mass media
after all is not all powerful in effecting the audience beliefs and interests. The Dissonance Theory
therefore view individual as capable of either to accept or reject mass media messages or
information owing to degree of consistency to already-held beliefs, interest or values. Any
inconsistency in beliefs or interest is also viewed as capable of causing psychological discomfort.
However individual audience adopts different strategic processes managing the inconsistency that
have become known as the selective processes.
In Klapper’s (1960) view, the selective process helps media content consumers to cope with
media impact. Ordinarily, people tend to expose themselves to those mass communications that
are in accord with their existing attitudes and interests; while consciously and unconsciously
avoiding information of opposing interest or beliefs. But when faced with such information,
people will interpret it to fit their interest or belief.
3.2 Individual Differences Theory

The Individual Differences Theory is premised on the assumption that no two individuals are
exactly the same. Bittner (1989) in Okunna (1999) explain that one reason why mass media
messages cannot have the same (uniform) effect on all members of mass media audience is
because there are individual differences in personality characteristics among such members. Thus
Okunna affirmed that the Individual Difference Theory provides another useful way to look at the
reaction of audience members to mass communication messages.
Okenwa (2002) explains that the Individual Difference Theory implies that mass media messages
contain stimulus attributes that interact with specific personality characteristics of the audience,
which in turn, create differing responses to the communication message. Rather than being
uniform among the mass audience, the effects of mass communication messages will vary from
person to person because of individual differences in their psychological structures. The popular
notion of ‘different strokes for different folks’ is clearly supported here
Both theories identify psychological disposition as a major determinant in individual perception
and response pattern. The difference in the individual audience perceptions and response pattern
is determined through the following selective processes.
• Selective Exposure
Selective exposure expresses individual preference for certain medium or media messages base
on his felt needs, interest or beliefs. Okunna explains that because the mass media audience is
66
active, people can choose what they want to expose themselves to: what to read, hear, or see in
the media. For instance, most young people will prefer watching or reading football highlight
than watching or reading interview of a state governor
• Selective Perception
No two individuals share same meaning for the same message. Okunna explains that people
selectively perceive the media content the way they want to see it. Each individual reserves
the right to determine what meaning particular information will make on him or her. Most
times our previous experience and current disposition (needs, interests, moods etc) determine
what meaning we make out of a mass media message. For instance, a man whose legs were
amputated as a result of an accident will feel less concern for latest designer shoes in a mass
media advertisement.
• Selective Attention
We are exposed to too many mass media messages or information daily from both the prints and
electronic media, but our choice on which message or information to receive, is known as
selective attention. And most times selective attention is as a result of already held interest or
attitude.
• Selective Retention
Selective retention is rooted in the capacity of members of mass media audience to retain or
discard mass media messages or information. Okenwa explains that no individual possesses the
capacity to retain all the stimuli from the media that will amount to so much. The choice open to
the individual will be to select those stimuli that reinforce his ego or those that are not at variance
with his or her purpose for living.

Choose a popular programme on radio or television. Using the selective process, justify why you
should spend time on this programme against others calling for your attention.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We will conclude with Sandman et al. (1976) explanations, quoted in Okunna (1999). The
persuasive power of the mass media is neither as great as the alarmists warn us nor as little as the
optimists assure us. The media are rarely able to convert their audience to an opposing viewpoint
overnight but they can reinforce old attitudes, create brand new ones, and in time even achieve
some change. Readers and viewers are active participant in this process, using the media for their
own purposes and needs. This may protect us from specific influence attempts, but does not keep
the media from creating the reality in which we live and to which we respond.
67
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we took an overview of mass communication media audience; who they are and their
specific characteristics as the primary target of all mass media massages. We further review the
dissonance theory to arrive at the selective process that describes peculiar edge of the audience
over the mass media messages.

Mass media can never have a total conversion effect on the audience. Justify this statement with a
review of the dissonance and individual difference theories.
Okenwa S. N. (2002). The Mass Media: Theories and Realities. Enugu: Bismark
Publication
Okunna S. C (1994). Introduction to Mass Communication. Enugu: Abic Publishers
Klapper, J. T. (1960). The Effects of Mass Communication, p. 19, New York: Free Press
Okunna S. C (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication, 2nd Ed, Enugu, New

Generation Books
Jane Flower (2008), ‘Mass Communication and Audience Response’

www.flowers.wrytestuff.com, May 20, 2012.
68
UNIT 5 DIFFERENT ERAS OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Era of Mass Society Theory
3.2 The Era of the Scientific Perspective
3.3 The Era of the Limited Effects Theory
3.4 The Era of Cultural Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0
References/Further Reading.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will take a vivid look at the different era of mass communication theories; as a
guide to appreciating the effects of mass communication theories we will consider different eras
of development of mass communication theories. That is the different stages of development of
mass communication theories, and the impact of the media on social development of those eras.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to highlight and describe the different eras of mass
communication theories.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Era of Mass Society Theory
69
The focus was based on the idea that mass media are corrupting influences that undermine the
social order and that ‘average’ people are defenseless against influence by the media. Mass
society was characterized by a group of powerful elites who manipulate the masses in spite of
prevailing democratic structures.
Mass society theory was based on several key assumptions:
• Media are dangerous and powerful. In the 1920s and 1930s there was concern that media
had to be controlled or eliminated to protect the existing way of life.
• Average people can be powerfully influenced by media. Ordinary people were not
capable of defending themselves well against it.
• Significant negative consequences for individuals and for society could predictably occur
once people were corrupted by media messages.
• Modern mass societies isolated ordinary people from the strong social, cultural, and
religious institutions which would offer defense against powerful media messages.
• Social chaos will result from lack of social unity and order will ultimately be restored by
totalitarian or autocratic leadership.
• Because mass media messages are designed for broad audiences, easy production and
quick understanding, they by their nature exclude that which is complex, sophisticated or
requires time, thought or concentration to understand. The culture is debased and
civilization is "dumbed down.
While we can look at this list and see how it reflects the time and social conditions of the 1930s
and 1940s, some of those assumptions ring pretty true today.
A good example of Mass Society theory is the Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet
Theory. Before World War I, there was no separate field of study on Communication, but
knowledge about mass communication was accumulating. An outcome of World War I
propaganda efforts, the Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory, came into existence. It
propounded the view that the mass media had a powerful influence on the mass audience and
could deliberately alter or control peoples' behaviour. (Read more on Hypodermic Needle Theory
in preceding units).

Media are dangerous and powerful. Discuss.
3.2 The Era of Scientific Perspective
Lazarsfeld (1941) explains that the Era of the Scientific Perspective was promoted by Halloween
Eve – 1938 Docudrama – “War of the Worlds”. Social scientists studied the W-O-W happening
and, using sophisticated surveys, polling and other methods, said scientific studies were better
than guessing.
70
The focus of this era was on limited effect on the audience. The Limited Effects Theory Media
influence is affected by individual differences that include educational levels, religious
affiliations, political affiliations, personal relationships. For example, the Two-step Slow Theory
– Opinion leaders get media and translate for followers Timeframe – during and after World War
II or 1945 to 1968. (Read more on Two-step flow theory in preceding units)
In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Goudet conducted
an American survey on mass campaigns. The study revealed that informal social relationships had
played a part in modifying the manner in which individuals selected content from the media
campaign. The study also indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers to
opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of society. Thus, informal social groups
have some degree of influence on people and mould the way they select media content and act on
it.

What prompted the scientific perspective theory?
3.3 The Era of Limited Effects Theory
The Era of the Limited Effects Theory and Attitude Change Theory related ideas of dissonance
and selective processes.
• Dissonance Theory
The Dissonance Theory argues that when confronted by new or conflicting information, people
experience a kind of mental discomfort, a dissonance. As a result, we reduce this dissonance
through selective processes
• Attitude Change Theory (Selective Processes)
Selective Exposure (Attention): – the process by which people expose themselves to messages
that are only consistent with their existing attitudes and beliefs.
Selective Retention – assumes that people remember best and longest those messages that are
consistent with their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs.
Selective Perception – predicts that people will interpret messages in a manner consistent with
their preexisting attitudes and beliefs.
• Reinforcement Theory
71
The Reinforcement Theory argues that, instead of persuading or converting members of the
audience, mass communication merely reinforces or strengthens existing attitudes and behaviour.
• The Uses and Gratification Approach
The Uses and Gratification Approach claimed that media do not do things to people, but that
rather people do things with media
• Agenda Setting
The Agenda Setting Theory argues that media may not tell us what to think, but the media
certainly tells us what to think about
• Dependency Theory
The Dependency Theory argues that:

I. the basis of media influence resides in the relationship between the larger social system,
the media’s role in that system and audience relationships to the media
II. The degree of our dependence on media and their content is the ‘key variable in
understanding when and why media messages alter audience beliefs, feelings or
behaviour.
III. In our modern industrial society, we are increasingly dependent on media to understand
the social world, to act meaningfully and effectively in society and to find fantasy and
escape or diversion.
IV. Our level of dependency is related to the number and centrality of the specific
information delivery served by a medium and the degree of change and conflict present
in our environment.
 Social Cognitive Theory
The Social Cognitive Theory argues that people learn through observation (imitation and
identification)

What is the most significant impact of the Limited Effects Theory?
3.4 The Era of Cultural Theory
• Symbolic Interactionism –
72
Symbolic Interactionism thinking argues that people give things meaning, and that meaning
controls their behaviour
• Social Construction
Social Construction of Reality argues that people who share a culture also share ‘an ongoing
correspondence’ of meaning. Things generally mean the same to me as they do to you.
• Cultivation Analysis
Cultivation Analysis argues that
1. TV cultivates or constructs a reality of the world that, although possibly inaccurate,

becomes accepted simply because we as a culture believe it to be true.
2. TV is essentially and fundamentally different from other mass media. TV is the “central
cultural arm” of US society. It is the culture’s primary story teller.
3. The realities cultivated by TV are not necessarily specific attitudes and opinions but
rather more basic assumptions about the ‘facts of life’.
4. The major cultural function of television is to stabilize social patterns.
5. The observable, measurable contributions of television to the culture are relatively small.

Highlight and discuss achievements of the Cultivation Theory?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories:
structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways that
can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of
individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive theories
uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience; and critical theories are
concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates
domination of one group over another through different eras.
73
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit review the different eras of mass communication theories; the era of mass society with it
the mass media exerting powerful influence on the mass audience; The Era of the Scientific
Perspective focuses on the media limited effect on the audience, because of the individual
differences of the audience. During the Era of Limited Effects Theory the audience had choice of
what they want and some prominent theories of this era include the Dissonance Theory, Attitude
Change Theory, Reinforcement Theory, the Uses and Gratification Approach, Agenda Setting
Theory, Dependency Theory and Social Cognitive Theory. The Era of Cultural Theory further
promoted such views as symbolic interactionism, social construction and cultivation analysis.
1. What was Paul Lazarsfeld's view?

2. Which era of mass communication followed the scientific perspective? Describe .
Lazarsfeld, Paul (1941). "Some Remarks on Administrative and Critical Communications

Research." Studies in Philosophy and Social Science
Okunna , S. C. (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication, Enugu, New Generation

Book
Eras-of-Mass-Communication-Theories - www.scribd.com, May 20, 2012.
Mass Society Theories, www.fly.hiwaay.net, May 20, 2012.
www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursesen/mass/mass2.html/, May 20, 2012.
74
MODULE 3: Different Theories of Mass Communication
Unit 1 Normative Theories

Unit 2 Media and Culture Theories
Unit 3 Active Audience Theories
Unit 4 Common Sense Theories
Unit 5 Behavioural Theories of Mass Communication.
UNIT 1 NORMATIVE THEORIES (THEORIES OF THE PRESS)
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Authoritarian Media Theory
3.2 Libertarian Media Theory
3.3 Soviet Communist Media theory
3.4 Social Responsibility Media Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Normative theories describe the way an ideal media system should be controlled and operated by
the government, authority, leader and public. These theories are basically different from other
communication theories because normative theories of press are not providing any scientific
explanations or predictions. These theories, otherwise known as the “Four Theories of the Press”,
came from many sources rather than a single source. In other words, both media practitioners,
social critics and academics were involved the development of the normative theories.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to:
 Explain the origin and importance of the Normative Theories in mass communication study 
Describe the four basic Normative Theories
1. Authoritarian Media Theory
2. Libertarian Media Theory
3. Soviet Communist Media theory
4. Social Responsibility Media Theory
75
 Describe the contributions of these theories in mass media growth.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Overview of Normative Theory
These are theories that express how the mass media "ought to or can be expected to operate under
a prevailing set of conditions and values". Each of these normative theories is linked to a
particular form of political theory or some set of politico - economic situations. It seems as if
every political system or a particular society has its own separate press theory which may
eventually be close to the general press theories. Although the above mentioned link has been
long established, these theories are most times more implicit (implied) than explicit and are not
much coded.
The first major attempt at stating these theories of the press was the work done by three
communication scholars - Siebert, Peterson and Schramm in 1955. This still remains the main
source and point of reference for this kind of work. However, two other types of normative
theories have been added to the original four divisions preferred by Siebert et al. This is in
recognition of more recent developments in thought patterns. Even though the former four
divisions (Authoritarian, Libertarian, Soviet-Communist and Social Responsibility Theories) are
adequate for classifying media systems of any nation, the actual media systems are naturally
characterized by alternative or even inconsistent philosophical principles.
Hence, the need to add two more theories (Democratic-Participant Media and Development
Media Theories) to the original set, even if they do not correspond to complete media systems.
This is also necessary because they have become part of the discussion of press theory and have
also provided some of the principles for current media policy and practice.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that the basic assumptions of the Normative Theories is that "the
press 'always takes on the form and colouration of the social and political structures within which
it operates".2
This is the postulation of Siebert et al. Their typology (refer pg145 & 46) - the Four Theories
Typology - illustrates the Authoritarian, Libertarian, Soviet Communist and social Responsibility
concepts of the press. It should be noted that "several generations of aspiring journalists and
educators were influences by the approach of Siebert et al to media philosophies. The latest
addition to the press theories are the: Democratic Participant Media Theory and the Development
Media Theory adapted by Dennis McQuail in 1987. These bring to six, the total number of the
Normative Theories of the media.

Why are the six theories of the press called Normative?
76
3.2 The Authoritarian Media Theory
This theory which was developed in the 16th and 17th century Europe (England) stemmed from the
absolute power of the monarch. Here the state is actually the master. Those who control the
government have the monopoly of the truth and of information approach. The mass media, in this
set-up, private or public (government), work to protect the interest of the government in power.
The media are not to publish anything that, according to McQuail, is under censorship and those
who do not obey the rules and regulations are subject to punishment.
The theory promotes a "top-down-flow" approach. The mass media, in this set-up, act as the
servant of the government and are highly censored and dare not publish unfavourable reports
against the government. The theory "justifies advance censorship and punishment from eternally
set guidelines which . . . apply to political subject matter. This theory operates in pre-democratic
societies, and dictatorial or repressor societies.
The "authoritarian" system controls the media through repressive press laws and decrees
proscriptions, heavy taxation, subtle influence on the form and content of media organizations
etc; The main principles of this theory can be summarized thus:
o Media should avoid committing any offence against major or dominant, moral or political
values.
o Unacceptable attacks on authority, deviations from official policy or offences against

moral codes should be criminal offences.
o Journalists or other media professionals have no independence within their media

organisation.
The exponents of this theory are Hegel, Hobbes, and Machiavelli. It is practised in Iran,
Paraguay and to some extent Nigeria. Here the relationship between the media and government is
the top-down approach.
Governme nt
Media

In the Authoritarian Theory, truth was any statement that benefited or supported the government.
Discuss.
77
3.3 The Libertarian Media Theory
This theory originated in England in the 17th century and spread to America. It stemmed from
"Enlightenment thought and natural rights". This theory was also informed by Milton's idea of the
"Self-right process of the free market Place of ideas" This means that good ideas would outwit
and outlive bad ones if all ideas were guaranteed free expression.
This is a simple theory which basically prescribes that an individual should be free to publish
what he or she likes. This, thus, makes it an extension of other rights - the right to hold opinions
and assemblies with other people freely. The underlying principles are very similar to those of the
liberal democratic states. Here there is the supremacy of the individual who is free to search for
the truth. The mass media are the servant of the people, regulates what the government does and
ensures the sovereignty of the "popular will". A free press is, thus, seen "as an essential
component of a free and rational society." 7 The ownership of the press is private and in the hands
of the individuals. This theory popularized the press as "The Fourth Estate of the Realm".
The underlying principles are:
• “Attacks "on government, official party or political party should not be punishable.
• No media organisation should be compelled to publish anything.
• No restriction should be placed on any legal means of getting information for publication.
• There should be no restrictions on export (sending) or import (receiving) messages across
national frontiers.
The exponents of this theory are: Milton, Adam Smith, Locke and Mill. It is currently practised
in the United States, Japan and Germany. Here there is no defined relationship between the media
and government.
Government Media

The Libertarian Theory advocates that people should be left free and given access to all types of
ideas from which they should freely choose. Relate this statement to the present day demand for
freedom of the press.
78
3.4 The Soviet Communist Media theory
The theory originated in the 20th century USSR and stemmed from the basic postulates of Marx
and Lenin of Russia. It is a modification of the Authoritarian Theory. The purpose of the press
under this system is to support the Marxist (socialist) system and ensure the sovereignty of the
Proletariat (working class) through the Communist Party. The essence is to serve the people.
The media, theoretically, is owned by the people (public) but then these media are controlled by
the Communist Party. The media cannot criticize party objectives. Rather, they propagate them.
Hence, the party is the strongman and the media function under it as an arm of the government.
The basic difference between the two theories however, is that the Soviet media are not subject to
arbitrary and unnecessary interference; they were supposed to serve and are responsible to their
publics (not the government). They express a diversity of interests rather than being monolithic
(one-sided).
The principles of the theory can be summed as:
• Media should serve the interest of, and be in control of the working class.
• Media should not be privately owned.
• Media should perform the functions of: socialization, education, information, motivation
and mobilization.
• Media should respond to the wishes and needs of their audiences.
• Society can use censorship and/or other legal means to present or punish, (after the event)
anti-social publications.
• Media should present a complete and objective view of the society and the world
according to Marxist Leninist principles.
• Media should support progressive movements at home and abroad.
The developers of the theory are: Marx, Lenin, Stalin, Mao, Castro and Gorbachev. It is practiced
today in China, Cuba, North Korea. The relationship between the media and the government is
top-down, but the media is responsible for regulating contents of their messages and to meet the
wishes of the audience.
Government
Media
79

What are the differences between the Authoritarian Theory and the Soviet Communist Media
Theory?
3.5 Social Responsibility Media Theory
This theory arose in the mid 20 th century in United States of America. It is an out-growth of the
Libertarian tradition. This media theory stemmed from the American commission on the
“freedom of the press”. This theory reconciles independence with obligation to the societies. It
assumes that the media perform certain essential functions in the society especially in democratic
policies hence; they should be under an obligation to fulfill these functions. Besides, they should
provide a forum for diverse views. The media should follow the accepted standard for their work.
Ownership and control of the media should be seen as a kind of stewardship, that is they should
serve and promote the interest of the public. Hence, the press should be open to anyone who has
something to say. The social responsibility of the press is more important than its freedom.
In this case, the control of the press is done by community opinions, some social bodies (through
their code of ethics) and the media/press councils.
Ownership of the media here is private but there is threat of government interference to ensure
public service. The main principles are:
• Media should accept and fulfill certain obligations to the society.

• These obligations should be met by setting high professional standards in formativeness,
truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance.
• Media should be self-regulating in carrying out their duties.
• Media should not publish anything that might cause violence or civil disorders or
disparage any ethnic or religious minorities.
• The media should be pluralistic, that is, reflect the diversity of other societies, give access
to various points of view and to the rights of reply.
• The society and public have a right to expect high standards of performance and hence,
can intervene whenever there is need to secure the public good.
This theory is not known to be practised anywhere in the world today. America, however, tends
towards it.
The above four Normative Theories preferred by Siebert et al. in 1956 present to us the
development of the media as well as the contemporary state of the media. The last two theories
(the Soviet Communist and Social Responsibility Theories) were derivations of the first two -
(The Authoritarian and Libertarians Theories) respectively. So, these four theories are sometimes
referred to as the 'Four-in-Two Press Theories".
80
However, another communication scholar has added two more press theories to the existing ones.
His reasoning was a positive move towards the formation of new media institutions. These last
two entries have not been fully legitimized and incorporated into media institutions, but then
some of their submissions are found in some of the other theories mentioned. Here both the media
and the government have defined roles expected of them, thus the relationship is horizontal.
Government Media

Self control entails that journalists should put in place certain measures that are designed to make
them responsible in the discharge of their professional duties. Discuss?
3.6 The Democratic - Participant Media Theory
This theory insists that the bureaucratic bottlenecks as well as emphasis on professional control in
the media system should be de-emphasized. It is associated with more liberal democracies. It is a
reaction against the commercialization and monopolization of privately owned media. The theory
shows disappointment with democratic political structures and politicians who have become
alienated from their origins". The media institutions created according to this theory should be
more closely related to social life and should be under control of the audiences. This will afford
them (the audience) opportunity to have access to the media and participate in information
dissemination according to their own needs, rather than, the interest of the controllers of the
media. Hence, the basic principles of this theory are summarized as:
• Individuals and 'Minorities have right of access to the media (to communicate) and be
served by the media according to their own needs.
• The organisation or content-4f media should not be subject to centralized political or state
bureaucratic control.
• Media should exist primarily for their audiences, and not for professionals or the clients of
media.
• Groups, local organisations and local communities should have their own media.
• Small scale, interactive, and participative forms are better than large scale, one-way,
professionalized media.
• Media should support progressive movements home and abroad.
• Media has become socially too important to be left only in the hands of professionals.
81

Compare the Democratic - Participant Media Theory with the Four Theories of the Press.
3.7 The Development Media Theory
This theory tries to explain the normative behaviour of the press in the so-called "developing
countries” or Third World Countries”. This theory is not easy to identify in any particular
country because it show levels of inconsistencies in economic and political conditions. This is
because, even though the third world countries have all been lumped together as developing
countries, some are a lot more developed than the others. For instance, countries like India, Brazil
and Korea cannot be compared to places like Nigeria, Togo, and Cameroons etc. Nevertheless,
the fact still remains that there are certain factors or characteristics of developing countries which
are common to a host of them. These include:
• Insufficient or total absence of communication technology.

• Inadequate professional skills.
• Relative lack of traditional/cultural resource materials.
• Dependence on the developed countries for information technology, skills and cultural
products for information dissemination.
Even though there is a great disparity among the conditions of these lopsided countries, their
common principle still invariably bothers on development. Hence, the writers’ insistence that
commercial media should positively stimulate development and economic change to fall in line
with the industrialized society. We also emphasize collective interests rather than individual or
press freedoms. So, there should be democratic grassroots involvement in the media business.
The under-lying principles of this theory are:
• Media should accept and carry out developmental tasks in line with nationally established
policy.
• Freedom of the media should be restricted according to economic priorities and
developmental needs.
• Media should give priority in their content to the national culture and language.
• Media should give priority in news and information to links with other developing
countries which are
• Journalists and other media workers have responsibilities as well as freedom in their
information gathering and dissemination tasks.
• In the interest of development ends, the state has a right to intervene, or restrict, media
operations 5 and devices of censorship, subsidy and direct control can be justified.

82
The Development Media Theory emerged as a reaction against the perceived inadequacies of
earlier theories. Discuss.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Normative Media Theory simply refer to the complex of social, political and philosophical
principles about the relationship between media and society. The theory is concerned with what
the media ought to be doing in society rather than what they actually do. In general, the dominant
ideas about the obligations of mass media will be consistent with other values and arrangements
in a given society. The press and other media reflect the "basic beliefs and assumptions that the
society holds". In the western liberal tradition, this refers to matters such as freedom, equality
before the law, social solidarity and cohesion, cultural diversity, active participation, and social
responsibility.
5.0 SUMMARY
It may be necessary at this point to mention that both the terms press and media have been
interchangeably used here. The press, however, refers to all the media of mass communication,
particularly, the print media.
This unit has been able to provide answers to some questions regarding the operations of the
world press. Some of these include: Why is the press the way it is? Why does it take on different
forms and serve different purposes in different countries? Why do different societies or cultures
have different principles and priorities? The answers lies in the assumptions of the four theories
reviewed and summarized below.
SIEBERT – PETERSON – SCHRAMM TYPOLOGY: FOUR THOURIES TYPOLOGY

FOUR RATIONALES FOR THE MASS MEDIA
83
DIFFERENTIAL SOVIET- SOCIAL

S/N AUTHORITARIAN LIBERTARIAN
FACTORS COMMUNIST RESPONSIBILITY
Adapted in Early 20th C. in

In 16th & 17th C. England in late USSR,
Europe, widely 16th C. and although some Mid 20th c. in US out
1 When developed adapted and still spread to of the things of the Libertarian
practiced in many America and the were done by tradition.
places. European the Nazis and
continent Italians
The The The writing of the

The philosophy of enlightenment, enlightenment, commission of
thought and thought and
absolute power of “freedom of the
2 Stemmed from natural rights natural rights
the monarchy, his and the general and the general press” and other
govt. or both philosophy of philosophy of critics of the
rationalism rationalism libertarian press
To ensure the
To support and continuance of
advance the policies To help find the the Soviet
truth, inform, socialist To inform, entertain,
of the govt. in
interpret, (Marxist) educate, to help
power, & to service
entertain and to system, to social progress,
3 Chief purpose the state. Also,
serve the mainly to raise
licensing, check the govt.;
people but then conflict to the plane
censorship & editorial
autocratic power support the of discussion
selfdeterminism
laws. dictatorship of
the party.
Whoever gets a Anyone who has Loyal and

Who has the right Everyone who has
4 royal patent or the economic orthodox party
to use the media something to say.
similar permission power to do so members.
Media
Govt. patents, Media controlled
controlled by Community opinion
How the media guilds, licensing, by “self-righting
5 the communist consumer action,
are controlled sometimes process of truth”
party govt. professional ethics.
censorship and by courts.
apparatus
Private, unless the

Private or public Ownership is Owned by the govt. has to take
7 Ownership
state of party. private people (public) over to ensure
public service.
84
Instrument of Media must

Instrument for Closely controlled
checking on the assume ligation of
effecting govt. media existing
Essential govt. and social
policy, though not
8 difference from solely as an arm of responsibility; and
necessarily or meeting other
others state even though they do not,
always needs of the
it is public owned. someone must see
governmentowned. society. that they do.
Locke, Milton, Karl Marx, Lenin,

Hobbes, Hegel, From the Hutchins
9 Exponents Mill, Adam Stalin, Gorbachev,
Machiavelli Commission
Smith Mao, Castro
One not known to

be practiced
United States, anywhere in the
Countries where Iran, Paraguay, China, Cuba North
10 Japan, world. Several
practised today. Nigeria Germany Korea countries tend
towards it
especially the U.S.
N.B: This typology is culled from both the Siebert et al and Edmund Lambeth works.
Which of the six theories came into existence to conceptualize the relationship between the media
and the political system in Third World Countries? Justify your claim.
Siebert, Frederick S., Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm. Four Theories of the
Press. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963
McQuail, Denis. Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. London: SAGE

Publications, 1987
Okunna, S. C (1999), Introduction to Mass Communication, Enugu, New Generation

Books
Okenwa, S. N (2002), The Mass Media: Theories and Realities, Enugu, Bismark
Publications
UNIT 2 MEDIA, CULTURE SOCIETY THEORIES
85
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Spiral of Silence Theory
3.2 The Knowledge Gap Theory
3.3 Media Dependency Theory
3.4 Modernization Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mass media plays important role in social and cultural development of any society. The collective
impact of mass media contents on individual members of the society together defines the
development of society. However, understanding of mass media theories and their specific impact
on the societies and cultures will ensure optimal utilization of mass media for social and cultural
benefits of members of the society.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit exposes students to how mass communication media theories can be seen as crucial in
understanding contemporary societies and cultures. At the end of the study, students should be
able to identify theories that impact specifically on societies and cultures.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Spiral of Silence Theory
The focus of the spiral of silence theory is on how public opinion is formed. The theory explains
why people often feel the need to conceal their opinions, preference or views etc, especially when
they fall within the minority of a group.
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, German political scientist, proposed the theory as an attempt to

explain in part how public opinion is formed. She wondered why the Germans supported wrong
political positions that led to national defeat, humiliation and ruin in the 1930s-1940s.
The mass media plays an important role in the spiral effect process (Okenwa, 2002). The mass
media play a powerful role here, in that they define the dominant views and add importance to it.
The tendency of one to speak up and the other to be silent starts off a spiral process which
86
increasingly establishes one opinion as the prevailing one. Because of the power of the media, the
media can wield and canvass popular views so that individual views in opposition of the media
become unpopular.
The spiral process may activate a downward spiral effect, thus building fears on minority opinion
holder. The theory identifies two reasons why people remain silence;
• Fear of isolation when the group or public realizes that the individual has a divergent
opinion from the status quo.
• Fear of reprisal or more extreme isolation, in the sense that voicing said opinion might
lead to a negative consequence beyond that of mere isolation (loss of a job, relationship or
status, etc.)
The theory has some weaknesses or at least points of contention. Okenwa observed that the
problem of this theory is that it can as well canvass unpopular views through the use of
specialized channels. Secondly the media can only silence those who have access to the media.
Those who are independence of the media hold their views.
 Conceptual Model
Source: Noelle-Neumann (1991).
Briefly describe Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann’s view of Spiral of Silence concept?

3.2 The Knowledge Gap Theory
87
The Knowledge Gap Theory focuses on how knowledge is distributed in the society and the mass
media role in the distribution. The theory posits that as the infusion of mass media information
into a social system increases, higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this
information faster than lower socioeconomic-status population segments so that the gap in
knowledge between the two tends to increase rather than decrease.
Okenwa observed that, the understanding of this theory takes another angle. It assumes that the
press and later, broadcasting, have added so greatly to the flow of public information that they
will have helped to modify differences of knowledge resulting in inequalities of education and
social position.
For instance, there is a great divide, even within a country, on the adoption and application of
modern technologies. Some people may be more digitally aware of what is going on. The digital
divide is presently the largest form of knowledge gap in our world today. This refers to how
different nations have different limits to technology, so the more developed nations are going to
have more access and knowledge to the latest information than the less developed.
Summary of basic principles of the theory are;
• People in a society exhibit great psychological diversity due to their psychological

makeup, learned experiences, social relationships, and social category memberships.
• Despite these differences, people with more education tend to have better developed
cognitive and communication skills, broader social spheres with more and more diverse
social contacts, and a greater amount of stored information than their counterparts with
less education.
• People with greater education also tend express interest in, and expose themselves to, a
broader range of topics, including serious topics like public affairs, science, and health
news.
• Therefore, as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases,
segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this
information at a faster rate than the lower status segments so that the gap in knowledge
between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease.
Okenwa further observed that the implication of this theory’s assertion is that the media is only
sources and custodians of knowledge. But there are other sources of knowledge apart from the
media such as gathered from research works, interactions, travels, intuition and other personal
experiences. Thus, it implies that one who is not proximal to the media will only be ignorant of
media knowledge.
Phillip J. Tichenor, then Associate Professor of Journalism and Mass Communication, George A.
Donohue, Professor of Sociology, and Clarice, N. Olien, Instructor in Sociology – three
University of Minnesota researchers – first proposed the knowledge gap hypothesis in 1970.

Describe the basic principles of Knowledge Gap Theory?
88
3.3 Media Dependency Theory
The Media Dependency Theory posits that the more a person depends on the mass media for self
fulfillment, the more important the media will be to that person, and therefore the more effects
media will have on a person. According to Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976), three media needs
determine how important media is to a person at any given moment:
• The need to understand one's social world (surveillance)

• The need to act meaningfully and effectively in that world (social utility)
• The need to escape from that world when tensions are high (fantasy-escape)
In fact, the Media Dependency Theory states two specific conditions under which people's media
needs, and consequently people's dependency on media and the potential for media effects, are
heightened.
• When the number of media and centrality of media functions in a society are high, e.g., as
a tool for information dissemination, entertainment and escape etc.
• When a society is undergoing social change and conflict. When there is a war or
largescale public protests like the January, 2012 Nigeria Labour Congress protest, a
national emergency like the Dana plane crash of June 2012 or terrorist attacks.
However, Baran and Davis identify four primary criticisms of dependency theory:
• Variability in micro level and macro level measurement makes between-study

comparability problematic.
• The theory is often difficult to empirically verify.
• The meaning and power of dependency is sometimes unclear.
• The Dependency Theory lacks power in explaining long-term effects.
The Dependency Theory was originally proposed by Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur
(1976).
89
Ball-Rokeach & Defleur’s (1976) MSDT Conceptual Model.

Highlight and discuss the three media needs determine how important media is to a person at any
given moment?
3.4 Modernization Theory
The Modernization Theory focuses on the effects of the modernization process on the societies or
human communication. The theory explains the changing ways of communication and media use
in traditional and (post)modern societies. It is an attempt to identify the social variables which
contribute to social progress and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of
social evolution.
The Modernization Theory has evolved in three waves:
According to McQuail (2000), the first wave of modernization theory (1950s to 1960s) produced
three variants:
1. Economic development: mass media promote the global diffusion of many technical and
social innovations that are essential to modernization (Rogers, 1962). See Diffusion of
Innovations theory.
2. Literacy and cultural development: mass media can teach literacy and other essential
skills and techniques. They encourage a ‘state of mind’ favourable to modernity, e.g. the
imagination of an alternative way of life beyond the traditional way.
3. National identity development: mass media could support national identities in new
nations (colonies) and support attention to democratic policies (elections).
90
Schiller (1976), the second wave of modernization theory is a part of the critical theory that was
popular in the 1970s and 1980s. It does not support but criticize the influence of Western cultural
and economic imperialism or dominance.
Griddens (1991), the third wave of modernization theory rising in the 1990s is the theory of late-,
high- or post modernity. It tries to be more neutral, being not in favour or against Western
modernization. It showed that modern society is characterized by time-space distantiation and
disembedding mechanisms. Traditional society is based on direct interaction between people
living close to each other. Modern societies stretch further and further across space and time
using mass media and interactive media.

Highlight and describe the three stages of modernization theory development?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Every society depends on mass media to full certain obligation to its people, while the people also
depend on the mass media to fulfill some of her obligation to the society. The attitude of the
people to the media and the people’s capacity to adequately perceive media stimuli will to a large
extent determine the effects and transformation impact of the media at both the individual,
societal and cultural levels.
Review of media, culture and society theories therefore is crucial for better understanding of the
effect of mass communication media on the societies and cultures. For instance, Okenwa (2002)
observes that the Knowledge Gap Theory counts so much on closeness to the media in
determining the knowledge level of society members. Here the emphasis is no longer on the
power of the media alone but also on the distance between the media and the individual.
According to him, the consequence of mass media output in our society is the change in people’s
beliefs, and behaviours. Some are positive while some others quite negative. That is to say that
the mass media produce social and cultural effects.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has examined effects of four specific mass communication theories on individuals,
societies and cultures. The spiral of silence theory focuses on how public opinion is formed. The
Knowledge Gap Theory focuses on how knowledge is distributed in the society and the mass
media role in the distribution. On another hand, the Media Dependency Theory posits that the
more a person depends on the mass media for self fulfillment, the more important the media will
be to that person, and therefore the more effects media will have on a person. Lastly, the
91
Modernization Theory attempts to identify the social variables which contribute to social progress
and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution.
The mass communication media can wield and canvass popular views so that individual views in
opposition of the media become unpopular. Relate this statement to a theory and justify is with
example
Ball-Rokeach, S.J., & DeFleur, M. .L. (1976). A dependency model or mass-media effects
Communication Research
Baran, S.J., & Davis, D.K. (2008) Mass communication theory: Foundation, ferment, and the
future. New York: Wadsworth
Giddens, A. (1991a). The Consequences of Modernity, Stanford (Cal): Stanford University Press,
Oxford: Basill Blackwell, Cambridge: Polity Press
McQuail, D. (2000). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 4 th Edition, / London, Thousand

Oaks, New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1984). The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion — Our social skin. Chicago:
University of Chicago.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1991). The theory of public opinion: The concept of the Spiral of Silence.
In J. A. Anderson (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 14, . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Tichenor, P.J., Donohue, G.A. and Olien, C.N. (1970). Mass Media Flow and Differential
Growth in Knowledge, Public Opinion Quarterly 34, Colombia University Press
Schramm, W. (1964). Mass Media and National Development, The role of information in
developing countries Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
www.scribd.com/doc/40477217/List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, May 20, 2012.
UNIT 3 AUDIENCE THEORIES
92
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Uses and Gratification Theory
3.2 Diffusion of Innovations Theory
3.3 Cultivation Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
All mass communication media contents must be target at specific audience to maximize the
media effects. Mass media contents must attract an audience to adjudged effective. The media
audience cannot be ignored in the communication process. Most media producers work with an
established audience profile. TV scheduling is based upon audience and viewing habits (e.g.
women at home in daytime, programmes directed at them). Being a successful media producer
involves either finding a missing audience that no one else has managed to target or by targeting
your media contents to effects behaviours and actions of new audience.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should understand why uses and gratification theory; diffusion of
innovation theory; and cultivation theory are classified as audience effects theories.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Uses and Gratification Theory
The focus of this theory is on media use. Okunna (1999) observed that the functional use of mass
communication is what the Uses and Gratification Theory explains. The Uses and Gratification
Theory is also called Functional Theory. A good illustration of this theory is the functional use of
television for entertainment by television audience members. The needs of viewers to solve or
forget problems and reduce tension have always been strong motivation for watching television
entertainment (Compesi, 1980; Hotsetter and Buss, 1981).
Thus, the Uses and Gratification Theory validates the assumption that audience members actively
seek out the mass media to satisfy individual needs. According to the theory, media consumers
93
have a free will to decide how they will use the media and how it will affect them. Blumler and
Katz (1974) believe that there is not merely one way that the populace uses media. Instead, they
believe there are as many reasons for using the media, as there are media users. Blumler and Katz
values are clearly seen by the fact that they believe that media consumers can choose the
influence media has on them as well as the idea that users choose media alternatives merely as a
means to an end.
The Uses and Gratification Theory can be seen in cases such as personal music selection. We
select music not only to fit a particular mood but also in attempts to show empowerment or other
socially conscience motives. There are many different types of music and we choose from them
to fulfill a particular need.
Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch summaries the theory in 5 component models:
• “The audience is conceived as active.”

• “In the mass communication process much initiative in linking gratification and media
choice lies with the audience member.”
• “The media compete with other sources of satisfaction.”
• “Methodologically speaking, many of the goals of mass media use can be derived
from data supplied by individual audience members themselves.”
• “Value judgments about the cultural significance of mass communication should be
suspended while audience orientations are explored on their own terms.”
Katz, Blumler and Gurevitch developed the Uses and Gratifications Model to better study how
and why people were using media for personal satisfaction

What are the three basic ideas on which the Uses and Gratification Theory was founded?
3.2 Diffusion of Innovations Theory
The Diffusion of Innovation (Multiple Step Flow Theory) explains how ideas are spread.
According to Rogers (1996), diffusion refers to “the process by which an innovation is
communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. An
Innovation is an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption. The diffusion of innovations involves both mass media and interpersonal
communication channels
94
Communication channels such as interpersonal communication or mass communication are very

active in spreading information on an innovation and also influencing people to adopt the
innovation. Greg (2003), in his review of Rogers book ‘Diffusion of Innovation’, observed that
successful efforts to diffuse an innovation depend on characteristics of the situation. To eliminate
a deficit of awareness of an innovation, mass media channels are most appropriate. To change
prevailing attitudes about an innovation, it is best to persuade opinion leaders.
According to Rogers, opinion leaders also influence the adoption of innovations. Opinion leaders
are individuals who provide advice and information about an innovation to members of the social.
These individuals tend to support the norms of the social structure and serve as a model for
others. Opinion leaders are at the center of the communication network and reach a large number
of people via the interconnected flow of information.
He further stated that the mass media’s most powerful effect on diffusion is that it spreads
knowledge of innovations to a large audience rapidly. It can even lead to changes in weakly held
attitudes. But strong interpersonal ties are usually more effective in the formation and change of
strongly held attitudes. Research has shown that firm attitudes are developed through
communication exchanges about the innovation with peers and opinion leaders. These channels
are more trusted and have greater effectiveness in dealing with resistance or apathy on the part of
the communicatee.
Rogers further summarises members of the social system innovative decision as a five step
process that include;
1. Knowledge – person becomes aware of an innovation and has some idea of how it
functions,
2. Persuasion – person forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation,
3. Decision – person engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the
innovation,
4. Implementation – person puts an innovation into use,
5. Confirmation – person evaluates the results of an innovation-decision already made
Everett Rogers, a professor of rural sociology, popularized the theory in his 1962 book Diffusion
of Innovations

In the Diffusion of Innovation Theory, when does interpersonal communication play a greater
role?
95
3.3 Cultivation Theory
The Cultivation Theory explains how television shapes concepts of social reality. The assumption
here is that television shapes people’s view of social reality. The theory posits that the more
people are exposed to television, the more their perception of reality influence to conform to that
spread by television.
Okenwa (2002) explains this theory as propounded by Gerbner, Gross, Signarelli and Morgan.
She asserts that the mass media especially television, exerts a tremendous influence by altering
individuals perception of reality. Gerbner et al who hold that television, among modern media,
has acquired such a central place in daily life put it classically that ‘the television set has become
a key member of the family, the one who tells most of the stories most of the time’.
It assumes that the more time people spend watching television, the more their world views will
be like those spread by the television. Today television has so altered our world view that most of
our cultures and traditional beliefs are being exchange with western culture. For instance, our
traditional dressing is almost out-dated for western styles. Families now feel more proud and
comfortable communicating in foreign language with little or no interest in their mother tongue
language.

How did the Cultivation Theory get its start? Who is the pioneer in this field?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Audiences will always seek (if not demand) the best possible experience when using the media
for information or pleasure. The human brain feeds off ‘experience’, sight, sound, emotion and a
host of intellectual and sensory organs that need to be satisfied And that is ensuring that the right
message is delivered to the right audience and the objectives of the message are received and
meet with the audience’s expectations. Until that science is perfected the media in all its
incarnations will continue to experiment with technologies both old and new to satisfy its
audience.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit reviews audience theories of mass communication. It offers the students guides to key
audience theories. Firstly, Uses and Gratification Theory (or Functional Theory) of mass
communication media: the theory assumes that audience members actively seek out the mass
media to satisfy individual needs. On another hand, the Diffusion of Innovation (or Multiple Step
Flow) Theory explains how ideas are spread; the theorist argues that to change prevailing
attitudes about an innovation, it is best to persuade opinion leaders. Lastly, the Cultivation Theory
explains how television shapes concepts of social reality. The theory posits that the more people
96
are exposed to television, the more their perception of reality influence to conform to that spread
by television.
1. From what perspective does the U&G Theory examine media behavior? Is this different
from the other theories we have covered? In what way?
2. What does the Cultivation Theory suggest about perceptions of cultural norms?
Blumler J.G. & Katz, E. (1974). The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on
gratifications research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Lazarsfeld, P., Berelson, B., Gaudet, H. (1944) "The People's Choice." New York: Duell, Sloan
and Pearce.
Okenwa, N. S (2002). The Mass Media: Theories and Realities, Enugu, Bismark Publication
Okunna , S. C. (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication, Enugu, New Generation Book
Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: Free Press.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Diffusion_of_Innovations, May 24, 2012
www.scribd.com/doc/40477217/List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, May 24, 2012
UNIT 4 SENSE THEORIES
97
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Play Theory
3.2 Reflective Projective Theory
3.3 Medium Theory
3.4 Media Richness Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A fundamental question about the effectiveness of a medium to impact the audience demand an
understanding of why people use a medium and the richness of its contents: That is, what effects a
medium serve the audience members? Understanding the effectiveness of a mass communication
medium to affect people’s behaviour, actions and attitudes demands an understanding of related
theories.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you will be able to identify and explain:
• The Play Theory
• The Reflective Projective
• The Medium Theory
• And the Media Richness Theory
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Play Theory
The Play Theory focuses on division of man’s activities. The basic assumption of the theory is
that people are divided into work and play. Work involves serious activities, (reality and
production) while play are not too serious activities like (relation and entertainment).
William Stephenson, a British psychologist, in proposing this theory, explains that people use
mass communication more as play than as work, more for pleasure and entertainment than for
information and improvement. In 1967, Stephenson published the Play Theory of Mass
Communication, in which he suggest that the most significant function of mass communication is
98
to facilitate ‘subjective play’, to give people pleasure, an interlude from the pressing matters that
concern them most of the time. He sees mass communication as serving two functions. The first
is to provide play, to influence customs, normalize manners, give people something in common to
talk about, so as to foster mutual socialization. The second function is to help shake up society.
The theory, however, observed the high tendency of injecting entertainment into propaganda to
sustain audience interest and attention where the objective is mainly propaganda. For instance,
increasing numbers of both television viewers and newspaper readers are interested in
entertainment programmes like movies, sports, reality shows.
Ever imagine the huge amount of both time and money people spent in watching the Big Brother
Africa reality show and other reality shows on Nigeria televisions. The phenomenal increase in
the subscription of pay television services in Nigeria buttresses people preference for
entertainment and self satisfaction.

People use the media more for play than for work. Discuss
3.2 Reflective Projective Theory
The Reflective Projective Theory view mass media as of the ‘mirror’ of the society. Lee
Loevinger, a former US Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in head proposing the,
theory explains that mass media ‘mirror’ society but the mirror they present is an ambiguous one.
The mass media reflect society as an organized group, while the audience members project their
own individual reflections into the images presented.
For instance, People get different satisfactions from the same programme watched on television
as a result of their attitude, moods, experience, sex and ethnic difference, thus, people tend to
identify more with their idealised TV characters. Thus, most people buy movies because of the
movie characters involved. In Nigeria this has led to recycling of same characters over and over.
Loevinger’s ‘Reflective Projective Theory of mass communication explains the media tendency
to portray mainstream values and tradition as all serving and self redeeming. Okenwa (2002)
observes that this theory is saying that the media can have ability to form or make somebody into
nobody and nobody into somebody. The strength of this theory lies in the ability of the media to
show and highlight issues. For the media to be able to accomplish this, the media have to
continue pounding or hitting until they achieve their aim. The media raise issues above the market
level.
A good example is terrorism. Prior to the bombing of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in
USA on September 11, 2001, the word ‘terrorism and Osama Bin Laden’ were only mentioned
within top political hierarchies. Today, concentrated media publicity and report on terrorism has
made terrorism one of most recurring words in virtually every part of the world.
99
Describe Loevinger’s ‘Reflective Projective Theory of mass communication.
3.3 Medium Theory
The Medium Theory focuses on the characteristics of each medium (or of each type of medium)
that make it physically, socially, and psychologically different from other media. The Medium
Theory also examines how communications through a particular medium or type of medium
compare and contrast with face-to-face interaction. Medium theory analyzes differences among
communication environments.
The theory originated from Marshal McLuhan’s ‘the medium is the message’ postulation.
McLuhan (1964) challenged conventional definitions when he claimed that the medium is the
message. With this claim, he stressed how channels differ, not only in terms of their content, but
also in regard to how they awaken and alter thoughts and senses. He distinguished media by the
cognitive processes each required. McLuhan popularized the idea that channels are a dominant
force that must be understood to know how the media influence society and culture.
He claims that channels of communication are primary causes of cultural change. According to
him, Family life, the workplace, schools, health care, friendship, religion, recreation, politics are
all touched by communication technology. McLuhan viewed every new form of media
innovation to be an extension of some human faculty. He argued that the media are not simply
channels for transmitting information between two or more environments, but are themselves
distinct social-psychological settings or environments that encourage certain types of interaction
and discourage others (→ Media) (Ellis, 2009).
Thus, the medium theory examines the relationship between human senses that are required to use
a medium and the structure of the medium itself. The emphasis is not on the contents of the media
(e.g., sex, violence, entertainment), but on the structure of media and how these alter thinking and
social organization. Here the channel is seen as key in understanding how mass communication
influences at both the individual, social, and cultural levels.
For instance, on the individual level, it is a different experience and different senses are activated
if an employer fires an employee by sending him or her letter as opposed to speaking to him or
her face-to-face, even if the content of each message is the same. Again, a computer-mediated
interpersonal relationship has medium influences that affect the relationship and differentiate it
from a face-to-face relationship.
On the social level, medium theories note how changing patterns of social interaction attributable
to medium differences (e.g., Internet, cell phones, Blackberries) change social structure in
general. Thus, the Internet has altered the speed, storage, and availability of information and
created an information class including changed patterns of reading. Facebook has influenced
social capital, or the resources accumulated through the relationships among people, and allows
for the formation of new social networks.
100
Marshal McLuhan’s assertions that ‘the medium is the message’ led the way for globalization.
Discuss.
3.4 Media Richness Theory
The Media Richness Theory is based on the Contingency Theory and Information Processing
Theory (Galbraith, 1977). First proponents of the theory were made by Daft and Lengel (1984).
The theory posits that the effectiveness of communication message is based on the effectiveness
of mass communication media used to convey the message. The richer the media, the nearer the
top of the continuum:
The first assumption of this theory is that organizations process information to reduce uncertainty
and equivocality (Daft and Lengel, 1986). Uncertainty is defined by Galbraith (1977) as “the
difference between the amount of information required to perform the task and the amount of
information already possessed by the organization.” Equivocality is defined as the ambiguity of
the task, caused by conflicting interpretations about a group situation or environment. Therefore,
when equivocality is high, an individual does not know what questions to ask and when
uncertainty is high the group knows the question but lacks the necessary information. In
conclusion, as information increases, uncertainty and equivocality decrease.
The second assumption of this theory is commonly used media in organizations works better for
certain tasks than others. Specifically, Daft and Lengel (1984) concluded that written media was
preferred for unequivocal messages while face-to-face media were preferred for messages
containing equivocality.
Daft, Lengel, and Trevino (1987) therefore, present a media richness hierarchy which
incorporates four media classifications; face-to-face, telephone, addressed documents, and
unaddressed documents. The richness of each media is based on four criteria; feedback, multiple
cues, language variety, and personal focus. The richest communication medium is face-to-face
meetings followed by telephone, e- mail, and memos and letters (Rice and Shook 1990).
101
Hierarchy of Media Richness/Source: Daft, Lengel, and Trevino (1987)

(http://istheory.byu.edu/wiki/Media_richness_theory)

In the Media Richness Theory, the richer the media, the nearer the top of the continuum: Justify
this statement using the Hierarchy of Media Richness Diagram.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Media use is one feature that affects every audience members who are the consumer of media
content. It is not only that people use the media, but why they use it and the effect of the use their
individual and collective lives. People can use the media for play or for serious work; as a mirror
to project their image or reflect their actions; or relies on the dominant force of the medium in
guiding communication. Still others depend on the effectiveness of the media to communicate
effectively.
102
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit review four related theories of mass communication The Play Theory assumes that
people use the mass media more for fun (Play) than they use it for serious business (Work). The
Reflective Projective Theory view mass media as the ‘mirror’ of the society. The mass media
reflect society as an organized group, while the audience members project their own individual
reflections into the images presented.
In Medium Theory, McLuhan challenged conventional definitions when he claimed that the
medium is the message. The theory popularized the idea that channels are a dominant force that
must be understood to know how the media influence society and culture. The Media Richness
theory further, posits that the effectiveness of communication message is based on the
effectiveness of mass communication media used to convey the message, thus, the richer the
media, the nearer the top of the continuum.
The effectiveness of communication message is based on the effectiveness of mass

communication media used to convey the message. Discuss this assertion.
Donald Ellis (2009), “Medium Theory.” Encyclopedia of Communication Theory (@

www.omnilogos.com, May 24, 2012
Lee Loevinger, (1968), the ambiguous mirror: The reflective projective theory of broadcasting
and mass communications, Journal of Broadcasting, Volume 12, Issue 2
Okenwa, N. S. (2002). The Mass Media: Theories and Realities, Enugu, Bismark Publication
Okunna, S. C. (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication, Enugu, New Generation Book
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Men. New York: McGraw-Hill.
McLuhan, M., & Fiore, Q. (1967). The medium is the massage. An Inventory of Effects. New
York: Bantam Books.
Stephenson, W. (1967). The Play Theory of Mass Communication. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press. (Reprinted: New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988.)
www.scribd.com/doc/40477217/List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, May 24, 2012.
103
UNIT 5 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
3.2 Social Identity theory
3.3 Social Support Theory
3.4 Social Presence Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mass media communication is something we are all affected by in one way, or another. Directly,
or indirectly, information transmitted by today's communication mediums shape and directs a
society's expectations and behaviours. The impacts most of mass communication theories exert
distinct effect on us as individuals, and as a social group. The behavioural theories of mass
communication therefore examines how repeated exposure to the media changes human
behaviours and actions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Describe the Social Identity Theory
• Discuss the Social Support Theory
• Explain Social Presence Theory
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory explains the inter-relationships among competing cognitions
(beliefs, opinion, attitudes, values and ideas). It applies to all situations involving attitude
formation or change, but more relevant in decision making and problem solving. The theory
states that there is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e.,
104
beliefs, opinions). Whenever inconsistency occurs between an individual’s attitudes or behaviour

(dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the case of a discrepancy
between attitudes and behaviour, it is most likely that the attitude will change to accommodate the
behaviour
The number of dissonant beliefs, and the importance attached to each belief are two factors that
affect the strength of the dissonance. And three ways to eliminate dissonance includes;
• Reducing the importance of the dissonant beliefs,

• Adding more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs,  Changing the
dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent.
For example, if I know five bad things and seven good things about my friend Gbenga, I should
experience more dissonance than if I know one bad thing and seven good things. In this example
much more dissonance would exist when I had all four of the dissonant thoughts than when I only
had one of these cognitions. It therefore holds that the more inconsistent thoughts I have, the
more dissonance I should experience.
Thus, dissonance is frequent in situations where an individual must choose between two
incompatible beliefs or actions. However, the highest dissonance is created when the two
alternatives are equally attractive. Furthermore, attitude change is more likely in the direction of
less incentive since this result in lower dissonance. In this respect, the Dissonance Theory is
contradictory to most behavioural theories which would predict greater attitude change with
increased incentive (i.e., reinforcement).
The basic principles of this theory are summarized as:
• Dissonance results when an individual must choose between attitudes and behaviour that
are contradictory.
• Dissonance can be eliminated by reducing the importance of the conflicting beliefs,
acquiring new beliefs that change the balance, or removing the conflicting attitude or
behavior.
Highlight and describe the three ways to eliminate dissonance.
3.2 Social Identity Theory
The Social Identity Theory focuses on the cognitive and motivational basis of intergroup
differentiation. The theory was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and 80s.
The theory was originally developed to explain the psychological basis of intergroup
discrimination.
105
Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). Tajfel
proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to
were an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a
sense of belonging to the social world.
Tajfel argued that people build their own identities from their group memberships. For example,
think of each of the groups you belong to: say at work, or within your family. Part of who you are
is probably defined by these groups. Simply, the nature of your group memberships defines your
identity.
As our group membership forms our identity, it is only natural for us to want to be part of groups
that are both high status and have a positive image. Crucially though, high status groups only
have that high status when compared to other groups. In other words: knowing your group is
superior requires having a worse group to look down upon.
Posten (1998) holds that without self esteem and the positive aspects that it brings into a person’s
life, a person feels alone and this isolation causes deep anxiety. Thus, sports can work to increase
self-esteem for a person by association and affiliation. By wearing the teams’ colors, attending
every game, and knowing all the players’ names, positions and stats, a fans begin to feel as if they
are an integral part of the team. Therefore, when a team does well, they feel high self esteem in
connection with their team’s victory. They connect with the team as if they were playing the
game themselves.
In order to increase our self-image, we enhance the status of the group to which we belong. For
example, “Chelsea is the best football club in the world!” We can also increase our self-image by
discriminating and holding prejudiced views against the out group (the group we don’t belong to).
For example, the “Arsenal, the French, Barcelona FC etc. are a bunch of losers!”
The central hypothesis of social identity theory is that group members of an in-group will seek to
find negative aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their self-image.
Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership, Discuss?
3.3 Social Presence Theory
The Social Presence Theory focuses on awareness of an interaction partner. The theory measures
communication media based on the degree of awareness of the other person in a communication
interaction. In most cases, the higher the social presence level, the better the understanding of
both speaker and message. The level is altered with the removal or addition of each
communication modality, such as speech, non-verbal cues, and immediacy of exchange or
feedback.
106
Social presence is a concept that has its base in the telecommunications literature. Gunawardena
& Zittle, (1997), John Short, Ederyn Williams, and Bruce Christie in 1976 developed social
presence theory as a model for analyzing the social - psychological dimensions of mediated
communication from a “social cues perspective”. They defined social presence as “the degree of
salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal
relationships” (Short, et al., 1976).
Short et al., explain that the Social Presence Theory is the groundwork for many theories on new
medium effects. The idea is that a medium’s social effects are principally caused by the degree of
social presence which it affords to its users. By social presence is meant a communicator’s sense
of awareness of the presence of an interaction partner. This is important for the process by which
man comes to know and think about other persons, their characteristics, qualities and inner states.
Thus increased presence leads to a better person perception.
They argue that the closer we get to replicating the experience of face-to-face interaction (i.e. the
“richer” the medium), the better the technology is at conveying social presence, and therefore the
more effective the communication will be between the partners. Gunawardena (1995) took Short,
et al.’s (1976) work a step further by refining the definition of social presence as “the degree to
which a person is perceived as a “real person” in mediated communication” and asserted that
social presence can be “cultured” among participants in teleconferences and computer-mediated
communication.
Highlight and describe Short, et al model of social presence.
3.4 Social Support Theory
The Social Support Theory focuses on the exchange of assistance through social relationships.
Social support is a multi-faceted concept that has been difficult to conceptualize, define and
measure. Although this concept has been extensively studied, there is little agreement among
theoreticians and researchers as to its theoretical and operational definition. As a result, the
concept remains fuzzy and almost anything that infers a social interaction may be considered
social support.
Cassel (1976) explains that social networks are closely related to social support. Nevertheless,
these terms are no theories per se. Social Support and Social Networks are concepts that describe
the structure, processes and functions of social relationships. Social networks can be seen as the
web of social relationships that surround individuals.
The Social Support Theory hypothesizes that social support can serve to protect individuals
against the negative effects of stressors (e.g. HIV infection), such as discrimination, by leading
107
them to interpret stressful occasions less negatively. Identification of the importance of networks
or training of people in networks is applications of the approach of social support.

Highlight and describe the relationship between Social Support and Social Network.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The effect of mass media communication on the audience members is not only in matters of
public opinion on political issues but in matters of personal lifestyles and tastes, consumer
behaviour, the sensibilities and dispositions of children, and possible inducements to violence.
Feelings regarding these matters vary greatly. Some people construe the overall effects of mass
communication as generally harmless to both young and old. But sociologists and communicators
believe mass communication influence attitudes and behaviour only insofar as the person is
exposed to it contents.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit review behavioural theories of mass communication and related audience effects of the
theories. While the Cognitive Dissonance Theory explains the relationships among competing
cognitions (beliefs, opinion, attitudes, values and ideas), Social Identity Theory explains that a
person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership. Thus for a person to increase
his self-image he must enhance the status of the group to which he belong. On another hand, the
Social Presence Theory measures communication media based on the degree of awareness of the
other person in a communication interaction, while the Social Support Theory focuses on the
exchange of assistance through social relationships.
Mass communication media shape and direct a society's expectations and behaviours. Highlight
and describe how these statement apply to each of the four theories discussed above.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University

Press.(available at http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/cognitivedissonance.html)
108
Gunawardena, C. N. (1995). Social Presence Theory and Implications for Interaction and
Collaborative Learning in Computer Conferences. International Journal of Educational

Telecommunications, 1(2/3).
Haslam, Alexander S. (2001), Psychology in Organizations - The Social Identity Approach, Sage
Publications Ltd, London. Chapter 2: The Social Identity Approach,
Merritt Posten (1998), Social Identity Theory: Sports Affiliation and Self-Esteem (at
http://www.units.muohio.edu)
Short, J., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications.
London: John Wiley & Sons.
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In S.
Worchel and L. W. Austin (eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chigago: Nelson-
Hall
Susan Copley Cobbhttp://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/8.3.4.pdf
List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, - www.scribd.com
MODULE 4: Effect Theories of Mass Communication

Unit 1 Limited Effects Theory
Unit 2 Powerful Media Effects Theories
Unit 3 Media Effects Theories
109
Unit 4 Media Violence Theories
UNIT 1 LIMITED EFFECTS THEORIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Social Category Theory
3.2 Social Relationship Theory
3.3 Two Step Flow Theory
3.4 Social Cognitive Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Limited Effects Theories are mass communication theories which view the influence of mass
media message on individuals as limited or even trivial.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to discuss:
• The Social Category Theory

• Social Relationship Theory  Two Step Flow Theory
• Social Cognitive Theory.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
110
3.1 The Social Category Theory
The Social Category Theory focuses on reaction against the powerful effects of the media.
Okenwa (200) observes that the social category theory exists as reaction against the powerful
effect of the media. It assumes that people of the same social category will response to the mass
communication message in more or less uniform ways.
Bittner (1989) quoted in Okunna (1999) explains that in social categories theory, the audience is
made up of different sub-group, each constituting a ‘mass within a mass’. Meaning that mass
communication audiences are differentiated according to either their age, gender, religious and
ethnic affiliation, income level etc.
Okunna explains that members of each sub-group belong to a social category, and are likely to
have similar interests and attitudes which differ from those of members of other social category,
and which determine which mass media they use and how they use them… Within each category,
members have had commonly shared experiences and therefore have similar social norms,
attitudes and values.
For instance, it has been observed that men read newspapers than women. Confirming this Wilbur
Schramm quoted in Okunna (1999) explains that men read more newspapers, and read to greater
length and greater depth than women, and that men are more likely to use newspapers for
information than entertainment, when compared with women.

Social category theory exists as reaction against the powerful effect of the media, Discuss?
3.1 Social Relationship Theory
The Social Relationship Theory assumes that people’s reaction to mass media messages is
modified by their informal social relationships with significant others – relations, friends, social
groups etc.
Okunna observes that another factor which is important in understanding the effects of mass
communication on the audience is the interaction between people in a society. This is explained
in the social relationships theory of mass media effects, which is closely related to the Social
Categories Theory. The emphasis in the social relationships theory is on the interaction of
members of social categories, that is, the relationships between them. In these social relationships
or interaction, interpersonal communication in face-to-face situations is of paramount importance.
During this face-to-face communication, members of a group are able to influence one another,
and this can help to determine the effect of mass media messages of the people.
111
For instance during election or other important issues of public opinion, individuals decisions and
actions (e.g. voting) may be influenced by decisions of family or other informal social
relationship the person belong to.

Interpersonal communication in face to face situations is of paramount importance in the Social
Relationship Theory. Discuss?
3.2 Two-Step Flow Theory
The Two-Step Flow Theory focuses on the influence of media messages. This theory asserts that
information from the media moves in two distinct stages. First, individuals (opinion leaders) who
pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information. Opinion leaders
pass on their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content.
The term personal influence ‘was coined to refer to the process intervening between the media‘s
direct message and the audience‘s ultimate reaction to that message. Opinion leaders are quite
influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors and are quite similar to those
they influence.
The Two-step Flow Theory has improved our understanding of how the mass media influence
decision making. The theory refined the ability to predict the influence of media messages on
audience behavior, and it helped explain why certain media campaigns may have failed to alter
audience attitudes an behaviour. The two-step flow theory gave way to the multi-step flow theory
of mass communication or diffusion of innovation theory.
.
The theory was first introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet in ‘The
People's Choice’, a 1944 study focused on the process of decision-making during a presidential
election campaign in the USA. These researchers expected to find empirical support for the
direct influence of media messages on voting intentions. They were surprised to discover,
however, that informal, personal contacts were mentioned far more frequently than exposure to
radio or newspaper as sources of influence on voting behavior. Armed with these data, Katz and
Lazarsfeld developed the two-step flow theory of mass communication.
112

What are the distinguishing characteristics of opinion leaders?
3.3 Social Cognitive Theory
The Social Cognitive Theory focuses on the explanation of behavioural patterns. The theory
explains how people acquire and maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also providing the
basis for intervention strategies (Bandura, 1997). Evaluating behavioural change depends on three
factors; environment, people and behavior. It provides a framework for designing, implementing
and evaluating programs.
Environment refers to the factors that can affect a person‘s behavior. There are social and
physical environments. Social environment include family members, friends and colleagues.
Physical environment is the size of a room, the ambient temperature or the availability of certain
foods. Environment and situation provide the framework for understanding behavior (Parraga,
1990).
The situation refers to the cognitive or mental representations of the environment that may affect
a person‘s behavior. The situation is a person‘s perception of the lace, time, physical features and
activity (Glanz et al, 2002). The three factors environment, people and behaviour are constantly
influencing each other. Behavior is not simply the result of the environment and the person, just
as the environment is not simply the result of the person and behavior (Glanz et al, 2002). The
environment provides models for behaviour.
113
In 1941, Miller and Dollard proposed the theory of social learning. In 1963Bandura and Walters
broadened the social learning theory with the principles of observational learning and vicarious
reinforcement. Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the
traditional learning theory for understanding learning.
Source: Pajares (2002).

Social Cognitive Theory provides a framework for designing, implementing and evaluating
programs. Discuss?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit we review the Limited Effects Theories of mass communication. These theories argue
that the influence of a mass media message on individuals is limited or even trivial. The Limited
Effects Theories are considered a major trigger for the development of new mass communication
theories like the Two-Step Flow theory, Social Category Theory, Social Relationship Theory, and
Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit reviews the limited effects theories of mass communication. Theories concerning the
effects or impact of mass communication media have evolved over time: Social Category Theory
assumes that people of the same social category will response to the mass communication
114
message in more or less uniform ways. The social relationship theory assumes that people’s
reaction to mass media messages is modified by their informal social relationships with
significant others. The Two-Step Flow theory assumes that opinion leaders are quite influential in
getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors and are quite similar to those they
influence. The Social Cognitive Theory focuses on the explanation of behavioural patterns.
1. What was the origin of the research study that served as the foundation for Two-Step
Flow?
2. How crucial is the impact of mass media exposure during a campaign?
3. What about the role of interpersonal connections?
Bandura, A. (Ed.) (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies . New York: CambridgeUniversity

Press
Bittner, John (1989). Mass Communication: An Introduction (5 th Edition) Engelwoods Cliffs,

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K. & Lewis, F.M. (2002).Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory,
Research and Practice. San Fransisco
Wiley & Sons.Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control New York:
List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, - www.scribd.com
UNIT 2 POWERFUL MEDIA EFFECTS THEORIES

115
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory
3.2 Lippmann’s Theory of Public Opinion Formation
3.3 Cultural Imperialism Theory
3.4 Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory
3.5 Gate Keeping Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The mass media of communication is presumed to have all powerful effects on the audience
members. Is assume that mass media had a direct, immediate and powerful effect on its
audiences; that mass media plays major in opinion formation; that western media domination of
the media, affects developing nations (e.g. Nigeria) cultural affiliation and alienating the mass
media audience from their local cultures through instrumentality of propaganda and checks.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to highlight and describe:
• Hypodermic Needle Theory

• Lippmann’s Theory of Public Opinion Formation
• Cultural Imperialism Theory
• Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory
• Gate Keeping Theory
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory
116
The Hypodermic Needle Theory focuses on the direct influence via mass media. The theory
states that mass media had a direct, immediate and powerful effect on its audiences.
Okunna explains that in the early attempts to understand the effects of mass communication, the
media message was liken to a bullet released at a member of the audience. Like a bullet, the
message would be received by the individual directly and it would have an immediate and
powerful effect on him or her, persuading him or her to behave exactly the way the media
message advocated.
This theory assumes that the mass media message could reach a very large group of people
directly and uniformly to influence change in thought, attitude and behaviour.
The theory, also known as the ‘Bullet Theory’ graphically suggests that the message is a bullet,
fired from the "media gun "into the viewer's "head". With similarly emotive imagery the
hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are injected straight into a passive
audience which is immediately influenced by the message
Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet, (1944/1968) express the view that the media are a dangerous
means of communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is powerless to resist the
impact of the message. There is no escape from the effect of the message in these models. The
population is seen as a sitting duck. People are seen as passive and are seen as having a lot media
material "shot" at them. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other
source of information.
Magic Bullet Theory Model

Source: Katz & Lazarsfeld (1955)
117
How did the Magic Bullet Theory view the audience and mass media’s relationship to the
audience?
3.2 Lippmann’s Theory of Public Opinion Formation
Lippmann’s Theory of Public Opinion Formation focuses on average people lack of

understanding of their world and inability to make coherent assessment of their actions.
The theory explains that people do not know the world directly, but only as a “picture in their
heads”; consequently, they responded to a “pseudo-environment” in their political judgments. To
know the world, people need maps of the world, but Lippmann argues that the maps on which
most people rely on have been drawn by special interests.
Lipmann observes that among the factors that lead to perceptual distortions (on the part of the
average person) of the real world were: censorship, limitations of social contact, insufficient time
to study public affairs, the necessity for communicators to express complex events in very short
messages, and fear of threatening facts, as well as preconceptions, prejudices, and stereotypes.
How was it possible to overcome these limitations in a democracy so that people can come to a
rational, objectively based understanding of the world, and a common will?

Describe the concept of Public Opinion.
3.3 Cultural Imperialism Theory
Cultural Imperialism Theory focuses on the Western media domination of global mass
communication. The theory states that Western nations dominate the media around the world
which in return has a powerful effect on Third World Cultures by imposing on them Western
views and therefore destroying their native cultures.
Beltran (1978), quoted in Okunna (1999), defines cultural imperialism as ‘a veritable process of
social influence by which a nation imposes on other countries its set of beliefs, values, knowledge
and behavioural norms as well as its overall style of life.
Okunna observes that whether through their importation media culture or through the barrage of
Western television culture which flows into their countries through Direct Broadcast Satellites
(DBS) over which they have no control, developing countries are at the receiving end of alien
cultures which are alienating their peoples from their own cultures.
The Cultural Imperialism Theory, which was developed in 1973 by Herb Schiller, assumes that
humans do not have the free will to chose how they feel, act, think, and live. They react to what
118
they see on television because there is nothing else to compare it to besides their own lives,
usually portrayed as less than what it should be. It also explains that there is one truth and no
matter what that truth never going to change. For instance, as long as the Third World countries
continue to air Western Civilization's programs then the third world countries will always believe
they should act, feel, think, and live as Western Civilizations act, feel, think, and live.
Thus, Sengupta and Frith, (1997) explain that the cultural imperialism was developed in the 1970s
and conform to media situation as it existed at that time. The nature of media (i.e., print, radio and
television), at that time, promoted a one-way, top-down transmission system from dominant
country to dominated country that theoretically gave rise to a passive audience and a powerful
media.
However, advancement in new media, telecommunications, computers, and satellite technology
provide for greater interaction between sender and receiver than has ever before been possible.
Therefore, the cultural imperialism argument that has been framed in terms of center nations with
power over disempowered periphery nations must be reevaluated as the advanced media slowly
penetrate into developing nations.

Cultural Imperialism focuses on the Western media domination of global mass communication.
Discuss.
3.4 Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory
The Lasswell Propaganda Theory focuses on mass media propaganda effects. The theory states
that mediated propaganda conditioned the audience slowly over time. Propaganda works through
projection of master symbols, emotion charge images (e.g., a national flag). Thus, symbols must
be created and people must be gradually taught to associate specific emotions with these symbols.
Master symbols associated with strong emotions posses the power to stimulate largescale mass
action if used wisely.
He, therefore, rejected the Magic Bullet Theory and stating that propaganda was more than just
using media to lie to the people. People need to be slowly prepared to accept radically different
ideas and actions .Communicators need to come up with well developed, long term campaign
strategy in which new ideas and images are carefully introduced and then cultivated.
Lasswell (1971) observed that the worldwide economic depression and political strife had made
people particularly vulnerable to propaganda convey through mass media message. He reasoned
that the power of propaganda was not so much the result of the substance or appeal of specific
messages but, rather, the result of the vulnerable state of mind of average people.

119
Using example describe how a master symbols associated with strong emotion can stimulate large
scale mass action.
3.5 Gate Keeping Theory
The Media Gate Keeping Theory focuses on media regulation of information flow. The term gate
keeping was coined by an Austrian Psychologist Kurt Lewin in 1947. In mass communication the
term refers to the filtering or blocking of unwanted information or messages. The gate keepers
refer to persons who (a) controls access to information; (b) influence decision making and
actions; c) having influence. Lewin illustrated the role of the gate keeper with the role of a mother
who determines what is good for her children.
Gatekeeping is one of the mass media's central roles in public life: people rely on media
gatekeepers to transform information about events into a manageable number of media messages.
David Mann White suggested having selection process in Newspapers in 1950. The gate keeper
has to decide what to publish and what not to publish in a Newspaper. Today Mass Media play a
gate keeping role as they decide what the people should watch, listen and enjoy.
The theory posits that gatekeeping determines not only which information is selected, but also
what the content and nature of messages, such as news, will be. The theory describes the
powerful process through which events are covered by the mass media, explaining how and why
certain information either passes through gates or is closed off from media attention.
Source: White (1964)

This applied to gatekeeping in media only. For gatekeeping in organizations this model is not
recommended

120
How are Gatekeeping Theory and Agenda Setting Theory related?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Okunna (1999) explains that from the very beginning of mass communication, there has been a
preoccupation with the influence or effects of mass media on the media audience (society).
Because of their special power to affect the way people think, feel, and behave, the mass media
have been credited with incredible persuasive ability to change attitudes and behaviour. This has
made the media a source of worry, especially to governments.
This is the view of the powerful effects theories of mass communication. These theories of mass
communication effects believe that persuasion is the main effect of the mass media.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to review related theories of powerful media effects. Firstly, the
Hypodermic Needle Theory assumes that mass media had a direct, immediate and powerful effect
on its audiences. The theory liken the message to a bullet, fired from the "media gun "into the
viewer's "head" with a powerful effect on the audience. Secondly, Lippmann’s Theory of Public
Opinion Formation assumes that everything the audience knows about their world is from the
media, thus making the mass media public opinion formation.
The Cultural Imperialism Theory explains the power of the media to transmit beliefs, values,
knowledge and behaviour from a self dependent country to a dependence country. And while
Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory describes the powerful effects of media in using the propaganda to
effects audience views; the Media Gate Keeping Theory explains the power of the media to check
what the audiences read, watch or listen.
1. What were people’s general conceptions of the mass media from its inception?
2. What forces are in place to lessen any undesirable effects from gatekeeping?
121
Baran, S., and Davis, D. (2000). Mass communication theory: foundations, ferment and future.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1968).The People’s Choice: How the Voter makes
up his mind in a Presidential Campaign. New York: Columbia University Press
Lasswell, Harold D. (1971). Propaganda Technique in World War I. Cambridge, Mass: The
M.I.T. Press.
Sengupta, S., and Frith, K.T. (1997). "Multinational Corporation Advertising and Cultural
Imperialism: A Content Analysis of Indian Television Commercials." Asian Journal of
Communication, 7
List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, www.scribd.com, May 24. 2012.
122
UNIT 3 CUMMULATIVE EFFECTS THEORIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Framing Theory
3.2 Priming Theory
3.3 Self Perception Theory
3.4 Social Learning Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Understanding of what affects the media has on individuals and society has been of interest to
researchers for decades. Our understanding of media effects has gone through primary phases of
reviewing related theories, thus we present a review of some cumulative effects theories of mass
communication.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the Framing Theory

• Describe the Priming Theory
• Explain Self Perception Theory
• Discuss the Social Learning Theory
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Framing Theory

123
The Framing Theory focuses on how the mass media decide where people think about. Baran and
Davis (2009) explains that the Framing Theory examines the idea about how people use
expectations to make sense of everyday life. The basis of the Framing Theory is that the media
focuses attention on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning. This field of
meaning can have an effect on the audience’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours by connecting a
particular meaning or interpretation on an issue.
The theory assumes that the mass media draw the public attention to certain topics, it decides
where people think about; the journalists select the topics. This is the original agenda setting
‘thought’. The way in which the news is brought, the frame in which the news is presented, is
also a choice made by journalists. Thus, a frame refers to the way mass media and media
gatekeepers organize and present the events and issues they cover, and the way audiences
interpret what they are provided. Frames are abstract notions that serve to organize or structure
social meanings. Frames influence the perception of the news on the audience, this form of
agenda-setting not only tells what to think about, but also how to think about it.
For example, when a journalist selects a topic that he or she is going to write about, they are
inevitability drawing the audience’s attention to a particular topic, which is the original concept
behind the agenda setting theory. However, the way or the frame in which the information is
presented to the audience is also decided by the media practitioners or the gatekeepers. The
framing theory refers to not only how the audience is influenced and interprets what is presented
to them by the media, but also refers to the media’s ability to persuade its audiences to accept one
meaning of a concept over another. (University of Twente)
What do we mean when we say that the news media “frame” issues?
3.3 Priming Theory
The Priming Theory focuses on Media effects. The theory states that media images stimulate
related thoughts in the minds of audience members. It refers to the ability of the media to control
the interpretation of new information by feeding the public prior information. This prior context
set frames of reference within the audience members, which ultimately affects their judgments.
Mass communication media therefore, has the capability to influence people to think based on the
media concepts that have been presented to them
For example, if the press continuously reports an issue that might ordinarily seem irrelevant, once
the issue becomes news, it tends to become relevant. Thus, the more coverage an issue receives,
the more of an impact it has on the opinions the public forms about the issue and those involved.
Iyengar & Kinder (1987), quoted in Chong and Druckman (2007), describe priming as follows:
‘By calling attention to some matters while ignoring others, television news influences the
standards by which governments, presidents, policies, and candidates for public office are judged.
124
Priming refers to changes in the standards that people use to make political evaluations’ (Iyengar
al. 1984).
Mass communication media, therefore, play a very important role in the society. The public does
not always notice the strong effects of persuasive advertisements or well-narrated news story
presented by media however the increasing demands determine the impacts of these media
concepts to the people in all aspects. People buy a certain product because of the appealing
commercial on television. People conform to the latest fashion trends because of the models and
endorsers on the magazines. People vote for a certain politician because of constant release of
propaganda through news. These are just few of the many examples showing the strong effects of
mass media on the public. Even though the people are often unaware of these influential demands
and plain consumerism, the society still relies on the ability and credibility of mass media for
providing information that would help each cluster function well in the society

What question does Priming Theory seek to answer in the context of mass media?
3.4 Self-Perception Theory
The Self-Perception Theory provides an alternative explanation for cognitive dissonance effects.
The theory suggests that people develop their own attitudes, opinions, and other internal states
partly by observing their behavior and concluding what attitudes that must have caused them.
According to the theory, introspection is a poor guide to one's internal states, because internal
cues are weak and ambiguous, and a person is in the same position as an outside observer, who
relies on outward behavior in interpreting another's internal states.
The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that attitudes come prior to
behaviour. Okunna (1999) explains that among television entertainment programmes, the soap
opera and situation comedy are particularly full of gratifications for television viewers. An
application of the Self-perception Theory (Bem. 1972) to television viewing explains viewers’
use of these types of programmes to gratify their need to reduce stress. She a says that the theory
explains human behaviour after it has occurred as a natural response to a stimulus; then she
explains her behaviour and attributes this explanation to herself.
Daryl J. Bem, a social psychologist developed the theory in 1967
3.5 Social Learning Theory
125
Social Learning Theory is a general theory of human behaviour, but Bandura (1977) and people
concerned with mass communication (e.g television news) have used it specifically to explain
media effects. Bandura warned that children and adults acquire attitudes, emotional responses,
and new styles of conduct through filmed and televised modelling.
Social Learning Theory in media pertains to how learning can be facilitated by mere observation
of what's being presented through media. Albert Bandura cautioned that TV might create a
violent reality that was worth fearing. Bandura's warning struck a responsive chord in parents and
educators who feared that escalating violence on TV would transform children into bullies.
Bandura regards anxiety over televised violence as legitimate.
He explains that social learning or "observational learning" involves how behaviours and attitudes
can be modeled merely by observing the behaviours and attitudes of others. Bandura preformed
an experiment called the Bobo Doll Experiment involving having children observe adults
displaying aggressive behaviour toward a doll named Bobo. The adults punched, kicked, and
verbally insulted the doll, all in the children's presence. The result of the experiment showed a
marked increase in aggressive behaviour from the children toward Bobo the doll. These results
tend to support the Social Learning Theory.
Social Learning Theory in media and the Bobo experiment correspond to each other in significant
ways. For example, acknowledging mass media's influence on human behaviour in societies
valuing freewill in novel ways, and where accountability for a person's action ultimately ends
with the individual themselves, presents a vicious paradox.
For example, mass media contents showing violent behaviour towards a specific ethnic group or
widely distributing stereotypes pertaining to gender characteristics (e.g. girls are emotional and
boys are logical) may be learned and imitated on the individual level. If negative outcomes result
and become widespread, the line between mass media's accountability and individual
accountability may not be apparent thus creating a cycle where mass media plays the "individuals
can make their own decisions" game while individuals comprising society collectively learns via
media to internalize negative attitude towards minorities.
An important factor of Bandura’s social learning theory is the emphasis on reciprocal

determinism. This notion states that an individual’s behaviour is influenced by the environment
and characteristics of the person. In other words, a person’s behaviour, environment, and personal
qualities all reciprocally influence each other. Bandura proposed that the modeling process
involves several steps:
1. Attention – in order for an individual to learn something, they must pay attention to the
features of the modeled behaviour.
2. Retention – humans need to be able to remember details of the behaviour in order to learn
and later reproduce the behaviour.
3. Reproduction – in reproducing a behavior, an individual must organize his or her
responses in accordance with the model behavior. This ability can improve with practice.
4. Motivation – there must be an incentive or motivation driving the individual’s
reproduction of the behaviour. Even if all of the above factors are present, the person will
not engage in the behaviour without motivation.
126
4.0 CONCLUSION
Okunna (1999) observes that people seldom want to be changed, either by the mass media or any
other factors. The attitudes which people already hold are strong barriers to change. In fact, the
mass media are more likely to reinforce the existing attitudes and lifestyles of members of the
media audience, than to change them. This reinforcement itself is an important effect of mass
communication. Effects should not be understood solely as a complete change of attitudes and
behaviour.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit explores related cumulative effects theories of mass communication. Starting from the
Framing Theory, which focuses on how the mass media decide where people think about; the
theory assumes that the mass media draw the public attention to certain topics, it decides what
people think about; the journalists select the topics. Secondly, the Priming Theory explains that
media images stimulate related thoughts in the minds of audience members
Furthermore, while the Self-Perception Theory suggests that people develop their own attitudes,
opinions, and other internal states partly by observing their behaviour and concluding what
attitudes that must have caused them; in the Social Learning Theory we observe that social
learning or "observational learning" involves how behaviour and attitudes can be modeled merely
by observing the behaviour and attitudes of others
1. Who supplies the frames? Briefly describe how each party you’ve identified participates
in the framing process.
2. How are the Gatekeeping, Agenda Setting, and Framing Theories related?
3. How are the theories of Framing and Priming different?
127
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. General Learning Press.
Baran, S. J. & Davis, D. K. (2009). Mass communication theory: foundations, ferment, and
future (5th edition). Boston, M.A.:Wadsworth cengage learning.
Bem, Daryl J.(1972). Self-Perception Theory. Advances in Experiment Social Psychology,6
Bem, Daryl J.(1967). Self-Perception: an alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance
phenomena. Psychological Review,74,
Dennis Chong and James N. Druckman (Framing Theory) Annua Review Political Science
(2007), Arjournals (annualreviews.org)
Lane, D. (2001). Agenda Setting Theory. Retrieved from Honors: Communication Capstone
Spring 2001 @ www.uky.edu/~drlane
List-of-Mass-Communication-Theories, - www.scribd.com, May 25, 2012
Priming Essay, - www.mightystudents.com, May 25, 2012
/communication,-www.communicationstudies.com, May 25, 2012
128
UNIT 4 MEDIA VIOLENCE THEORIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Reinforcement Theory
3.2 Linkage Theory
3.3 Catharsis Theory
3.4 Aggressive Cue Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Violent or aggressiveness influences behaviour more than watching certain programs, films or
listening to certain music. Many studies illustrate that media affects behaviour and actions.
However, this is a contentious issue that we attempt to review here.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit the student will be able to describe:
• Reinforcement Theory
• Linkage Theory
• Catharsis Theory
• Aggressive Cue Theory
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Reinforcement Theory
The Reinforcement Theory focuses on how mass communication media effect behaviour. The
theory states that people seek out and remember information that provides cognitive support for
129
their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. Okunna (1999) explains that mass media rarely have a
powerful persuasion effect on media audiences because people can use a variety of defensive
mechanism or strategies to shield themselves from media messages which are contradictory to
their attitude and behaviours. The assumption here is that people do not like to be wrong and
often feel uncomfortable when their behaviours or beliefs are challenged
Thus, an individual uses selective process (selective exposure, selective reception, and selective
retention etc) to protect his held belief and behaviour. B. F. Skinner, a key contributor to
development of the theory, argued that the internal needs and drives of individuals can be ignored
because people learn to exhibit certain behaviour based on what happens to them as a result of
their behaviour.

From what perspective does the Reinforcement Theory examine people behaviour?
3.2 Linkage Theory
The Linkage Theory focuses on how children view fantasy and reality. The theory explains that
people (particularly children) always assume a link between mass mediated fantasy and concrete
reality. This affects their behaviour, encourage or stimulate violent lifestyles or behaviour.
For example, increasing violent behaviour among children and teenagers could be attributed to
the increasing violent cartoons in the media today, especially the paid mass media. There is
currently higher tendency among children and teenagers who have access to violent cartoons and
other violent media contents to exhibit violent behaviour than those who does not. The fact is that
children and most teenagers live in fantasy world and will want to act like the media character
hero at every such opportunity. They hardly can differentiate between fantasy and reality.

Highlight and discuss possible effects of children exposure to Cartoon Network?
3.3 Catharsis Theory
The Catharsis Theory also known as the Sublimation Theory, focuses on the use of violent mass
mediated content as an alternatives for aggressive thought and feelings. Gunter (1994) explains
that the expectation is that an angered individual may use violent media instead of engaging in
aggressive behaviour. Catharsis effects have long been held to be an unlikely explanation of
television effects.
130
The Catharsis Theory has played an important role in the discussion about the effects of violence
in the mass media for many years. It implies that the execution of an aggressive action under
certain conditions diminishes the aggressive drive and therefore reduces the likelihood of further
aggressive actions. The crucial point in catharsis theory is that the observed aggressive action
does not necessarily need to be executed in reality – it can instead take place in the actor's fantasy
or in the media.
The theory states that viewing violence is sufficient to purge or at least satisfy a person’s
aggressive drive and, therefore, reduce the likelihood of aggressive behaviour. For instance, the
theory holds that people get self satisfaction or reduce aggression by watching related media
contents.
However, the theory seems weak in achieving it objectives. Since watching say sexual acts has
been attributed as the major stimulant for many violent sexual experiences. Thus, instead of
bringing satisfaction it rather stimulate the individual into violent urgency to satisfy the
aggressive urge.

Compare the Catharsis Theory and Aggressive Cue Theory.
3.4 Aggressive Cue Theory
The purpose of the Aggressive Cue Theory is to explain and determine what variables should be
taken into consideration when trying to figure out why people act out aggressively or a direct or
indirect consequence of mass mediated violence. The Aggressive Cue Theory could be utilized to
help minimize aggression acts that lead to violent crimes. If people are aware of conditions that
predispose them to aggression, they could then consciously try to avoid certain those
circumstances. Additional resources could be allocated to prevent and to act as deterrents in
specific events that are known to have aggressive and violent acts committed by people that are
typically not associated with those events
The first assumption is that people who expose themselves to mass media violence exhibit higher
levels of aggression. For instance, watching mass mediated violent movies or cartoon in the case
of children can trigger aggressive behaviour and subsequently violent behaviour with little
provocation.
The second assumption is that people behave aggressively because of their emotional state or
state of frustration they are experiencing at the moment and not really as a direct response to mass
mediated violence. For instance, the traffic in Lagos can trigger violent emotion and subsequently
aggressive behaviour without actually a direct contact with mass mediated violence.
131
The third assumption is that people can take up to violent behaviour because they feel the act is
justified. Berkwitz (2006) explains that a stimulus does not directly produce aggressive behavior
but that it actually prepares you for aggressive action. A combination of aggressive cues and
environmental stimuli would have to be present as well as something that triggers the response.
The additional condition is what sets off the aggressive response but it is not the only factor that
is responsible for the outcome of the external aggression.

Stimulus does not directly produce aggressive behaviour but that it actually prepares you for
aggressive action. Discuss.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There seems to be an impulse towards violence within the human psyche (as a species, we began
as hunters), an impulse that is restrained by learned behavioural patterns. Some people learn
restraining behaviour patterns more effectively than others. Some people forget learned behaviour
patterns when their innate impulse towards violence is triggered, either by a personal
confrontation, or an encounter with violence in the media.
There's quite a bit of debate among media researchers (and everyday people as well) as to how
much of a connection there is between media violence and real life. Although most researchers
believe that the effects of media violence are mitigated by other factors and are rarely direct,
some do believe there is a strong correlation between exposure to media violence and real-life
behaviour. Other theorists argue that media violence researchers have grossly overstated their
case, and that media violence does not impact individuals or society as much as many believe.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit reviews four theories of media effects; the Reinforcement Theory, Linkage Theory,
Catharsis Theory and Aggressive Cue Theory. Each of these theories targets either the negative or
positive effects of media on its viewers. For instance, while Catharsis theory discuses the positive
effects media have another audience, the Catharsis, is a way to vent all of the built up aggression
that may be causing an individual discomfort. Catharsis assumes that we all experiences
threatening impulses that we try to resist. All of these experiences that we try to repress gradually
build up until our normal means of repressing them cannot be managed the Aggressive Cue
Theory, however, sees the opposite. The theory assumes that people who expose themselves to
mass media violence exhibit higher levels of aggression. It predicts a increases in this violent
behaviour when watching a violent act take place on television, or through any form of media.
Also while the Linkage Theory explains that people (particularly children) always assume a link
between mass mediated fantasy and concrete reality, the Reinforcement Theory observes that
132
people seek out and remember information that provides cognitive support for their pre-existing
attitudes and beliefs.
1. The media can cause enormous change in the society. Discuss.

2. Highlight and describe the possible effects of many potentially harmful mass media
contents that surround us in society
Berkowitz, L., Schrager, S., & Dunand, M. (2006). Shared suffering can mitigate aversively-
generated @ www. psychwiki.com
Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1953.
List-of-Mass-Communication Theories,- www.scribd.com
Key theories on violence in the media, - www.suite101.com &
The Effects of Media Violence, - www.mediaknowall.com
133

MAC 205 Theories of Mass Communication

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MAC 205 Theories of Mass Communication

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MAC 205 Theories of Mass Communication

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MAC 211 Theories of Mass Communication

MODULE 1: THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

3.0 What is Communication?

Communication is difficult to define.

Stevens (1950), who defines communication as:"The discriminatory response of an organism to

Steinfatt (1977): "The process of exchanging mutually understood symbols".

Nwankwo (1973): “An interaction between a minimum of two symbolic systems…”

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Communication is the mechanism by which power is exercised. Discuss.

3.2 Communication Cycle

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Communication is a fundamental part of all our lives. Describe a personal communication

3.3 Functions of Communication

• Communication helps us assert and differentiate our personality

• Communication helps us create communities

• Communication forms and strengthens relationships

• Communications helps us to influence others

• Communication conveys and creates information

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Stevens, S. S. (1950): ‘A Definition of Communication’ The Journal the Acoustical

Thomas M. Steinfatt (1977): Human communication: An Interpersonal Introduction.

Nwankwo, R. L. (1973) Communication as Symbolic Interaction: A Synthesis. The

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Characteristics of Communication

The nature of communication, therefore, can be explained by the following characteristics of

 Two or more persons:

Communication involves at least two people.

established hierarchy, informal communication allows any individual to convey information to

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

3.2 Attributes of Communication

The characteristics of communication can further be explained with understanding of some

• Intentional and Unintentional

Communication can be intentional or unintentional. Intentional communication occurs when we

Communication is evolving. It improves with time and experience and age.

• Interaction and transaction

Communication occurs in many forms and at different levels.

Communication provides satisfaction to the communicator.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

3.3 Barrier to Effective Communication

• Lack of Basic Communication Skills

• Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject

If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication, communication may cease.

• Long Communication Chain

If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled with technical information, communication

• Lack of Communication Skills

The communication cycle may be broken if feedback is unsuccessful.

• No Provision for Feedback

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Furthermore, we highlighted some scholarly views of some specific attributes of communication

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Uyo, A. O. (1989). Mass Communication Media: Classification and Characteristics. New

Margaret Rouse, Editorial Director: (2005), www. techtarget.com/definition/attribute

Brian G. Wilson in www.marin.edu/buscom/index_files/Page565.htm. May 16, 2012.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Communication Process

Activities/ Purposing Encoding Transmitting Receiving Responding