Unit-1 Communication – Concept & Processes

1st Topic- Communication – Concept, Definition, Elements and Process

Introduction

Communication allows people to exchange thoughts through different methods. There are auditory means, such as
speaking or singing; and nonverbal means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch or eye contact.
Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between or among individuals through a common
system of symbols, signs, and behavior. As a process, communication is also known as:

Expressing feelings,
Conversing,
Speaking,
Corresponding,
Writing,
Listening and
Exchanging, etc.

People communicate to satisfy their needs. People want to be heard, to be appreciated and to be wanted. They also
want to accomplish tasks and to achieve goals. Obviously, then, a major purpose of communication is to help people
feel good about themselves and about their friends, groups, and organizations.

Communication – An Overview

Communication is the ability to share information. We need communication. Communication keeps businesses and
work running. It helps people in to contact each other. We contact police, fire departments, ambulances and doctors
through communication. A lot of things would be useless, and almost nothing would work without communication.
Transportation and food supplies would not meet the needs of the people. We would loose contact with our families
and friends that live far away. There would be no newspapers, no radio or television stations to entertain us, or movies
to see. Society would surely not be the same as it is now.

Now let us think a little about the future. Maybe some years from now, we will have telephones like wristwatches.
There could be televisions with interactive 3D programming. May be we will have a mental connection with things so
all we have to do is think, and things will be done. Most likely computers will be able to visually connect with anyone
in the world.

Are all these things possible? Only the future will tell. After all, 100's of years ago no one would have dreamed of all
the things we have today.

Concept of Communication

Communication is the exchange of perceptions, messages or information through speeches, visuals, signals, symbols,
writings or attitudes. It is defined as ‘the passing of information and understanding from one person to another’. The
English word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin noun ,’communis’ and Latin verb ‘communicare’ which
means to share or make common. The closest Indian language equivalent to the original concept of communication is
’sadharanikaran’.

Now let us try to understand the concept of communication. In very simple terms we can describe communication as
S-R. These two letters stand for stimulus and response. A stimulus is the message that is communicated and response
is the reaction to the message that is received back.
This is also known as the Sender-Receiver model. This model is one of the earliest models of communication. Here
we find only two elements in the process of communication. According to this model every communication has the
potential to have an effect. This effect sometimes is simple and direct. It could be complex and delayed in other cases.

Another important aspect of communication, as can be understood from this model, is that all communication occurs
at a personal level. That is many people may receive the same message, but the individual receivers react and respond
to this same message or stimuli in different ways. Communication is often considered as an activity only. In reality, it
is actually a process.

The process of communication includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, and knowledge. This is
done with the help of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, drawings, and illustrations, etc. Again,
"communication" is the process by which we understand and in turn try to be understood by others. It is dynamic,
constantly changing and shifting in response to the overall situation. Therefore, "communication" can be described as
"the interchange of thoughts or ideas". This is also referred as sharing of meaning.

Again, communication is viewed as creation and transmission of information, consisting of distinctive stimuli, from a
source to a recipient. Speaking about the role of communication in everyday life, one can say that communication is a
system through which the messages are sent, and feedback received. So it is not a one-way process. Rather it is a two-
way process. Communication is, therefore, the process of transferring a particular information or message from an
information source to a desired, definite or a particular destination. This process also involves feedback from the
receiver.

Definition of Communication

Many scholars have defined communication in their own ways. Scholars from many different fields like sociology,
psychology, anthropology, and the field of communication have given hundreds of definitions. But not all scholars
agree upon any single definition of communication. One of the reasons of this difficulty of having a single, all-
inclusive and comprehensive definition of the term communication is the diversity and complexity of the concept.

Communication means 'exchange' to some. It means 'interchange' to others. To still others it means 'sharing'. We
all understand what communication is. Most of us take part in the process of communication all the time. We
participate as senders of messages and also as receivers of messages. We also use many media of communication.
Then we use communication for achieving success in a variety of objectives. Because of the above reasons, we can
describe communication. We also discuss communication. But we find defining communication a difficult task.

Now let us see how some experts have defined communication.

Wilbur Schramm: “Communication is the transmission of stimuli.”

John Harris: “Communication is the establishment of commonness.”

Dennis Mcquail: “Communication is a process that increases commonality.... But it requires commonality for it to
occur at all.”

Larry L. Barker & Deborah A. Barker: “Communication is a process in which two or more elements of a system
interact in order to achieve a desired outcome or goal.” (Barker & Barker consider communication as a dynamic,
everchanging, and un-ending process)

J. P. Legan: “It is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings, or impressions, in a way
that each gain understanding of the message.”

Brooker (1949): “Communication is anything that conveys meanings, that carries a message from one person to
another.”
Weaver (1966): “Communication is the process by which our mind can affect others.”

L. Brown: “Communication is the transmission and interchange of ideas, feelings, or courses of action.”

Charles E. Redfield: “Communication is the broad field of human interchange of facts and opinions... and not the
technology of telephony, telegraphy, and the like.”

Functions of Communication

Broadly speaking, communication performs the following functions:

o Information,
o Education,
o Entertainment, and
o Persuasion.

Some people add a fifth function to this in the shape of enlightenment. In addition, there are additional functions of
communication also. These include:

o Evaluation,
o Direction,
o Influencing, and
o Orientation.

Any communication is designed with one or more of these functions as objectives. To successfully perform these
functions communication must be so designed and planned that it gains the attention of the receiver. It must use
symbols, or codes that are easily understood by the receiver. It must arouse needs in the receiver and suggest some
way of satisfying these needs. Only then it can create the desired response.

Characteristics of Communication

(1) Two or More Persons:

The first important characteristic of communication is that there must be a minimum number of two persons because
no single individual can have an exchange of ideas with himself. A listener is necessary to receive one’s ideas.
Therefore, there must be at least two persons-the sender of information and the receiver.

(2) Exchange/Sharing of Ideas:

Communication cannot be thought of in the absence of exchange of ideas. In order to complete the process of
communication there must be an exchange of ideas, orders, feelings, etc., among two or more than two persons.

(3) Mutual Understanding:

Mutual understanding means that the receiver should receive the information in the same spirit with which it is being
given. In the process of communication, it is more important to understand the information rather than carry it out.

(4) Direct and Indirect Communication:

It is not necessary in communication that the receiver and giver of information should be face-to-face with each other.
Communication can be both direct and indirect. Direct communication means face-to-face conversation, while indirect
communication is through other means.

(5) Continuous Process:

Communication is an endless process, as is the case with business where the manager continuously assigns work to his
subordinates, tries to know the progress of the work and gives directions.
(6) Use of Words as well as Symbols:
There can be many means of communication, like the written, the oral and symbolic. The examples of symbolic
communication are the ringing of bell for closing a school or a college, saying something by the movement of the
neck, showing anger or disapproval through eyes, giving some decision by the raising of a finger in cricket, etc.

Elements of Communication

Communication is a process. Any process has different elements. Now we shall discuss the elements involved in the
process of communication.

The first element is the source. It is also called the sender or communicator. The sender encodes the message. Thus
the sender is also called the encoder. But if we analyze the process of communication, we find that the sender not only
sends, he or she also receives.

The second element is the receiver. A receiver receives the message and decodes it to get the meaning. The receiver
not only receives, he or she also sends. This is because most of the communication is cyclic in nature. Because of this,
we no longer use the terms sender and receiver. Instead, the term 'participants' is used. We refer to the sender and the
receiver as participants, as the process of communication is highly participative, involving and democratic.

The next element is the message. This could be verbal (oral, written or printed) or non-verbal. The message is usually
in a language that all the participants can understand. The message can be spoken, written, printed, in visual form, or
in audio or audio-visual forms.

Then comes the channel. This is the medium through which the message is transmitted. It could be the medium of air,
the medium of mail, or it could be any of the mass media.

The next element is the 'feedback'. This is the reaction of the receiving participant to the message sent back to the
sending participant. The feedback is sent back to the sender participant either through the same channel as used by the
sending participant or through some other channel as desired by the receiving participant. Feedback plays a very
import ant role in the process of communication as this helps in the continuation of the process.

The next element is 'noise'. These are nothing but the 'barriers to communication". These barriers or disturbances
could be physical or semantic in nature. These are also called interferences and can be controlled to a great extent.

Process of Communication

The process of communication involves a few elements. As discussed above there are the following elements of
communication:

o A communication source or sender,

o A message,
o A channel,
o A communication receiver
o Feedback
o Noise

Now let us see how communication takes place. This is illustrated as under:

The information source or sender

Decides to communicate and encodes a
Message,
Transmits it through a
Channel to the
Receiver,
Which (the message) is then
Decoded and acted upon. There are
Noises or Distortions during the process.
The receivers’ reactions reaching the sender is called
Feedback.

So the communication process starts with a sender of the message who is also called an encoder. The communicator or
source codifies the message by giving it the desired form, shape or format. The message is communicated by means of
a mechanism of transmission.

A channel or device is used to communicate the message. It could be a radio or a television set, newspaper or
magazine and the like. The encoding process means putting the message together or arranging the ideas in a
recognizable and understandable form, for conveying it to the receivers. Unlike in telegraphy, the encoder here is a
human agent. The encoder decides the content of the message. Similarly, decoder is the destination where the message
lands.

Two other communication specialists, Claude E. Shanon and Warren Weaver, have given another view of the
communication process as in the following figure:

Sender or Communicator
Sends
Signal (message)
Through
Mechanical and Semantic Devices or channels (Medium)
To the Receiver
Who sends back Feedback
With
Mechanical and Semantic Noise
Working all through the process.
(Communication Process by Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver)

Communication, as we know, is the exchange of information. So it is important that the recipient understands what the
sender intends. So communication starts with the sender. The sender initiates the communication process by
packaging or encoding the message. It is the sender's responsibility to assemble the information in a format that the
recipient can
understand. The message has to be both clear and concise, and without unnecessary jargon!

The encoding may take several forms like: oral, written, textural, numerical, graphic, body language, paper, electronic,
physical, etc. The encoded message is ready for transmission.

The transmission is how the information gets to the recipient. And may take many forms like:

o Sound waves: direct verbal

o Electronic: telephone, Email, Internet,
o Air waves: cell phones, TV

This again is the sender's responsibility to see that the message arrives. The sender also verifies (if possible) that the
recipient understands it. The decoding is what the recipient does with the transmission after receiving the message.

10 COMMANDMENTS OF GOOD COMMUNICATION:

The American management association has given essentials of good communication, popularly called the 10
commandments. These commandments are:

1. CLARIFY IDEAS BEFORE COMMUNICATING:

By systematically thinking through the message and considering who will be receiving and affected by it. The
source overcomes one of the basic pitfalls of communication: failure to properly plan the communication; the
more systematically a message is analysed, the more clearly it can be communicated.

2. EXAMINE THE TRUE PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION:

The sender has to determine, what he himself or the receiver really wants to accomplish with the message. Once
this objective is identified the communication can be properly designed.

3. TAKE THE ENTIRE ENVIRONMENT INTO CONSIDERATION:

The physical setting, the social climate and past communication practices should be examined for the
communication to be successful.

4. WHENEVER REQUIRED OBTAIN ADVICE FROM OTHERS IN PLANNING COMMUNICATION:

Consulting with others can be a useful method of obtaining additional insights regarding how to handle the
communication.

5. BE AWARE OF THE OVERTONES AS WELL AS THE BASIC CONTENT OF THE MESSAGE:

The listener will be affected by not only what is said but also how it is said. Voice tone, facial expressions, and
choice of language all influence the listener’s reaction to the communication

6. CONVEY USEFUL INFORMATION:

People remember things that are beneficial (useful) to them. If the sender wants the receiver to remember the
message he should take into consideration their needs and interests.

7. FOLLOW UP COMMUNICATION:
The sender must solicit (ask) feedback in ascertaining whether the receiver understands the communique, is
willing to comply with it and then takes the appropriate action.

8. COMMUNICATE WITH FUTURE AS WELL AS THE PRESENT IN MIND:

Most communications are designed to meet the demands of the current situation however they should be in accord
with the long range/ term goals as well.

9. SUPPORT WORDS WITH DEEDS:

When sender contradict himself by saying one thing and doing another they undermine their own objective.

10. BE A GOOD LISTENER:

By concentrating on the speakers explicit and implicit meanings the recipient can obtain a much better knowledge
or understanding of what is being said.

CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

we can describe communication as S-R. These two letters stand for

stimulus and response. A stimulus is the message that is communicated and

response is the reaction to the message that is received back.

This is also known as the Sender-Receiver model. This model is one of

the earliest models of communication. Here we find only two elements in the

process of communication. According to this model every communication has

the potential to have an effect. This effect sometimes is simple and direct. It

could be complex and delayed in other cases.

Another important aspect of communication, as can be understood

from this model, is that all communication occurs at a personal level. That is

many people may receive the same message, but the individual receivers

react and respond to this same message or stimuli in different ways.

Communication is often considered as an activity only. In reality, it is

actually, a process. The process of communication includes transmission of

information, ideas, emotions, skills, and knowledge. This is done with the help

of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, drawings, and illustrations, etc.

Again, &quote; communication & quote; is the process by which we understand and in

turn try to be understood by others. It is dynamic, constantly changing and

shifting in response to the overall situation. Therefore, & quote; communication & quote; can

be described as & quote; the interchange of thoughts or ideas & quote. This is also referred

as sharing of meaning.

Again, communication is viewed as creation and transmission of

information, consisting of distinctive stimuli, from a source to a recipient.

Speaking about the role of communication in everyday life, one can say that

communication is a system through which the messages are sent, and

feedback received. So it is not a one-way process. Rather it is a two-way

process.

Communication is, therefore, the process of transferring a particular

information or message from an information source to a desired, definite or a

particular destination. This process also involves feedback from the receiver.

Functions of communication

Communication is the heart of all social action and interaction. It functions as a tool that creates understanding
and strengthens collective living among people. The primary function of communication is to inform, educate,
persuade and entertain.
 1. Information function: to find out or explain something, for information can flow vertically, horizontally and
diagonally.

2. Education or instruction function: it provides skills and helps them to operate in a better way.

3. Persuasion function: it helps people in reaching a decision; however it is also possible that one may resort to
persuasion with a negative motive.

4. Debate and discussion function: leads to building of viewpoints and opinion.

5. Entertainment function: This popular function of the mass media refers to the ability of the media to help
relax people and create a means of escape from the stress of everyday life. The entertainment function of
mass media has both positive and negative effects.

6. Integration function: communication acts as an integrating tool by bringing together different cultures,
individuals and groups.

7. Evaluation function: examination of activities form an idea or judgement of the worth of task, achieved
through communication.

8. Directing function: provides a certain direction to the communication, whether it is upward, downward etc.

9. Feedback/influencing function: it implies provision of feedback while tells the effects of communication.
10. Image projecting function: there is inter relationship and inter dependence between society and an enterprise
operating in society.
11. Orientation function: to get the people accustomed to the various rules and regulations, as well as to get the
organisational structure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

 Two or more persons: There are 2 or more persons required for an effective communication for better
exchange of ideas; as it enables a proper feedback.
 Exchange of ideas: An effective communication leads to exchange of ideas
 Mutual understanding: There has to be mutual understanding between the sender and receiver to enable an
effective communication.
 Direct and indirect communication: It is not necessary in communication that the receiver and giver of
information should be face-to-face with each other. Communication can be both direct and indirect. Direct
communication means face-to-face conversation, while indirect communication is through other means.

Direct communication happens when a speaker's true intentions are communicated in his/her verbal message. It
expresses the speaker's/sender's needs and desires explicitly.

Indirect communication happens when a speaker's true intentions are hidden.

 Continuous process: Communication is an invariable process that takes place continuously in our day to day
lives.
 7 Cs of communication

These are necessary elements that are essential for communication.

 CREDIBILITY- Communication starts with the climate of belief. This climate is built by performance on the
part of the communicator. The receiver must have confidence in the sender. He must have a high regard for
the source’s competence on the subject.
 CONTEXT- The context must confirm not contradict the message. It must provide for participation.
 CONTENT- The content determines the audience. Hence, the message must have meaning for the receiver
and it must be compatible with his value system. It must have relevance for him.
 CLARITY- The message must be put in simple terms. Words must mean the same thing to the receiver as
they do to the sender. Complex issues must be compressed into themes (way of talking) that have simplicity
and clarity. The farther the message has to travel the simpler it should be.
 CONTINUITY & CONSISTENCY- Communication is an unending process. It requires repetition to achieve
penetration. The story must be consistent.
 CHANNELS- Only the established channels of communication should be used. Channels that the receiver
uses and respects, creating new ones is difficult. Different channels have different effects and serve effectively
in different stages of the communication process.
 CAPABILITY OF AUDIENCE- Communication must take into account the capability of audience.
Communications are most effective when they require the least effort on the part of the recipient. This
includes factors of availability and receiver’s knowledge.

2nd Topic- Types of Communication

How do we communicate?

Have you heard the story of six people (who could not see) who went to see an elephant? They touched different parts
of the body of the elephant and decided what it was like. The person who touched the big and sturdy side of the
elephant claimed that it was like a wall.

For the person who touched the sharp tusk of the elephant it was a spear and for the person who touched its trunk it
was like a snake. Like this, all others touched other parts of the elephant’s body and decided what an elephant looked
like. Ear as fan, tail as rope and legs like trees! The visually challenged have to depend on their sense of touch to find
out things. Ofcourse, touch is one of the five senses with which all of us communicate.

Five Senses of Communication

Those six men who went to see the elephant touched and found out as they could not see. But most of us who have
eyes can see and find out how an elephant really looks like. Touch and sight are channels of communication, so are
taste, hearing and smell. We really use these senses or channels to communicate. Remember how your mother used a
spoon and picked a bit of curry and tasted it to check whether it had enough salt or other required spices. If she was
satisfied with the result, the expression on her face would have told you whether the curry was just right or not. Listen
to some sweet sound on the flute. You feel nice and happy.

Your face would show joy and peace when you listen to the music. On the other hand if you listen to a loud crashing
sound you cover your ears with your hands and your face would indicate the discomfort. Pass through an open public
urinal. You will close your nose with your fingers and your face would show what you feel. So we use our five senses-
taste, touch, hearing, sight and smell to communicate.

Non-Verbal Communication

So far in all the above examples, we probably never used any word or speech. The five senses are natural to us.
Speech, on the other hand, is learned. Similarly we use our eyes and hands to convey our feelings, approval or
disapproval. Look at a policeman at the traffic point. He doesn’t speak a word but uses his hands to signal ‘stop’ or
‘go’.

Someone asks you, “Are you going to the market” ? You nod your head and say ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The way you nod would
make the other person understand. What you mean. In all the above cases, we express our feelings or experiences
without using any words. Here we are communicating messages through the following means: -

(a) By expressions on our face-These include a smile, a nod, looking at the eyes of the other person, for listening
or showing interest or narrowing of eyes or raising our eyebrows.
(b) By body movements- Think of signaling ‘bye’ when we leave or pointing fingers or what a cricket umpire
does when he raises his finger to tell that a batsman is out. In games like cricket there are plenty of such
nonverbal signals or think of Gandhiji’s three monkeys - speak no evil, see no evil, hear no evil. Shaking
hands is common all over the world. But the handshakes may convey different meanings.

For example, you extend your hand to shake hands with someone and that person does not respond to you or just
touches your palm or tightens the grip. This means that the person wants to keep away from you. Just touching your
palm would mean that the person does not consider you as an equal. A warm right hand shake would mean expression
of closeness or friendship.

In India and countries like Nepal or Sri Lanka a ‘NAMASTE’ or folding both the hands together is a sign of welcome
or respect. Almost all around the world folding of hands while praying is practised. All the above examples show how
we communicate without using any words or by using gestures or what may be called body language. Such
communication is called ‘non verbal communication’ because no words are used to communicate.

According to experts, almost 80% of all communication is nonverbal. Nonverbal communication is also practised by
people who are physically challenged as far as their faculty of sight or speech is concerned. . We have already seen the
example of the six men who could not see ‘seeing’an elephant. Haven’t you seen people who cannot speak using the
sign language or gestures to communicate? Their ability to communicate nonverbally is worth mentioning.

On the other hand, people who can speak also use nonverbal communication when they speak to others. Think of
someone who speaks to a large number of people, like a political leader, (like Sonia Gandhi or L. K. Advani) spiritual
or religious leader (like Shri Shri Ravi Shankar or Swami Ram Dev) or social activists (like Medha Patkar or Aruna
Roy). All of them use a lot of nonverbal communication. Look at speakers pointing fingers or raising hands or
counting on fingers or moving their arms.

Nonverbal communication is not universal or done in the same way by everyone in the world.. Nodding of head may
have different meanings for people from different parts of the world. We Indians fold hands to welcome somebody, or
to pray. People in Europe fold hands only to pray and saying “NAMASTE” as we do by folding hands is not known to
them. They also do not welcome people the way we Indians do in India.

Oral Communication

After man developed speech we started communicating orally. It is like a child who learns to utter words first, and
then speak. Oral communication is a skill that is developed or evolved. It uses language. This would mean words and
sentences. Words do not stand independently to communicate. If you say ‘sky’ or ‘blue’ or ‘high’ they may not mean
much. These words are just symbols. The moment you say the word ‘sky’ the listener would be able to imagine this.
‘Blue’ would mean colour and ‘high’ would mean much above our head. In oral communication we group words into
what we call sentences which can convey meanings. Observe the following:

“The sky is high”

“The sky is blue”
“The sky is both high and blue”

In the above groups of words or sentences we have arranged words in such a way that they make some sense. When
we say a full sentence where the right word is placed at the right place, using grammar or the rules that govern
language, it would result in understanding. Otherwise it will just be using some words without any meaning.

When we talk about India’s ancient wisdom or ‘vedas’, ‘puranas’ and ‘shastras’, they were initially spoken, given
orally and passed on from one generation to another. In India , we have this very strong oral tradition.

The advantages of oral communication are: -

i. It is spontaneous and natural.

ii. It is, therefore, easy for others to understand.
iii. Choice of words generally suits the listeners .
iv. It is supported by nonverbal communication.
v. The communicator or the person who communicates, is always physically available.
vi. It can develop close relations between the speaker and the listener.

Disadvantages of oral communication: -

i. Words spoken disappear into thin air. The words are temporary.
ii. Words are not permanent unlike say written communication.
iii. What is heard is often forgotten.
iv. Nonverbal communication that supports oral communication may not be understood by people from other cultures.

Written Communication

Language and writing developed much later in man’s early history. The earliest script is supposed to be found in
China. Until paper was invented by the Chinese and later in Egypt, there was no written communication except on
leather scrolls and palm leaves.
Today when we talk about written communication it is limited to people who can write and read. For this one should
know the alphabet, script and grammar of the language. For someone to write, say the language English, one should
know various parts of speech besides a good knowledge of words or vocabulary. Writing, invention of paper and later
invention of printing by Johan Gutenberg in the 15th century, made knowledge available to many more people. Books
were the first to appear. Newspapers, magazines and journals slowly became popular. Such written matter helped
people in communicating ideas to a larger number of people. Newspapers helped people to be informed about what is
happening around the country and the world. Newspapers also inform about the activities of the government.

Writing unlike speech, involves thoughts, correction, editing or rewriting and occurs in isolation. That means for a
writer it is an individual activity involving lot of preparation and hard work, unlike speech, which is a shared activity.

Advantages of written communication: -

i. Written communication gives words and thoughts permanence.

ii. Knowledge and information became available to people who could read.
iii. It led to the spread of ideas.
The biggest disadvantage of written communication, however, is that one has to be literate to use written
communication.

Forms of Written Communication

Written communication has many forms. It varies from an intimate personal letter to books and newspapers. All the
forms have their own special features. Here is a list of some written forms of communication: -

 LETTERS
 CIRCULARS
 ORDERS
 REPORTS
 FORMS AND QUESTIONNAIRES
 MANUALS
 NEWSLETTERS
 NEWSPAPERS
 MAGAZINES
 HANDBILLS
 POSTERS
 BOOKS
 BULLETIN BOARDS

For modern man writing is an inseparable tool. Almost everything is written and preserved. Writing has given man
history as all human activities and developments are written down by people who write history or historians. The
worldwide web and internet have given a new meaning and style to writing.

However, unlike speech, written communication tends to be formal and difficult to follow. The person interested in
written communication has to be literate to receive messages. Often writings are not very user friendly unless the
writer is a good communicator. You may enjoy a story, a novel or a play but may feel bored when you read essays or
books on intellectual issues.

Types of Communication

Communication is described depending upon the situation in which communication takes place. We communicate
with ourselves, with others face to face, using a public address system with a large number of people or use radio or
television. In this section, you will learn about the different types of communication.

Intrapersonal Communication

Think of a person driving a scooter on a lonely road. He has put on a helmet on his head to protect himself but it is not
properly buckled and tightened. He is riding at high speed and is reaching a narrow junction. A bull comes charging
and in order to save himself he applies the brake and he falls down. The helmet flies off as it was not buckled
properly. His spectacles also fall. The bull runs off for dear life. What does the scooterist do? Is he saying anything or
is he communicating? Think for a while and read further.

Well, he is. First he thanks God for saving him from major injuries. ‘Thank God’ he sighs. “Who has left this blessed
bull to run around freely?” He probably may question himself saying, “I should have put on the helmet properly”. He
may say many things aloud or tell himself. He in fact is questioning himself or is communicating with himself.

Let’s take another example. Have you ever seen on television some of our great batsmen at the crease? Take for
example, Sunil Gavaskar or Sachin Tendulkar batting shown on television? If one of them has faced a ball from a
bowler rather carelessly you should see them muttering something or talking to themselves. Strictly speaking, this is
no communication at all as no one except the person himself is involved. This type of communication is called
intrapersonal communication or communication with oneself.

Intrapersonal communication is communicating with oneself. We all do it. Think of a situation when you spoke to
yourself. You went and met somebody and said something silly. Don’t you tell yourself “I should not have said
that…” or “I shouldn’t have behaved that way…” or “I made such a fool of myself…”. All these are very common.
We all do it as long as we live. In fact this is looking inward or looking at ourselves. This can also be accepting our
faults and mistakes, and correcting them. Intrapersonal communication or communicating with oneself is essential for
our growth as responsible members of the society. Intrapersonal communication is the first type of communication.
INTRAPERSONAL- It’s individual reflection, contemplation and meditation. Intrapersonal communication is a
communication within ourselves. This is the electrochemical action of the body taking part in the process of
intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal communication is the basis of all other forms of human communication.
This communication system allows a person to make decisions based on information received through the senses. For
instance, when we watch TV our eyes and ears receives information a communicate to our brain. If what we see and
hear is pleasant or interesting our intrapersonal communication system indicates that we’re attending to it. If we don’t
like it our brain sends a message to our muscles that results in a decision to change stations(channels). In intrapersonal
communication, our eyes and ears become the sender, electrochemical impulses become the messages, central nervous
system becomes the medium and brain becomes receiver of these impulses which transmits additional electrochemical
impulses in the form of feedback producing any physical activity as a resultant.

Inter Personal Communication

When you come face to face with someone and communicate with that person it is called interpersonal
communication. This happens in our daily life. In the morning you get up and meet your parents, brothers or sisters.
You wish them or speak to them. When you go outside you meet your friends and talk to them. You go to a doctor and
discuss your problems. If you want to book a railway ticket, you go to the booking counter and speak to the person
sitting there. All these are examples of interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal communication is communication between persons or one to one communication. Most of us indulge in
interpersonal communication every day. Interpersonal communication being face to face generally takes place in an
informal, friendly atmosphere. However, there are occasions when it is formal. For example, a police officer
questioning a suspect or a lawyer examining a witness in a court.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

It’s a face to face communication. It’s a communication between two people without the intervention of another
person or machine.

Wilmot suggests that the uniqueness of two person communication hinges on the high degree of potential intimacy
and involvement between the participants.

It involves sharing of a common space and time. It has the following 2 basic characteristics:

1. Both parties are in close proximity

2. Both parties send and receive messages
3. These messages include both verbal and non-verbal stimuli
Sometimes non-verbal stimuli match them, contradict them or replace them. According to Buddhism, 4 social
emotions that should guide interpersonal communication are:

1. Metta (Loving Kindness)

2. Karuna (compassion)
3. Murdita (sympathetic behaviour)
4. Upekkha (composure)
When we communicate inter personally our field of experience begins to overlap. A reporter who does not share
common knowledge about political. Thus the politician and reporter cannot carry on an intelligent dialogue. The
further a relationship between two people advances the more the field of experience will overlap.

This overlapping of field of experience is called homophile. The greater homophile is present the more chance for
effective, meaningful interpersonal communication
Let us list some formal and informal situations in which interpersonal communication takes place.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

FORMAL
 Taking part in meetings or conferences
 Sales counters
 Job interviews

INFORMAL
 Private discussions with friends or family members
 Corridor discussions
 Conversation in canteens or restaurants

Face to face communication would also mean a lot of nonverbal communication and immediate reply to questions.
Interpersonal communication is essential in business, organizations and services. There is no substitute for people
talking and reacting.

Group Communication & Public Communication

Let us think of a a group of people meeting for a particular reason. It may be a group of residents of a street or mohalla
or students meeting a teacher or a student leader. In the first case the group will be addressed by a leader or a chairman
and then others, who are known to each other, may also participate in a discussion. Such situations in which a group of
people, generally known to each other meet and talk to each other are common. This may be called group
communication.

Have you ever attended an election meeting of a political party? Or heard a religious or spiritual leader giving a
discourse? Such meetings and discourses are part of our public life today. Generally there is a stage or a platform or
the roof of a vehicle for such a speaker to stand and speak. A microphone and a loud speaker are essential for
communication here. Many people, may be hundreds or even thousands can be seen waiting for the speaker to begin.
When the leader speaks a large number of people will be listening. One person here is speaking to a large number of
people. Such communication is called public communication. The speaker can see or identify only those who sit in the
front rows. So messages are given not to just one or two persons but to many. Unlike interpersonal communication,
here, the speaker cannot see the audience. So it generally lacks the personal touch. Of course there are public speakers
who can build immediate rapport or personal touch with the listeners. But unlike in group communication, here,
people may not know each other.

Public communication may be defined as a situation where many people receive messages from one person. The skills
of the person are very important here in this situation. We can think of a number of political and spiritual leaders as
excellent communicators. Again, unlike group communication, to reach out to a large number of people, microphones
and loud speakers may be used .

PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
Tends to occur within a formal and structured setting. In public communication one person is destined to speaker, and
the rest are cast in the role of listeners or audience members. Public communication is a face to face conversation.

Hart(1975) identified some distinctive aspects of public communication context. Public communication occurs in
public rather than in private places. Public communication is a “pronounce social occasion” as oppose to a relatively
informal unstructured, usually the event is planned in advance with a specific agenda, where people are designated to
perform certain functions. There are behavioural norms that are relatively clear cut, where the speaker is much more
deliberate and organised.

GROUP COMMUNICATION

Occurs between 3 or more persons who perceive themselves as belonging to or being identified with a group.
Interaction and intimacy depends upon the size of the group. The larger the group the less personal and intimate is the
possibility of exchange.

Shaw (1976) identified has identified 6 ways in which a group may be defined:

Perceptions: do members make an impression on other members?

Motivation: is membership in the group rewarding?

Goals: do group members work together for a purpose?

Organisation: does each member have a specialised role?

Interdependency: is each member somewhat dependant on the other member?

Interaction: is the group small enough to allow face to face communication between members?

Small group communication may be defined as “the process by which 3 or more members of a group exchange verbal
and non-verbal messages in an attempt to influence one another.

Types of groups:

Primary groups: This is the basic social unit to which we belong, example family.

Social groups: It is the company of friends, neighbours, and others with whom we socialise. While these relationships
may be relatively short lived there influence on our thinking and behaviour is often considerable

Learning of educational groups: When we come together to teach or learn something about a given subject. Ex:
seminars, conferences

Work groups: such type of groups have specific goals to achieve, often within the context of a job. Membership may
be required by virtue of employment in an organisation rather than an individual interest in the group. Group members
may have little in common except that their jobs require them to interact

Therapeutic groups: these are groups whose members come together to learn about themselves and to improve their
interpersonal relationships.

Mass Communication
Mass Communication is defined as ‘any mechanical device that multiples messages and takes it to a large number of
people simultaneously’. Face to face conversation is called interpersonal communication, a college lecture or a public
speech will be examples of group communication, when we are involved in thinking process, and it is intra-personal
communication. In addition to all these types of communication we also indulge in yet another level of
communication when we read newspapers, magazines or books, listen to radio or watch TV. As the message is
communicated to a very large number of people or to a mass of people, it is called Mass communication.

Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal communication as it is a special kind of
communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is different from that of interpersonal
communication.Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which
individuals and entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media.

Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of convenience. The
media through which messages are being transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape
recorders, video cassette recorders, internet, etc. and require large organizations and electronic devices to put across
the message. Mass communication is a special kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the
feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication. Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a
process whereby mass produced messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses
of receivers’.

COMMUNICATIO PROCESS

1. Context- Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be physical,
social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the
message to communicate within a context.
2. Sender/ Encoder- sender is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or
graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response. For instance- a training
manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an
organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a
great impact on the message. The verbal and non-verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascending
interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender.
3. Message- message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response of
recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured
that the main objective of the message is clear.
4. Medium- medium is a means used to exchange/ transmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate
medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. This
choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance- written
medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is
chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and
there.
5. Recipient/ decoder- it is a person for whom the message is intended/aimed/targeted. The degree to which the
decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their
responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.
6. Feedback- feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyse the
efficiency of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the
decoder.
Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.) it may take written form
also in form of memos, reports, etc.
MASS COMMUNICATION

It’s the process of delivering information, ideas, and attitudes to a sizeable and diversified audience, through the use of
media developed for that purpose. Its not face to face communication.

Mass communication has an approach that convinces one part of audience and alienated another part.

A successful communicator is one who finds the right method of expression to establish empathy with the largest
possible number of individuals in the audience.

The mass communicators task breaks down into 2 parts,

1st knowing what to communicate and

2nd how to deliver the message to make the greatest possible impact on the audience.

The audience in mass communication according to Wright’s (1975) is relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous
to the audience.

In mass communication the size of the audience makes it impossible for the mass communicator and audience
members to interact face to face. In addition, to being a diversified group the receivers in mass communication are for
the most part unknown to the source. The experience in mass communication is public rather than private because the
messages are not addressed to particular individuals, it is intended for rapid consumption by large number of people.

The source of the communication is not working in isolation but rather from within a complex organisation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

1. Mass medium: A mass medium makes it possible for the message to reach far beyond the immediate
proximity of the sender.
2. Limited sensory channels: the presence of a mass medium limits the number of sensory channels upon which
we can draw.
3. Impersonal communication: messages in mass communication tend to be impersonal because of the distance
between the sender and the receiver.
4. Gate keeper: is a person who by selecting changing and rejecting messages can influence the flow of the
information to a receiver or group of receivers there are 3 functions of gate keeper.
a) To limit the information we receive by editing this information before it is disseminated to us
b) To expand the information we receive by giving us additional facts or view.
c) To reorganize or reinterpret the information.
5. Delayed feedback: the feedback in mass communication is not as immediate or complete as it is in face to face
communication and since mass communication usually involves a chain or a network of individuals, the
feedback intended for one person in the chain is likely to reach a different member of the chain moreover it is
sometimes impossible for the source to respond to all the feedback that is received.

FUNCTIONS AND USES OF MASS COMMUNICATION

Laswell in 1948 presented the basic communication functions which are

1. surveillance of the environment

2. Correlated parts of the society in response to its environment.
 3. Transformation of the cultural heritage

These functions refer to the provision of the information, the giving of comment and interpretation to help makes
sense of the fragments of the information and also the formation of consensus; the expression of cultural values and
symbols which are essential to the identity and continuity of the society.

Wright 1960, added entertainment as a fourth key media function, it provides reward, relaxation and reduction of
tension which makes it easy for people to co-op with real life problems and for societies to avoid breakdown. (Mendel
sohn)

Denis mcquel in 1987, added one more function. Mobilising function of media

The following set of basic ideas about media purpose in society has been taken from Denis Mcquel’s book “mass
communication theory”.

1. Information:
a) Providing information about events and conditions in society and the world.
b) Indicating relations of power
c) Facilitating innovation, adaptation and progress.
2. Co-relation:
a) Explaining, interpreting and committing on the meaning of events and information.
b) Providing support for established authority and norms
c) Socializing
d) Consence building
e) Setting orders of priority
3. Continuity:
a) Expressing the dominant cultures, and recognising sub-cultures and new cultural developments
b) Forging and maintaining communality of values.
4. Entertainment:
a) Providing amusement, divergent and a means of relaxation
b) Reducing social tensions
5. Mobilisation:
a) Campaigning for social objectives in the sphere of politics, war, economic development, work and
sometimes religion.

Dominick 1990 in his book the dynamics of mass communication has described the main functions of media-

Surveillance

Interpretation

Linkage

Transmission of values and

Entertainment

These functions are not mutually exclusive.

Surveillance- it refers to what we popularly call the news and information of media. The media have taken the place of
sentinels and lookouts. Of all the media functions it is apparently an important function and degree of audience
depends on the media for the news supports this observation. This function can be divided into 2 categories.
 1. Warning surveillance- it occurs when the media informs us about threats from depressed economic conditions,
floods, droughts, inflation, attacks, natural calamities etc. these warnings can be about immediate threats or
they can be about long term on chronic threats.
2. Instrumental surveillance- this is the transmission of information that is useful and helpful in everyday life,
this surveillance function can be found in content that is primarily meant to entertain.

Interpretation -
The mass media doesn't supply just facts & date, they also provide information on the ultimate meaning &
significance of those events. Only those items or events are selected by the media which are of prime importance.
Interpretation, comment & opinion are provided for the reader so that the audience gains an added perspective on the
news stories. Interpretation is not confined to editorials only. Articles devoted to an analysis of the causes behind a
particular event or a discussion of implications of a new government policy are also examples of the interpretation
function. Interpretation can take various forms. The consequences of the interpretation function of the mass media can
be that the individual is exposed to large no. of different point of views. There are however certain dysfunctions that
might occur. Since media content is public any criticism or praise of a certain individual or group is also public and
might have positive or negative consequences for the medium involved. Therefore, media might discourage critical
evaluation of controversial topics. On the other side there is also a danger that an individual may in the long run come
to rely too heavily on the views carried in the media and loose his critical ability and becomes passive and allow
others to think for him.

Linkage- it is the ability of the mass media to join different elements of the society that are not directly connected by
the interpersonal channels. For eg. Mass advertising attempts to link the need of the buyers with the products of
sellers. Another type of linkage occurs when geographically separated groups that share a common interest are linked
by the media. Some writers call this function as the public making ability of the mass media.

Transmission of values and entertainment- it has also being called the socialisation function. It is a subtle yet
important function of the media. Socialisation refers to the ways in which an individual comes to adopt the behaviour
and portraits of our society and by watching, listening and reading we learn how people are supposed to act and what
values are important. Value transmission by mass media aids the stability of society, common values and experiences
are passed down to all the members there by creating common bonds between them.

Entertainment- the importance of this function has grown as people have accumulated more ledger time which they
will probably fill with entertainment provided by the media. In the past this function was fulfilled by other
communication channels like story telling, folk activities, puppet shows, folk theatres, nautanki, musicians. The
consequences of having this task taken over by the mass communication are; the media can make entertainment
available to a large number of people at a relatively low cost. Entertainment that is carried by the mass media appeals
to the audience, the ultimate result of this state of affairs is that media content is designed to appeal to the lowest
common denominator of taste.

3rd Topic- Barriers of Communication

The communication process seems simple, it in essence is not. Certain barriers present themselves throughout the
process. Those barriers are factors that have a negative impact on the communication process.

Although the barriers to effective communication may be different for different situations, the following are some of
the main barriers:
Linguistic Barriers
Psychological Barriers
Emotional Barriers
Physical Barriers
Cultural Barriers
Organisational Structure Barriers
Attitude Barriers
Perception Barriers
Physiological Barriers
Technological barriers
Socio-religious barriers

Barriers to Effective Communication

The process of communication has multiple barriers. The intended communique will often be disturbed and distorted
leading to a condition of misunderstanding and failure of communication. The Barriers to effective communication
could be of many types like linguistic, psychological, emotional, physical, and cultural etc. We will see all of these
types in detail below.

Linguistic Barriers

The language barrier is one of the main barriers that limit effective communication. Language is the most commonly
employed tool of communication. The fact that each major region has its own language is one of the Barriers to
effective communication. Sometimes even a thick dialect may render the communication ineffective.

As per some estimates, the dialects of every two regions changes within a few kilometers. Even in the same
workplace, different employees will have different linguistic skills. As a result, the communication channels that span
across the organization would be affected by this.

Thus keeping this barrier in mind, different considerations have to be made for different employees. Some of them are
very proficient in a certain language and others will be ok with these languages.

Psychological Barriers

There are various mental and psychological issues that may be barriers to effective communication. Some people have
stage fear, speech disorders, phobia, depression etc. All of these conditions are very difficult to manage sometimes
and will most certainly limit the ease of communication.

Emotional Barriers
The emotional IQ of a person determines the ease and comfort with which they can communicate. A person who is
emotionally mature will be able to communicate effectively. On the other hand, people who let their emotions take
over will face certain difficulties.

A perfect mixture of emotions and facts is necessary for effective communication. Emotions like anger, frustration,
humour, can blur the decision-making capacities of a person and thus limit the effectiveness of their communication.

Physical Barriers to Communication

They are the most obvious barriers to effective communication. These barriers are mostly easily removable in
principle at least. They include barriers like noise, closed doors, faulty equipment used for communication, closed
cabins, etc. Sometimes, in a large office, the physical separation between various employees combined with faulty
equipment may result in severe barriers to effective communication.

Cultural Barriers of Communication

As the world is getting more and more globalized, any large office may have people from several parts of the world.
Different cultures have a different meaning for several basic values of society. Dressing, Religions or lack of them,
food, drinks, pets, and the general behaviour will change drastically from one culture to another.

Hence it is a must that we must take these different cultures into account while communication. This is what we call
being culturally appropriate. In many multinational companies, special courses are offered at the orientation stages
that let people know about other cultures and how to be courteous and tolerant of others.

Organisational Structure Barriers

As we saw there are many methods of communication at an organizational level. Each of these methods has its own
problems and constraints that may become barriers to effective communication. Most of these barriers arise because of
misinformation or lack of appropriate transparency available to the employees.

Attitude Barriers

Certain people like to be left alone. They are the introverts or just people who are not very social. Others like to be
social or sometimes extra clingy! Both these cases could become a barrier to communication. Some people have
attitude issues, like huge ego and inconsiderate behaviours.

These employees can cause severe strains in the communication channels that they are present in. Certain personality
traits like shyness, anger, social anxiety may be removable through courses and proper training. However, problems
like egocentric behaviour and selfishness may not be correctable.

Perception Barriers

Different people perceive the same things differently. This is a fact which we must consider during the communication
process. Knowledge of the perception levels of the audience is crucial to effective communication. All the messages
or communique must be easy and clear. There shouldn’t be any room for a diversified interpretational set.

Physiological Barriers

Certain disorders or diseases or other limitations could also prevent effective communication between the various
channels of an organization. The shrillness of voice, dyslexia, etc are some examples of physiological barriers to
effective communication. However, these are not crucial because they can easily be compensated and removed.
Technological Barriers & Socio-religious Barriers

Other barriers include the technological barriers. The technology is developing fast and as a result, it becomes
difficult to keep up with the newest developments. Hence sometimes the technological advance may become a barrier.
In addition to this, the cost of technology is sometimes very high.

Most of the organizations will not be able to afford a decent tech for the purpose of communication. Hence, this
becomes a very crucial barrier. Other barriers are socio-religious barriers. In a patriarchal society, a woman or a
transgender may face many difficulties and barriers while communicating. Any parameter that limits the purpose or
channel of communication between the transmitter and the receiver is a barrier to communication. A communication
barrier may limit or reduce the ease at which we communicate and hence the name barrier

4th Topic – 7 C’s of Communication

Seven C’s of communication means seven elements starting with English alphabet C and are essential for the success
of communication process. These seven C’s are as follows-

1) Credibility- Credibility of the sender is very important for the success of communication process. If the
source or the sender is credible and receivers have full trust in him, the message will easily be accepted.

2) Context- context means the environment in which the communicator is sending his message. If the message
contradicts with the context, it is likely to be failed. In short context is the setting in which communication
takes place.

3) Content- it is a very important element. It is the subject matter of the communication. Content of the message
needs to have some meaning for the receiver. If it is not so, receiver will not receive the message with full
zeal.

4) Clarity- this element indicates that the message should be simple and clear. It should be easy to understand. It
should be free from ambiguity.

5) Consistency/Continuity- There should be continuity in the message. If the sender will repeatedly send the
message at the receiver, the later will be deeply affected.

6) Channel- Channel means the medium or media through which people communicate. The choice of suitable
channel for the receiver is always a benefit for the Sender. The Selection of the Channel that receiver is more
likely to use will ensure the success of communication.

7) Capacity/Capability (of the audience) - Capacity means the ability to receive and absorb. Whenever the
sender crafts a message, he needs to keep in mind the capacity of the receiver. Communicator should craft a
message which the receiver can easily understand. He should keep in mind the abilities and habits of the
receiver.

***

Unit-2 Communication – Concept & Processes

1st Topic- Mass Communication – Concept, Definition, Elements and Process

Introduction
AIR FM Gold, AIR FM Rainbow, Radio Mirchi, Doordarshan, Star, Zee, Dish T.V, Tata Sky: these are the channels
of mass communication. However, the list is unending with Breaking news, flash, sting operation, live coverage of
cricket. All these have become the way of life. From newspapers and magazines we have moved over to films,
television and internet. All these are different forms of mass media and what they do is to communicate with the large
unseen audiences nationally and internationally.

Mass communication is the process of communicating information to lots of people at once via various mass media
like television, newspapers, radio, internet etc. It is the process of delivering information, ideas and attitudes to a
sizable and diversified audience through the use of media developed for that purpose. The art of mass communication
is much more difficult than that of face to face communication.

Mass communication is essentially a phenomenon of the industrial mass societies. It is a form of communication
wherein a small group of people communicates the same content to an incomparably large group of receivers. Use of
technology is indispensable in this form of communication, as technology is what makes this activity possible.
Moreover, any progress in technology creates further possibilities of mass communication.

Today, we live in a predominantly technological age; hence the word communication is almost synonymous with
mass communication and the word media is likewise synonymous with mass media for us. It is technology and the
reach afforded by it that makes a medium a mass medium. The term was coined in the 1920s with the advent of
nationwide radio networks, mass-circulation of newspapers and magazines. However, some forms of mass media such
as books and manuscripts had already been in use for centuries.

Mass Communication involves communication with the mass audiences and hence the name Mass Communication.
When we are thinking, it is intra-personal communication, when there is face-to-face conversation between two
people it is interpersonal communication, college lecture or speech would be an example of group communication, but
there is another level of communication when we read newspapers, magazines, listen to Radio or watch TV. This
would be called ‘Mass communication’ as the message is reached to the masses through different media.

Meaning & Definitions of Mass Communication

The term communication comes from the Latin word-communis, which means common. In social situation the word
communication is used to denote the act of imparting, conveying or exchanging ideas through speech, writing or signs.
Thus, it is an expression of transferring thoughts and sound for hearing.

Mass Communication is defined as ‘any mechanical device that multiples messages and takes it to a large number
of people simultaneously’. Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal communication as it is a
special kind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the feedback is different from that of
interpersonal communication.

Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various means by which individuals and
entities relay information to large segments of the population all at once through mass media.

Both mass communication and mass media are generally considered synonymous for the sake of convenience. The
media through which messages are being transmitted include radio, TV, newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape
recorders, video cassette recorders, internet, etc. and require large organizations and electronic devices to put across
the message. Mass communication is a specialkind of communication in which the nature of the audience and the
feedback is different from that of interpersonal communication.

Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a process whereby mass produced messages are transmitted to large,
anonymous and heterogeneous masses of receivers’. By ‘mass produced’ we mean putting the content or message
of mass communication in a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of people. ‘Heterogeneous’ means that the
individual members of the mass are from a wide variety of classes of the society. ‘Anonymous’ means the individuals
in the mass do not know each other.
The source or sender of message in mass communication does not know the individual members of the mass. Also the
receivers in mass communication are physically separated from each other and share no physical proximity. Finally,
the individual members forming a mass are not united. They have no social organization and no customs and
traditions, no established sets of rules, no structure or status role and no established leadership.

Barker defines Mass communication as ‘the spreading of a message to an extended mass audience through rapid
means of reproduction and distribution at a relatively inexpensive cost to consumers’.

According to Metha, ―Mass communication is concerned with transmitting information, thoughts and opinions,
entertainments etc. at a time to a large number of heterogeneous audiences.

According to Emery and others, ―Mass communication is a process of sending a message, thought and attitude
through some media at a time to a large number of heterogeneous audiences.‖

According to R. P. Molo, ―Mass communication is a process through which an individual, organization or govt.
communicates with the general people.

With the Internet's increased role in delivering news and information, Mass communication studies and media
organizations have increasingly focused on the convergence of publishing, broadcasting and digital communication.
Thus, graduates of Mass communication programs work in a variety of fields in traditional news media and
publishing, advertising, public relations and research institutes.

Elements of Mass Communication

We require a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver for communication to occur. Further there is feedback, which
is the response or reaction of the receiver, which comes back to the sender through the same or some other channel.
Another element, which plays an important role in communication, is noise or the disturbances. It is observed that the
term mass communication must have at least five aspects:

 Large audience
 Fairly undifferentiated audience composition
 Some form of message reproduction
 Rapid distribution and delivery
 Low cost to the consumers

Source – Source or sender of the message may become same or different. Source mostly represents the institution or
organization where the idea has been started. In case of source and the sender being different, the sender belongs to
media institution or is a professional in media communication. Thus, a scientist or a technologist may use the mass
communication media himself for propagating his idea. Or else, they can send the script of the message to the media
for delivering the message by an announcer or a reporter.

Message- A message needs reproduction for making it communicable through the media. The message is processed
and put to various forms like talk, discussion interview, documentary, play, etc. in case of radio and TV. In case of
newspapers, the message is processed by means of article, feature, news story, etc.

Channel- The term channel and media are used interchangeably in mass communication. Modern mass media like
radio, television; newspapers spread the message with enormous speed far and wide. The ability of mass
communication to encompass vast boundaries of space is expressed by Mc Luhan’s term ‘ global village’. The term
expresses that the world is smaller than before due to advances in mass communication. More information is coming
faster, at cheaper rates per unit, from farther away and from more sources through more channels including
multimedia channels with more varied subject matter. Channels of mass communication can be classified into two
broad categories:
1. Print-newspapers, books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.
2. Electronic-radio, television, cinema.

There is also a third category which includes all traditional media like folk dance, drama, folk songs and so on. The
mass media may also be categorized according to their ability to provide sensory inputs. Thus, visual media are
newspapers, magazines, books, still photographs, paintings, etc. The audio medium is radio and audio-visual media
are television, motion pictures, drama, etc. Audio-visual media are more efficient than either audio or visual.

Receiver –Mass communication means communication to the mass, so there remains mass of individuals at the
receiver end of the communication. This mass of receivers, are often called as mass audience. Mass audience can be
defined as ‘individuals united by a common focus of interest (to be informed, educated or entertained) engaging in
identical behavior towards common ends (listening, viewing or reading)’. Yet the individuals involved are unknown to
one other (anonymous). The most outstanding characteristic of the mass communication is that it has a widespread
audience separated from the source by a considerable distance. Mass communication has an enormous ability to
multiply a message and make it available in many places. The greatest advantage of this mode of communication is
the rapid spread of message to a sizeable audience remaining scattered far and wide and thus cost of exposure per
individual is lowest.

Feedback- Mass communication will have indirect feedback. A source having communicated a message regarding
family planning through radio, television or print either has to depend on indirect means like survey of audience
reaction, letters and telephone calls from audience members, review of the programme by columnists to know the
reaction of audience to the message. Direct feedback which is possible in interpersonal and to a limited extent in group
communication, is almost absent in the mass communication.

Gate keeping-This is again a characteristic unique to mass communication. The enormous scope of mass
communication demands some control over the selection and editing of the messages that are constantly transmitted to
the mass audience. Both individuals and organizations do gate keeping. Whether done by individuals or organizations,
gate keeping involves setting certain standards and limitations that serve as guidelines for both content development
and delivery of a mass communication message.

Noise- Noise in mass communication is of two types-channel noises and semantic noise. Channel noise is any
disturbance within transmission aspects of media. In print media, channel noise will be misspellings, scrambled
words, omitted lines or misprinting. Any type of mechanical failure stops the message from reaching the audience in
its original form. Semantic noise will include language barriers, difference in education level, socio-economic status,
occupation, age, experience and interests between the source and the audience members. One way of solving the
problem of semantic noise is to use simplicity and commonality.

Process of Mass Communication

How does mass communication work can be well explained in linear model of mass communication?. According to
this traditional concept, mass communication is a component system made up of senders ( the authors, reporters,
producers or agencies) who transmit messages ( the book content, the news reports, texts, visuals, images, sounds or
advertisements) through mass media channels ( books, newspapers, films, magazines, radio, television or the Internet)
to a large group of receivers ( readers, viewers, citizens or consumers) after the filtering of gatekeepers ( editors,
producers or media managers) with some chance for feedback ( letters to editors, phone calls to news reporters, web-
site postings or as audience members of talk shows or television discussions). The effect of this process may
formation of public opinion, acceptance of a particular cultural value, setting the agenda for the society and the like. A
simple linear model of mass communication situation can be represented with the diagram given below.
 How
messages are sent through Mass media?

Messages are sent through different forms of mass media such as newspapers, magazines, films, radio, television and
internet. Media is the plural for the word medium or ‘means of communication’. Means of communication is also
called channel of communication. Mass communication can therefore also be defined as ‘who’, ‘says what’, ‘in which
channel’, ‘to whom’, ‘with what effect’. Look at the following diagram:

‘Who’ : refers
to the
communicator.

Says ‘what’?: Here ‘what’ means the message. What the communicator has written, spoken or shown is the message.

‘In what channel’: This refers to the medium or channel like the newspaper, radio, or television.

‘To whom’: This refers to the person receiving the message or the receiver.

“With what effect”: This refers to the impact of a message on a channel or medium. Let us assume that you have
been informed about an event in a newspaper, or on radio of a social message. If this has changed your attitude
towards a social evil like dowry or if a film song on television has entertained you, it may be called “the effect”.
People who make films, write news, produce radio and television programmes or advertisements are all
communicators who have a message for you. The medium through which messages are communicated such as
newspaper, radio or television are the channels. That brings us to the functions of mass communication.

2nd Topic- Mass Communication – Characteristics & Functions

Mass communication is a communication which is occurred between large people. Actually mass communication is
processes through which a message is widely circulated among the persons who are far and away from the source. The
main characteristic of mass communication is as follows:

Specific objectives: Every communication has a specific objective. Without objectives no communication is held.
Mass communication has also a specific objective which is depend on the subject matter of communication.
Common messages: Mass communication transmits or delivers same simultaneously messages to vast diverse and
scattered audiences.

Source of message: The sources of mass communication message generally are a person or group operating within an
organizational setting. Examples of these sources are news reporters, television producers and magazine editors etc.

Messages are sophisticated and complex: In mass communication, messages are sophisticated and complex.
Whereas the message in interpersonal communication may be simple words and short sentences, mass media
messages are quite elaborate. Examples of mass media message are a news report, a novel, a movie, a television
program, a magazine article, a newspaper column, a music video, and a billboard advertisement.

Limited information: Such audiences are brought together by a single shared interest in the particular message
available through the mass medium. Message sources generally have only limited information about their audiences.

Mass medium: Radio, Television, Internet etc are examples of media which are regarded as mass media because they
can reach out to vast audience at a time.

Impersonality: Messages of mass communication have remained impersonal since there is no personal touch of a
medium. The impersonality of mass communication is informed by the need to reach large, diverse and scattered
audiences almost at the same time.

Portability and mobility: Portability has to do with the fact that messages of mass communication are handy and that
the medium through which the messages are passing could be carried form one place to another at any geographical
location.

Universality: This refers to the extensiveness or commonness of a medium and acceptability of messages. A person
does not need to be literate or educate in particular language before listens to a radio program or a watch television
program in that native language.

Permanency: This refers to the period for which a medium can hold its message thereby making the message
reviewable. A reader of a book, newspapers and magazines can read and re-read and store it for a long term.

Large number of audiences: In mass communication, information reaches to large and vast number of heterogeneous
audiences. The audiences of mass communication exceed millions after millions.

Heterogeneous and scattered audiences: The audiences of mass communication are not only large but also
heterogeneous and diverse type. They actually are made up of groups of people with dissimilar background,
demographics and socio-political characteristics.

Delayed Feedback: Unlike in case of intra-, inter-, or group-communication, a great distance separates the source and
receivers of mass communication from each other. Thus the audience's response or feedback often is limited and
delayed. In many cases there is no or very negligible feedback.

Gate Keeping: This is again a characteristic unique to mass communication. The enormous scope of mass
communication necessitates some control over the selection and editing of the messages that are constantly
transmitted to the mass audience. Both individuals and organizations do gate keeping.

For example, the reportorial staff, the editorial staff, the Ombudsman exercise control in their individual capacities.
(Ombudsman are legal experts who check for elements that could lead to legal problems. Only the Times of India has
an Ombudsman among newspapers in India)
Government, Press Councils, Editors' Guild, etc. are organizations exercising control over newspaper content.
Whether done by individuals or organizations, gate keeping involves setting certain standards and limitations that
serve as guidelines for both content development and delivery of a mass communication message.

Communication is mostly one way: Mass communication is a one too many form of communication, whereby
products are mass produced and disseminated to a great quantity of audiences.

Use of mechanical or electronic media: Mass communication relies on mechanical or electronic media to address
large and diverse audiences. The media include radio, television, films, newspaper, posters, leaflets etc. Mass
communication does not take place through face to face or telephonic conversation.

Rapid and continuous dissemination: Another distinct characteristic of mass communication is the speedy and
continuous dissemination of the message. Various media of mass communication like radio and television transmit
messages instantly. Numerous copies of films, newspapers, books and magazines can be distributed across vast
geographical area within few days.

Requiring professional help: Developing and designing the message of mass communication requires help of
professional communicators. The professional communicators include reporters, editors, actors, authors, writers,
official spokespersons and so on. These professional communicators design, edit and disseminate news, entertainment,
drams, advertising messages, public reactions messages and political campaigns.

Use of modern technology: Modern mass communication requires the use of various specialized modern
technologies such as computer, computer network, fax, mobile phones, broadcasting media, printing devices etc. for
effective preparation and distribution of message. At last, we can say that the above stated features of mass
communication have given it a separate entity form those of other types of general communication.

Functions of Mass Communication

The primary function of communication is to inform, instruct/educate, entertain, and influence/persuade people to
make them function smoothly and effectively. Besides, communication has a secondary function to perform as
well, through debates and discussion, cultural promotion and integration; it fosters consensus, creativity, and
understanding amongst people, groups and societies so that they live in peace and harmony.

Surveillance of environment: It is one of the most important major functions of mass communication
conceptualized by Laswell. Schramm observed that in this function media took on watchman’s role. Surveillance is
the process of monitoring the behavior of people, objects or processes within systems for conformity to expected or
desired norms in trusted systems for security or social control. Although the word surveillance literally means
"watching over" the term is often used for all forms of observation or monitoring, not just visual observation.
Surveillance of environment involves seeking out and then transmitting information about the society and all other
relevant elements. Mass communication keeps watch on socio-political-economic events of the close and faraway
localities and reaches the accounts to the audience through creative reporting. The effect of surveillance of
environment function can be counted on individuals and society. Effects of news on individuals are:

1) Increase personal esteem: Personal esteem is built through the prestige that comes from knowing the news.
There is social gain from being the first with the news. Quite many individuals are aware of this gain and
so collect news from various media sources.
2) Provide social base for personal interchange: Individuals remain aware in advance about what will be the
subject of interaction with their friends, how and what parts of the mass media content will be highly
desirable during conversation with others and so on.
3) Gains in and feeling for knowledge: individuals remain knowledgeable about the information on the
environment and that encourage them to seek more knowledge and satisfy their curiosity.
Information: The quality of our life would be poorer without the bit of information we get from mass media. In
the western countries, information is now regarded as power. The more informed you are, the more powerful
you become. Those who have access to information can take advantage of it in their own interest. Mass
communication provides us enormous information about the environment in which we live. Information such as
news of war, danger, crisis, earthquake, famine, etc. is important for that helps us in taking appropriate steps to
safeguard our interests.

Entertainment: Entertainment is the most obvious function of all media functions. In past, entertainment
functions were fulfilled by interpersonal communication. The importance of the entertainment function has
grown as people now have got more leisure time. Through media, entertainment is available to a large number of
people at relatively little cost. This helps people to make their recreational and leisure time more enjoyable.
Media content is designed to appeal to the lowest common denominator of taste. Instead of playing baseball,
people might simply watch it on TV. Instead of learning to play guitar, an adolescent might decide to listen to a
record of someone else playing the guitar.

Entertainment is the most common function of mass communication. Mass media publicise such programs
which are pleasurable to the consumers or at least they provide the audience with some sort of escape of
diversion from anxieties of daily life. For example, newspapers for this purpose may include comics, crossword
puzzles and the like. Televisions may show situation comedies, drama, variety shows, etc. Radio entertainment
primarily consists of music, talk shows, etc.

Persuasion: One of the most important functions of mass communication is to persuade the other person. It is
only through persuasion that one can control and govern others. But it is also possible that one may resort to
persuasion with a bad motive. The receiver must be careful about the source of such persuasion. The persuasive
potential of mass communication is used heavily in both developing and developed countries. Media is
extensively used for socio economic progress and for sales promotion of the consumer goods.

Persuasion is the process of influencing the audiences to develop a favourable attitude towards new ideas. It
seeks change in the behaviour of the audience by substituting the old practices with the new. Similarly, when an
advertiser pleads for acceptance of his product, he influences consumers to develop favourable attitudes and
behaviour towards the advertised products. On the other hand, when a political leader delivers his election
speech on radio, television or in newspaper he is basically persuading people in favour of his party. Both
electronic media and print media have great persuasive potentials but that depends on the nature of the delivered
message.

Persuasiveness of mass communication depends on the following factors:

Source Credibility- Credibility is the degree to which a communication source or channel is perceived as
trustworthy and competent by the receiver. The source and the medium are viewed as inseparable by the
audience, so credibility of the source and the medium is often treated as interchangeable.

Presentation of the message- Persuasion is largely dependent on how the message is presented by
communicators. Clarity, brevity and preciseness are the pillars of persuasion in mass media.

Media factor- There is a general impression that messages having persuasive content if communicated through
television, radio or print, become even more effective. The choice of the medium is very important to send the
message across. It is important to figure out which medium would be more effective or persuasive according to
the message. For instance, to persuade people about an electoral campaign, the most appropriate media would be
print.

Audience factor- Audience again is an important factor to determine the degree of persuasiveness of mass
communication. The attitude of the audience towards message largely depends upon who sends what message in
which channel; to what extent the content of the message satisfy their needs and the intentions; to what measures
the suggestions in the message are in line with their pre-held experiences and pre-existing preferences; and how
far the message is compatible with group norms and value system to which the audience belongs.

Interpretation- Interpretation function is closely related with the surveillance function. It prevents undesirable
consequences of communication. Now-a-days, mass communicators have realized their responsibility to
evaluate and interpret events for the reader. They select the important news and issues for the attention of the
people and not only provide information of the events but they also provide information on the ultimate meaning
and significance of these events. This prevents the over stimulation and over modification of the population. For
example, the editorial pages of newspapers and magazines interpret the event, comment or opine on it so that the
reader gains an added perspective on the event.

Many analytical articles, radio and TV documentaries, panel discussions on an event or issue also perform this
function. Sometimes cartoons also provide an added perspective on the fact or event. This function of the mass
communication helps the individual to know the viewpoints of various people, which help him to evaluate an
issue. A wide range of expertise is available to the individual to which he or she might not have an access
through interpersonal communication. The dysfunction of the interpretation and prescription by mass media can
be that people may not get the depth and true picture of the event or issue and may not contribute to the
development of an individual's critical faculties.

Correlation- The role of mass media in correlation function was termed as ‘Forum’ by Schramm. The mass
communication in the role of forum is for the exchange of comments and criticism. This function of mass
communication arouse interests through lead articles, editorials, special articles in case of newspapers and
magazines and news commentary, current affairs in case of radio and television. The purpose is to improve the
quality of information for the citizen. Forum implies .a platform where exchange of views takes place.

This function of media thus enables the audience/readers to widen their understanding about the environment
and events happening all around them. According to Lasswell, this function of mass communication serves the
society. It means correlating the response of the whole society to the environment – that is developing public
opinion. Communication helps to create consensus in a society on key issues. An informed or enlightened
opinion is essential for a healthy democracy.

Debate and Discussion- It is through debate and discussion in media that the public can clarify different
viewpoints on issues of public interests and arrive at a general agreement on matters that concern us all. Also the
audience gets a chance to present their views through debate and discussions in talk shows through different
mass media.

Cultural Promotion- Media educates people towards better living and preserving the traditions of the society.
Mass media provides an opportunity to preserve and promote our culture. It spreads awareness about different
cultures, beliefs and customs from different places. Thus, individuals come to know one another, understand and
appreciate others’ way of lives and thereby develop tolerance towards one another.

Integration- The mass media is the vehicle through which the government informs, explains, and tries to win
support for its programs and policies. The mass media is also able to link together different elements of society
that are not directly connected by interpersonal channel. For example, newspapers generate opinion; develop
opinions on whatever happenings are reported. Advertising links together the needs of buyers with the products
of sellers.

It is also possible that media can create new social or professional groups by linking together the people of same
interest. This function is also called 'public making', which is an ability of the mass media. For example, people
interested in geography, science, and environment form a group to discuss the core problems and issues which
could be developed further in a movement etc. Therefore, social groups can be mobilized quickly and this may
lead to some action. For example, messages regarding literacy motivates NGOs to take up literacy programmes,
health programmes; motivate people to become health conscious and so on.
 Socialization- The mass media, most significantly through its news, reporting, and analysis, affect what and
how we learn about politics and our own political views. Along with family, schools, and religious
organizations, television also becomes part of the process by which people learn society's values and come to
understand what society expects from them. In this regard, the impact comes primarily from entertainment
programming. Television's portrayal of minorities and women, family relations, and the place of religion in India
etc. are considered to be a powerful influence on our attitudes.

3rd Topic- Means of Mass Communication: Folk and Traditional Media, New Media

Mass communication is essentially a phenomenon of the industrial mass societies. It is a form of communication
wherein a small group of people communicate the same content to an incomparably large group of receivers. Use of
technology is indispensable in this form of communication, as technology is what makes this activity possible.
Moreover, any progress in technology creates further possibilities of mass communication.

Today, we live in a predominantly technological age, hence the word communication is almost synonymous with mass
communication and the word media is likewise synonymous with mass media for us. It is technology and the reach
afforded by it that makes a medium a mass medium. The term was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide
radio networks and mass-circulation of newspapers and magazines. However, some forms of mass media such as
books and manuscripts had already been in use for centuries.

Radio and TV have been the dominant mass media so far; one of them broadcasting audio, while the other
broadcasting audio-visual signals. They operate on a gigantic scale. The newspapers and periodicals are also mass
media, but their reach is limited as compared to radio and television. Their working is such that, the programme
[signal] generated by a few hundred of media-persons reaches billions of people across the continents. This is
essentially a one-way communication, meaning that the response of the spectators\audiences will not have any bearing
on the quality of the programme. This communication is instant and global simultaneously. These are the very basic
features of mass communication.

The mass media are the tools or technologies that facilitate dissemination of information and entertainment to a vast
number of consumers. They are the tools of large-scale manufacture and distribution of information and related
messages. These tools ‘mediate’ the messages; they are not the messages themselves. However, Marshall McLuhan
proclaims that, ‘the medium is the message’. While cinema, radio, television, cable, and the press can easily be
recognised as ‘mass media’ or the tools of mass communication.. They are:

 Newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, films, records, internet

 Advertising, Public Relations & Public Affairs
 Traditional & folk media

The Newspaper

Print media generally refers to newspapers. Newspapers collect, edit and print news reports and articles. The Chinese
were the first to invent the art of printing. They made wooden blocks to print letters. This was started during the
period of the Tang Dynasty in 600 AD. The oldest known surviving printed work in a woodblock is a Buddhist
scripture of 684 AD.

The first printed book published in China was the Buddhist text, the “Diamond Sutra” by Wang Chick in 868 AD.
Some copies of the Buddhist scriptures printed in 1377 are preserved in museums in China.

Nowadays paper has become an integral part of our life. We read newspapers in the morning, write on note books
made of paper, send letters on paper, use paper boxes to carry things and so on and so forth. Though the Egyptians
made paper by 3500 BC, it came to Europe only by the 11th century. The first paper mill in Europe was set up in
Spain in 1120.

Block printing came to Europe by 1300. It is believed that Johannes Gutenburg of Germany had developed printing
technology around 1439. Gutenburg also invented an oil-based ink for printing. He printed the Bible in 1450. It was in
the Latin language and had 1282 pages. He used movable printing blocks for the book.

Printing technology came to India in 1556. It was the Jesuit priests who brought this technology to our country. The
first book printed in India was in Portuguese language in Old Goa. It was Doctrina Christa by St. Francis Xavier. The
invention of printing has revolutionised mass communication. Books are printed in large numbers and circulated to
many countries. No other invention has had such an influence in the history of mankind.

Newspaper Printing In India

On January 29, 1780 James Augustus Hickey launched the “Bengal Gazette”. It has another title “Calcutta
Advertiser”. It was popularly known as “Hickey’s Gazette”. The first issue of the paper had two pages and later it was
increased to four pages. Its size was 35 cms x 24 cms. The British East India Company did not consider freedom of
the press as good for society.

All these four earlier papers were published in the English language. Slowly newspapers started coming out from
other parts of the country also. The “Madras Courier” (1785) and “Madras Gazette” (1795) were started from Madras.
From Mumbai, the “Mumbai Herald” was launched in 1789. The press regulations and censorship imposed by the
British stood in the way of starting more newspapers in India. In 1818, Lord Hastings removed the strict censorship
measures for a milder set of policies. This led to the emergence of many new newspapers, including many in Indian
languages.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy who is known to have fought for the freedom of the press edited a Persian weekly called
‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’. The first language newspaper in India was started in Kannada language, the “Kannada Samachar”.
The publishers of this paper were not Indians, but foreign missionaries. The first Indian language newspaper published
by an Indian was also launched from Calcutta, “The Bengali Gazette” by Gangadhar Bhattacharjee in 1816.

The Gujarati daily “Mumbai Samachar” published from Mumbai is the oldest existing newspaper not only in India but
also in Asia. It was established in 1822.

Magazine

Magazine means a ‘store house’ and thus has a variety of content in it. Magazines have specific, well-defined readers
and thus advertisers can reach specific targeted audience more effectively through magazines. The magazines are
dependent on advertising and try to reach particular segments of people. For instance, trade and business magazines
are meant for businessmen and traders.

Newspapers, private publishing houses, societies, educational institutions or some religious organizations may also
publish their in-house magazines. Even some government departments and political parties publish their regular
magazines. Magazines are published on weekly, fortnightly, monthly, half yearly and on even yearly basis. One of the
earliest magazines known was the Journal des Scavans founded in Paris in 1665 and initially it just carried abstracts
of books.

The golden age of magazines in America came in the late half of the 19 century during which channels of distribution
were created as transmission network developed. Paper pulp was now cheaper; the printing processes were improved.
Another advancement at that time was better photographic reproduction.

Today, we have magazines on every subject like, beauty and fashion, business and commerce, art and craft, education
and career, health and grooming, photography, automobiles, electronics, science and technology etc. Magazines do
play an important role in information, education, and offer variety of subjects for entertainment of its specific target
readership.
Radio

Marconi of Italy invented a way to transmit sound without using wires. By 1901, Marconi succeeded in creating a
wireless communication, link between Europe and North America. In 1906, Lee Forest with John Fleming perfected
the vacuum tube, which made clear transmission of voice and music possible. These developments paved the way for
the first ever broadcast that took place on Christmas Eve, in 1906 in USA. Later it took ten years of hard work to
make radio a perfect mass medium.

Radio had its own importance for the listeners. Heavy doses of infotainment including music, drama, talk shows, etc
supplemented with news made radio popular overnight. Soon radio industry developed wide spreading networks and
by the 1930’s radio became prime mass medium. Radio broadcasting was introduced in India by amateur radio clubs
in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Lahore, though even before the clubs launched their ventures, several experimental
broadcasts were conducted in Bombay.

Radio programmes may be classified into two broad groups:

1. Spoken word programmes, which include news bulletins, talks, discussions, interviews, educational
programmes for schools and colleges, specific audience programmes directed at women, children, rural and
urban listenes, drama, radio features and documentaries.
2. Music programmes, which include disc jockey programmes, musical performances of all types and variety of
other programmes.

Strength of the Radio:

 Radio reaches messages to illiterates, neo-literates and highly educated receivers simultaneously.
 It is fairly affordable to be owned by everyone.
 The want of visual effect is compensated by sound effects, both natural and mechanical and so live effect is
moderately high. The quality of voice and sound makes the communication fairly enjoyable.
 Musical sound effect enlivens the communication and often breaks monotony.
 It has the capacity to deliver instantaneous messages.
 Radio does not require captivity. Listeners can receive messages even when they are working. Farmer may
listen to farm programmes while working in fields, a busy executive may listen to news bulletin even while
driving or a housewife may listen to her favourite programme even while working in the kitchen.

 Radio does not require power line for operation and so people in remote villages devoid of power lines can
also receive messages from this medium.
 Once a transistor radio is purchased, messages flow constantly and no cost is involved ‘for reception of
messages.

Weakness of the Radio

 Communication through radio lacks visual component and so it does not demonstrate but suggests.
 Spoken messages are subject to interpretation of listeners according to their imagination, experience and
predisposition; hence possibility of misinterpretation is very high.
 Listeners need a lot of imagination and therefore understanding of message depends largely on the
characteristics of the receivers.
 The medium has the limitation because of its audio nature.
 Receivers cannot put off listening parts of message for subsequent listening at their convenience.

Future of Radio
 Radio’s future is a mystery. It is not easy to predict the future of radio. The future of radio would depend on
changing regulatory scenarios, technological developments and change of listener’s appeal. Radio’s current
localization and specialized programming will continue.

Technologically, radio transmission will improve greatly. FM will continue to grow faster and bigger. Radio
listeners have indeed grown manifold, and the network is expanding a great deal and now it offers a daily
service for many hours transmitting news, comments, songs, music, comedies, thrillers and sports, besides
special programmes for children, youth and farmers. One of the best advantages that radio has over the other
media is that it can serve and entertain the audience. For example, people can listen to it while working at
home, in the fields and factories and even while travelling.

Television

Unlike other forms of mass media, television has become one of the most powerful media of mass communication.
With a modest beginning in the l930s, it has grown into a massive network of mass information and mass
entertainment in today’s world. The attraction of the ‘visuals’ of the medium makes people remain glued to the TV
sets for hours. Television captures our imagination and is the complete form of all mass media. In addition to
providing news and events, television also packages fiction, drama, culture, economy and many other things. Thus,
this idiot box (because it provides everything on a platter and we need not do any thinking) has been increasing its
hold on us.
History of Television

The inventions and discoveries in the late 1990s and early twentieth century, which gave us radio, films and the
telephone, also lead to the invention of the television. Vladimir Zworykin, an American scientist, who developed an all
electronic television system in 1923 and perfected it by 1928, took the first big step in the development of TV.
However, only experimental TV broadcasts were conducted in the early days. In India, television arrived with small
scale experimental telecasting from Delhi in 1959. Slowly the half hour programme experiment grew. While
Doordarshan was the only channel available through 1980s. The TV in India has completely changed with the arrival
of private TV channels.

Films

Films refer to all documentary, educational, feature, informational and advertisement cinemas. A film is considered a
mass medium because it reaches a very large audience. It is not as immediate as newspaper, television or radio, but
reaches a large number of people over a long period of time. Film does not have a well-defined audience like other
major mass media. It also lacks the overwhelming presence as enjoyed by radio, TV and newspapers, etc. But still it
has one very big advantage that it commands attention. The larger than life, format of film (from 16mm, 35mm,
70mm, cinemascope, to the most recent i-max format) provides the film producer absolute control over emphasis,
order of presentation, continuity, dramatic effect and timing. Therefore film has become a superb medium of
entertainment, instruction and persuasion.

When individual photographs or visuals are shown one after the other at a very fast rate, we get an illusion of motion
or movement. Cinema works on the principles of ‘persistence of vision’, which means that the eye retains an image
for fleeting seconds after it is gone. Efforts had started very early to create illusion of motion. Many devices were
invented for this purpose. Long back Leonardo da Vinci developed the camera obscura. In 1671, Kircher developed
the ‘magic lanterns’.

Photography and projection were united when Stanford developed the ‘Zoopraxinoscope’. Soon Thomas Alva Edison
invented the electric bulb and many other such developments took place. Then the Lumiere brothers produced and
started having commercial shows of short shoot and show films. By the beginning of the 20 century, film became the
second mass medium after newspapers. Very soon films became a form of family entertainment. Movie theatres
opened everywhere. Soon feature films came into existence. The combination of all these factors made cinema a
booming industry.

Future of Films

In its century old existence, cinema has faced few ups and downs. First it was television. People thought no one would
watch films in theatres, as so much was available on television within the comforts of one’s home. But soon it was
found that TV depends too heavily on films and films form a considerable part of TV programming.

Then videocassettes were developed. These eliminated the necessity of “going out” to watch the films. Multiplexes,
like PVR etc. are another way of film fighting back. Then there are 70 mm and cinemascope. Hollywood has started
delivering films to theatre halls over satellite.

Another recent innovation is the 1-nuix screens, which are ten times larger than the traditional 35 mm screen. Dolby
stereo system, 16-track recording, etc. also have added attraction to films. Interactive films, where audiences can give
feedback about how a film should end, is another novel way of attracting the audience. So it can be concluded that
film, as a medium of entertainment and communication and as an industry, would continue to grow and hold an
important part in our social system.

Internet (New Media)

There is an increased use of personal computers by individuals at home and in offices. Today, an average person has
the skill to use basic computer in daily life. The Internet is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of
interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It
is a “network of networks” that consists of millions of smaller, domestic, academic, business, and government
networks which together carry myriad information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and
the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide.

The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered
high-speed connections and Web applications.

The Internet can now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile phones, data cards, handheld game
consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet from anywhere where there is a cellular network
supporting that device’s technology.

Common Features of the Internet

E-mail- The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or
memos, predates the creation of the Internet. Even today it is important to distinguish between Internet and internal e-
mail systems. Internet e-mail may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other machines and networks out of both
the sender’s and the recipient’s control.

The World Wide Web- Through keyword-driven Internet research, using search engines, like Google, have given
easy and instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopaedias and
traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.

Remote access- The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and store information easily. This
is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An
accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country.

Collaboration- The low-cost and nearly instant sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work
much easier. Now a group can communicate through. Internet ‘chat’, or via instant messaging systems, allow
colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way when working at their computers during the day. Messages can
be sent and viewed even more quickly and conveniently than via e-mail.
File sharing- A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be
uploaded to a Web site or FTP server for easy download by others. These simple features of the Internet, over a world-
wide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a
computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of office documents, publications, software products, music,
photography, video, animations, graphics and the other arts.

Streaming media- Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet ‘feeds’ of their live audio and
video streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic
Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet ‘broadcasters’ who
never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more
specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television
or radio receiver.

Webcams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full
frame rate video, the picture is usually either small or updates slowly.

Voice telephony (VOIP) - VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all
Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two- way voice extension to some of the Instant
Messaging systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use
and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP can
be free or cost much less than a normal telephone call, especially over long distances.

Traditional & Folk Media

Folk Media & Traditional media are based on sound, image and sign language. They exist in the form of traditional
music, drama, dance and puppetry, having unique features in every society, race and region. India has inherited some
rich, effective popular and powerful folk media forms, which were developed over the ages. The development of
electronic media transformed the globe into a village but could not overshadow the folk media of different ethnic
groups and regions.

Folk and traditional media continue to play an important role in our society and the new electronic media are used to
popularize some of the folk arts. Ingredients of folk media are given special projection in the mass media and as such
folk media is used in development communication and advertising. Messages on issues like agricultural development,
primary health care and nutrition; education, women and child rights are projected through the folk media.

Traditional folk media can be rightly called as the ‘people’s performances’ as it speaks of those performing arts which
are culturally associated people. Since decades, they have been increasingly recognized a viable tools to impart
development messages both through live performances and also integrated with electronic mass media.

Traditional folk media is rich in variety, readily available and economically viable. Men and women of different age
groups relish them. They are not simply the vehicles of communication but the games of recreating and sharing a
common world of emotions, ideals and dreams. Also, traditional folk media happens in ‘face to face situation’
between the communicator and the receiver of the message, a situation which energises discussion that may lead to
conviction and motivation.

In developing country like India, traditional folk media have proven to be successful mass-motivator. During the years
before the advent of the sound and sight channels of mass media, the tradition folk media not only reflected the joys
and sorrows of the people, but inspired masses during the times of stress and strain. They played a significant role in
the freedom movement of India.

Traditional folk performances like ritualistic dances, religious songs and mythology based rural plays, though highly
popular, have proved unsuitable to absorb and reflect new messages on population, health and hygiene.
Communicators, therefore, have to test different categories of folk performances to identify the ones that are flexible
enough to absorb development messages to meet the contemporary needs. Flexibility is the most important factor,
which determines the viability of a folk medium for rural communication.

Some traditional folk media in India are: Tamasha, Nautanki, Jatra, Bhavai, Puppetry, Ramlila & Raaslila, Street
Theatre, Pawala, Keertana, and others.

4th Topic- Mass Media Activism

Media activism is a broad category of activism that utilizes media and communication technologies

for social and political movements. Methods of media activism include publishing news on websites, creating video
and audio investigations, spreading information about protests, or organizing campaigns relating to media and
communications policies.

Media activism is used for many different purposes. It is often a tool for grassroots activists and anarchists to spread
information not available via mainstream media or to share censored news stories. Certain forms of politically
motivated hacking and net-based campaigns are also considered media activism. Typically, the purpose of media
activism is to spread awareness through media communications which sometimes leads to action.

Case Study 1- “Miscarriage Of Justice” in the Jessica Lal Murder Case

Case Study 2- Priyadarshini Mattoo Case: Justice Delayed Not Denied

The power of press can also be understood in the basis of how the people respond and react to the news. There was
widespread outrage and protests after both the murder cases were reported. People had realized that justice had been
denied and it was necessary to protest and speak aloud. Both the cases (Jessica lal and priyadarshani mattoo) involved
high-profile people and this fact made the people all the more interested and aware of the proceedings of the cases. As
is seen in the two case studies, we see that media interference helped in the rightful and proper closure of the case.

The two murder cases are classic examples of reactive and responsible journalism which helped citizens get their
rights. One of the primary functions of the media in a democracy is to act as the opposition of the government and also
stay neutral in the process. This role of the media is highlighted in both the cases. None of the cases would have got so
much of importance in the judiciary had the media not intervened.

Therefore, media interference helped the hidden facts to be unearthed thereby allowing the judiciary to take notice of
the loopholes and extensive malpractices of the administrative system in India.

There is a basic distinction between media activism and trial by media. If a prosecution gets blogged down for an
inordinately long period, the media is certainly entitled, nay obliged to, probe and expose the causes for the delay. For
example, the deliberate lethargic pace of the prosecution, frequent adjournments occasioned by absence of the public
prosecutors or delaying tactics resorted to by the accused or frequent transfer of the presiding judicial officer in the
midst of the trial and so on. The media, by publicizing these facts, acts as a catalyst which is conducive to the speedy
progress of the trial. Media activism of this nature is commendable.

However, once the trial has commenced, the media has no right to pronounce upon the innocence or guilt of the
persons involved according to its perception and knowledge of the law and criminal procedure. Determination of the
guilt or innocence of a person under our constitutional scheme is the function of the courts, which should not be
usurped by the media. Besides, incalculable harm can be done to a person's reputation by prematurely judging him or
her guilty.

It is very important to have a responsive and responsible media in order to have a healthy democracy. Indian media is
witness to various incidents ever since its inception. Media activism thereby allows the development of a strong
democracy, thereby allowing for healthy social development in the country.
Forms of Media Activism

Social media is often used as a form of media activism. Because of the interactive features and widespread adoption,
users can quickly disseminate information and rally supporters. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter can reach a much
larger audience than traditional media. Although often only a small percentage of people who express interest in a
cause online are willing to commit to offline action, social media interaction is viewed as "the first step in a ladder of
engagement". Social media has helped us organize without having leaders," said Victor Damaso, 22, demonstrating on
São Paulo's main Paulista Avenue on Thursday night. "Our ideas, our demands are discussed on Facebook. There are
no meetings, no rules".

Live streams applications or websites such as Livestream is another media form which can replace TV when there is a
kind of censorship. The protests in Istanbul can be an example of this way of broadcasting in terms of the lack of the
objectivity of the actual media and the television.

On the other hand, a lot of protestors used Whatsapp or the Walkie-Talkie application with their smartphones in order
to improve communication between protestors during the manifestations thanks to its quick and instantaneous sharing
of information. Moreover, the usage of applications such as Whatsapp can improve organization among protestors
with added features such as group message. Similarly, YouTube is another efficient tool of spreading information and
is generally used with other social media forms such as Facebook and Twitter. Culture jamming, another form of
media activism, is a subversive strategy of protest that re-appropriates the tropes of mainstream media "in order to
take advantage of the resources and venues they afford".

Media activism has expanded its scope to include fields of study such as journalism and news media. Media activism
additionally educates the audience to be producers of their own media. Media activism to be expanded to facilitate
action through media production and involvement.

Models of Communication

Communication models are systematic representations of the process which helps in understanding how
communication can be done. Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general perspectives
on communication by breaking communication from complex to simple and keep the components in order.
Communication models can sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping and can also omit some major
aspects of human communication. A model is a pictorial presentation to show the structure of communication process
in which various elements are linked. It is an abstracted representation of reality. A good model comes as close to
reality as possible and it discusses and explains the reality as clearly as possible but being an abstraction, a model is
not a reality, and it only represents the reality of communication for better understanding of the communication
process. Models are based on assumptions that theorists make as to how communication functions and what effect it
has upon individual and society. Methods and channels of communication to be used and the purpose of
communication must be considered before choosing a specific communication model. It is also used to understand
how the receivers will interpret the message. Models are graphical representations that explain through diagrams,
figures and by other such means to help make the concepts clearer. A model is an approximate way of explaining a
theory. A model explains a process in a graphic manner with the help of tables, photographs, charts, drawings, etc.
The graphic representation explains the implications, impacts and the interactive connections among the elements
within the concept. Models incorporate the various elements, the interactions and inter-relationships among the
elements and their relationships with the outer environment.

To communicate effectively, knowledge of the dynamics underline the communication process is essential. One way
to analyze communication is to present it in the form of a model. Communication comes in a variety of forms, ranging
from summations, 2 diagrams, 2 maths formulas. A good model comes as close to reality as possible and it discusses
and it explains the reality as clearly as possible. Arrows are used to depict the transmission of messages from
communicators to receivers.

Aristotle's model of communication

Aristotle (around 350 BC) provided an explanation of oral communication. He found the importance of audience role
in the communication chain. It forms with 5 basic elements- speaker, speech, occasion, audience, effect. Aristotle
advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different occasions and for different effects. He called the
study of communication rhetoric and spoke of the importance of persuasion within the process. He points out that the
person at the end of the communication process holds the key to whether or not communication takes place. Example-
Alexander (speaker) gave a speech to his soldier (audience) in the war (occasion) field to defeat Persian Empire.

Laswell’s model

He gave this model in 1948. Harold Dwight Laswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient way to
describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions or to study each of the stages in the model:

 Who(sender)
 Says what(message)
 In which channel(channel or medium)
 To whom (audience or listener)
 With what effect(effect)

This model is about process of communication and its functions in the society. It is a linear model which ceases
communication as the transmission of messages: it raises the issue of effect rather than meaning. Effect implies an
observable and measurable change in the receiver that is caused by identifiable element in the process. Changing one
of these elements will change the effect. Laswell further explained a significance of model by attaching a particular
type of analysis to each element which is who ‘source studies’, says what ‘content analysis’, in which channel ‘media
analysis’, to whom ‘audience analysis’, with what effect ‘effect analysis’.

Laswell model suggests that the message flow in a multi-cultural society with multiple audiences. The flow of
message is through various channels. Laswell stressed on identification of source, analysis of message content, proper
channel, choice of audience, etc. These stress on effect is the change for the betterment of society. In this model
laswell cover the biggest elements which are:

1) Why?-why do we want to communicate, what is the purpose of the communication, is it to persuade or to inform,
is any particular action required?
2) What?-what do we want to communicate, what form of words suits the situation
3) How?-how are going to communicate, in what form will the communication get home the message fastest, what
impact will a particular form have on the recipient.
4) Who?- is there a key to the communication situation, how does the audience feel about the sender, or about the
situation
5) When?-when is the right time to get across the message, when is the receiver likely to give it the most attention, is
timing critical to the success of the communication
Laswell makes no provision of intervening variables, those mediating factors which have impact on the ways in which
messages are received and responded to.

Advantages

1. It is easy and simple.

2. It suits for almost all types of communication.
3. The concept of effect.
4. It remains a useful introductory model.

Disadvantages

1. Feedback not mentioned.

2. Noise not mentioned.
3. Linear model.
4. It assumes that messages always have effects.
5. It assumes that the communicator wishes to influence the receiver and therefore, cease communication as a
persuasive process.

Wilbur Schramm’s Model

This model is a derivation of Shannon Weaver transmission model of communication. Wilbur Schramm’s 1954 model
emphasises on the process of encoding and decoding the message. Schramm indigent this process as a two way
circular communication between the sender and the receiver. He incorporated the study of human behaviour in the
communication process.pg22

 Encoder- who does encoding or sends the message (message originates)

 Decoder- who receives the message
 Interpreter- person trying to understand (analysis perceive) or interpret.

Schramm included the following concepts in his model:

 1. Feedback- information that comes back from the receiver to the sender and tells him how well is he doing.
2. Field of experience- on individuals believes, values, experiences and learned meanings, both as an individual
or part of group.

Schramm suggests that the message can be complicated by different meanings learned by different people. Meanings
can be denotative or connotative.

Schramm’s model of communication also allows for the process of interpreting the message. This process is
influenced by the presence of both physical and semantic noise. Schramm believed that all of these elements were
important functions of communication in the society. He felt that people in a society need information on their
environment and methods of communicating in order to make decisions.

Shannon and weaver model (1949)

Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver

Also known as mathematical theory of communication. It is essentially a linear process centred model. It introduces
the concept of noise whether it originates in the channel, the audience, the sender or the message itself. They produced
a theory that enabled them to approach the problem of how to send maximum amount of information along a given
channel and how to measure the capacity of any 1 channel to carry information. The authors identified 3 levels of
problems in the analysis of communication.

1. Level A - technical problems.

2. How accurately can the symbols of communication be transmitted?
3. Level B - semantic problems
4. How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?
5. Level C- effectiveness problems
6. How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the desired way.

This model was constructed mainly to tackle level A problems and the assumptions seems to be that to sort out the
technical problems by improving encoding will almost automatically lead to improvements at levels B and C.

They consider that the meaning is contained in the message. Thus, improving encoding will increase the semantic
accuracy. But there are also cultural factors at work here which the model does not specify. “The meaning is as much
in the culture as it is in the message”

All the 3 levels are inter-related and inter-dependent. The point of studying communication at each and all of these
levels is to understand how we may improve the accuracy and efficiency of the process.

In this model, the source decides which message to send out of many messages. This selected message is then changed
by the transmitter into a signal which is sent through the channel to the receiver. No provision has been made for
medium and feedback. The medium is basically the technical or physical means of converting the message into a
signal capable of being transmitted along the channel. Media can be divided into 3 main categories:

1. The presentational media (voice, face, body, etc).

2. The representational media. (Books, paintings, photographs, etc).
3. The mechanical media. (Telephones, radio, TV, etc.)

There is also no acknowledgement of the importance of context- social, political or cultural which might influence all
stages of the communication process.

Newcomb Model.

Given by Theodore M. Newcomb in 1953. This model takes the shape of a triangle to explain the communication
process and represented chiefly inter-personal communication. It tries to introduce the role of communication in a
society or a social relationship. According to it communication maintains equilibrium within the social system.

A&B are communicators and receivers, they maybe individuals or management or govt. X is part of the social
environment.

ABX is the system which means that its internal relations are inter-dependent: if A changes B&X will change as well
or if A changes his relation to X, B will have to change either his relationship with X or A. ABX will be in a
equilibrium only if A&B have similar attitude to X. The more important place X has in their social environment, the
more urgent will be their drive to share an orientation towards it. This model assumes significance in the light of
people’s increasing need for information. People need adequate information about their social environment so that
they can identify their problems or queries or environment and share with the fellow members and know how to react.

Westley and MacLean’s Model (1957)

  X is source of information
 A is the communicator
 B is the receiver/audience
 C is the mass communication organisation(gatekeeper)
 F is feedback

Bruce Westley and Malcolm MacLean’s model is an extension of Newcomb’s model and specifically adapted for
mass media. They have introduced a new element, C, which is the process of deciding what and how to communicate.
This model explains that messages and mass communication pass through different check points called gatekeeper
before they are actually received by the receiver. This model emphasises the role of gatekeepers within the media
organisation. Feedback not only moves from B to A(fBA) and from B to C(fBC) but also from C to A(fCA). A here is
the communicator or reporter who receives messages from many sources x1,x2,x3,x4.....infinity and according to his
perceptions writes a report and sends it to C who performs the editing function. This edited message then sent to
audience B. The audience therefore receives the reporters and editors version of the event and not necessarily what
maybe the reality. In this model both A and C play dominant role. The messages in this model

Agenda setting model

It is defined in mass media as the process whereby the mass media determine what we think and worry about. The
media uses gatekeeping and agenda setting to control our access to news, information and entertainment.

This phenomenon was first worked by walter lippman in the 1920s.

Lippman pointed out that the media dominates over the creation of pictures in our head. The agenda setting function
of the mass media was first put forth by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1960s in public opinion quarterly.
They originally suggested that the media sets the public agenda in the sense that they may not exactly tell you what to
think but they may tell you what to think about.

LEVELS OF AGENDA SETTING

1. Enacts the common subjects that are most important.

2. Decides what parts of the subject are important.
PARTS OF AGENDA SETTING

The process if divided into 3 parts according to Rogers and Dearing, in their book, ‘agenda setting research’

I. The first part of the process is the importance of the issues that are going to be discussed in the media hence it
is known as media agenda.
II. The second part is the issues discussed in the media have an impact over the way the public thinks. This is
referred as public agenda.
III. The public agenda ultimately influences the policy agenda.

BENEFITS OF AGENDA SETTING

1. It gives media a power to establish what news we see or hear and what part of news is important for the
public.
2. It retrieves the opinion of the public.
3. Agenda setting is very important in the political aspect because the public agenda influences the policy agenda
which means that media/govt. will try to focus on issues that the public wants to know about and solve.

SPIRAL OF SILENCES
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, the German political scientist contributes the famous model called “Spiral of Silence”. In
1947 Neumann and her husband found “Public Opinion Organization” in German and also she was a President of
“World Association for Public Opinion Research” in 1978 to 1980. Through this Spiral of Silence theory Neumann
indirectly explains the Jews status during World War II under Nazi’s control. Here, Adolf Hitler dominated the whole
society and the minority Jews became silent due to the fear of isolation or separation.

Theory:

The one view dominated the public scene and others disappeared from the public awareness as it adherents became
silent. In other words, the people fear of separation or isolation those around them, they tend to keep their attitudes to
themselves when they think they are in the minority.  This process is called “Spiral of Silence”.

Example:

In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour from 8 to 10 and send e-mail to all
employees. Majority of them accept this time changes and few employees are not satisfied with his decision. But they
cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.

Because

1.    They may feel unsupported by the other employees.

2.   “Fear of isolation” like transfer

3.   “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public will help to avoid fight.

4.    They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal statement in public.

They frame work based on few assumptions:

1.    Spiral of silence theory describe as a dynamic process, the predication about public opinion in mass media which
gives more coverage for the majorities in the society and gives very less coverage for minorities.

2.    In this social environment, People have fear of rejection to express their opinion or views and they known well
what behaviors will make a better likelihood. It’s called “fear of Isolation”.

3.     Being the part of Minority. People loss their confidence and silent or mute to express their views because of the
fear of isolation or they feel alone or unsupported.

4.    Sometimes the minorities withdraw their expressed opinion from public debates to secure themselves from the
majority.
5.    Maximum numbers get more vocal space in the society and lesser number become less vocal space or become
silent.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

1.    Spiral of Silence theory has both micro level and macro level explanatory process.

2.    It works well during the public campaign, Senate and Parliament.

3.    Spiral of silence theory – which helps to raise question about considering the role and responsibility of media in
the society.

4.    The theory which is not considering the other explanation of silencing. In some cases the person may feel the
majority’s ideas or opinion is much better than his own view.

5.    It portrait overly negative view of media influence the average people.

RELEVANCE OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

1. Models help clarify the structure of complex events: Models help us identify the components and relationship
of the communication process being depicted and interpret these into a meaningful pattern.
2. Models are often heuristic stimulus that is the crystallised new ideas and new ways of looking at things.
Communication models are self explainatory.
3. Models help make predictions about the real world: Here communication models don’t only describe the ways
of communication but also they help explain the ‘why’ in such a way that we can talk about the future.

Theories of Communication

A theory is someone’s conceptualization of an Observed set of events. Any attempt to explain or represent a
phenomenon is a theory. The term communication theory usually refers to the body of theories for understanding of
the communication process. They are based on the studies of signs, symbols and meaning, and their relation to the
objects or concepts to which they belong. Theories are used to understand how things are likely to happen. It is a
tested concept used to explain an occurrence. A theory explains realities based on sustained observation. It simply
says, why things happen in certain ways. Mass communication theories therefore explain or provide understanding of
how the process of mass communication takes place in a setting or what the effects of mass communication process on
the society could be.

1. Bullet theory

It suggests that the messages were thought to be like magic bullets that were shot directly into the receiver. This
theory sees the mass media as having a direct immediate and powerful effect on its Audience. It Assumes that
receivers are passive and defenseless and take whatever is shot at them. The theory also assumed that they reached
every eye and ear in the same way and brought about the same changes of thought and behavior in the entire audience.
Two assumptions that can easily be drawn from such an approach are:

i. People receive information directly from the mass media and not through an intermediary
ii. Reaction is individual and not based on how other people might influence them.
The theory also suggests That the mass media Could influence A very large group of people directly and uniformly by
‘shooting or injecting’ them with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response. It also expresses thew
view that media is dangerous means of communicating an idea because the receiver is powerless to resist the impact
of the message. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other source of information.
2. Two-step Theory

Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet made this theory in a journal called “people’s choice”, a 1944
study focused on the process of decision making during a presidential election campaign, first introduced the two-step
flow of communication. According to this theory, communication flows in two directions, horizontal as well as
vertical. Horizontally opinion leaders are cultivated and the information is passed from the various mass media to
certain opinion leaders and vertically message is passed on from this opinion leaders to other people within the
population. Lazarsfeld and his fellow researchers suggested that the flow of communication to the individual was
often directed through an opinion leader who played a vital role in both spreading and interpreting the information. It
presents the mass audience as being composed of interacting and responsive individuals rather than socially isolated
and passive audience.

This theory asserts that information from the media moves in two distinct stages:

i. First, individuals who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages.
ii. Second, opinion leaders pass on their own interpretations in addition to the actual media content.
Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors. The theory refined the
ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior and it helped explain why certain media
campaigns may have failed to alter audience attitude and behavior.
Its shortcomings were, that it diminished the original, direct influence of mass media, its effects are evident majorly in
political studies that were conducted decades ago and therefore may not be applicable to the contemporary political
scene.

3. Multi-Step Theory

Further studies on opinion leaders led to the modification and reconceptualization of the two-step flow concept into

multi-step flow because of the multidirectional influence of opinion leaders wherein opinion leaders may also be
consulting with others whom they consider opinion leaders. This theory suggests a variable number of relays in the
communication process and the receivers may receive the message at various stages along the relay network. The
exact number of steps in the process depends upon:

i. Intentions of the source

ii. Availability of mass media
iii. The extent of audience exposure to agencies of communications
iv. The nature of the message
v. The importance of the message to the audience.
Both two-step flow and Multi-step flow theories clearly discredit the direct influence of the mass media

4. Cognitive Dissonance Theory

This theory was coined by L.A. Festinger in 1957. The theory predicts that people will seek out information which
confirms existing attitudes and views of the world or re-enforces other aspects of behavior. Similarly, it predicts that
people will avoid information which is likely to increase dissonance. Festinger states his theory thus: Anytime a
person has information of an opinion which considered by itself would lead him not to engage in some action, then
this information or opinion is dissonant with having engaged in action. Then this information or opinion dissonance
with having engaged in action. When such dissonance exist, the person will try to reduce it either by changing his
actions or by changing his beliefs and opinions. If he cannot change the action, opinion change will ensure. This
psychological process which can be called dissonance reduction, thus explain the frequently observed behaviour of
people justifying their actions. When dissonance exists, dissonance reduction tends to occur. Fastinger portrays the
following typical source of dissonance between two beliefs.

1. Logical inconsistency

2. Cultural mores

3. Past experience

4. When one specific opinion is launched by definition in a more general opinion

This theory states that this behaviour can cause persuasion. Melvin De Fleur and Sandra Ball Rokeach (1951) has
concluded that “ from the vast available content, individual members of the audience selectively attend to interpret or
retain messages particularly if they are related to their interests, consistent with their attitude, congruent with their
beliefs and supportive of their values.

Uses and Gratification Theory

This theory has emerged out of the studies which shifted their focus from what the media do to the people and To
what people do with the media (Katz 1959) the uses approach assumes that audiences are active and willingly expose
them to media and that the most potent of mass media content cannot influence an individual who has no use for it in
the environment in which he lives. The uses of the mass media are dependent on the perception, selectivity and
previously held values, beliefs and interests of the people.

The term gratification refers to the rewards and satisfaction experienced by audiences after the use of media, it helps
to explain motivation behinds media use and habits of media use or the actual needs of satisfaction by the media are
called media gratification.

The audience use mass media in two ways compensatory and supplementary. While compensatory use refers using
media for education deficiency, need of social success or raising one status; Supplementary use refers where media
helps in extending existing knowledge parameters. Several researchers have classified the various uses and
gratification which are as follows:

1. Cognition- it means the act of coming to know something. When a person uses a mass medium to obtain
information about something then he’s using a medium in a cognitive way. At the individual level, however,
researchers have noted that there are two different types of cognitive functions that are performed. One is to use the
media to keep up with information on current events; the other is using a media to learn about things in general or
things that relate to a person’s general curiosity.

2. Divergence- it can take many forms. Some of these forms identified by researchers include stimulation,
relaxation, emotional release of pent up emotions and energy, reality exploration and advice.

3. Social utility- the social integrative need seems to bring from an individual’s need to affiliate with others. The
media functions that addresses need is called social utility

4. Withdrawal- people use media not only for relaxation but also for withdrawal uses. At times people use mass
media to create the barrier between themselves and other people or activities.

This theory fails to take account that mass media compete with others sources of satisfaction. The uses and
gratification approach use that people are aware of their needs and are available to satisfy them.

Cultivation theory

This theory is developed by George Governor in 1967. It is based on the assumption that mass media has subtle
effects on audiences who unknowingly absorbed the dominant symbols, images and messages of this theory along
persistent exposure to TV is capable of cultivating common beliefs about the world. Although, the messages of
television might not portray the reality of society. Cultivation analysis concentrate on long term effects of exposure
rather than the short term impact on attitudes and opinions. They detected a phenomena called main streaming
whereby differences due to cultural and social factors tend to diminish among heavy TV viewers. They have also
found evidence for what they call resonance, situation in which the respondents real life experiences are in agreement
with those of television world thereby leading to a greater cultivation effect.

Normative Theories
These theories explain how the media ‘ought to’ or can be ‘expected to’ operate under the prevailing set of political
economic circumstances. Since each society controls its mass media, in accordance with its policies and needs, it
formulates its own separate press theory. Therefore, the media system that exists in accuracy is directly related to the
political system in that country. The political system determines the exact relationship between the media and the
government.
Peterson, Wilbur Schramm and Siebert (1956) gave these theories which are as follows:

 Authoritarian Theory
This theory views humans as subservient to the state. They held the belief that the ruling elite should guide the
masses, who’s intellectual ability was held in low esteem. Public descend and criticism were considered harmful
to both government and the people and weren’t tolerated. The press is such a society is viewed as an instrument
for disseminating the states (govt.) position to the public, informing the public what is right and wrong based on
the states interpretations of issues and providing official policy statements of the ruling elite. The state, after
determining its objectives, uses the press as a means of obtaining those objectives. According to Sievert, the
authoritarian state system requires direct govt. control of the mass media. The media in an authoritarian system are
not allowed to print or broadcast anything which could undermine the established authority the fundamental
assumption of the authoritarian system is that the govt. is in fallible. Media professionals are therefore not allowed
to have any independence within the media organisation. The theory justifies censorship and punishment for
deviation from externally set guidelines. Unacceptable attack on authority, deviation from official policy or
offences against moral codes were considered as criminal offences.
Authoritarian used various devices to enforce co-operation of the press including licencing censorship of material
before publication. The granting of exclusive printing rights to favoured units of the press and the swift harsh
punishment of the govt. critics.
The main principles of the theory are:
a) Media should do nothing which could undermine established authority or disturbed order.
b) Media should always be subordinate to established authority.
c) Censorship can be justified to enforce these principles.
d) Media should avoid offence to majority or dominant, moral and political values

 Libertarian theory
The theory developed slowly in the 16th century being refined in the 18th century as libertarian principles
found there way into nations constitutional framework. In theory, a libertarian press is the exact opposite of an
authoritarian press. Its also called the free press theory. Libertarian assumes that human beings are rational
and are capable of making their own decisions and that governments exist to serve the individual. Libertarians
hold that the common citizen has a right to hear all sides of an issue in order to distinguish truth from false
source.
Siebert discussing the development of libertarianism, credits its transition from authoritarianism to the efforts of four
men; John Milton in the 17th century, John Erskine and Thomas Jafferson in the 18 th century and John Stuart Mill in
the 19th century.
Milton argued that people had the capacity to distinguish between right and wrong and good and bad. As a result, to
make decisions people should have unlimited access to the ideas and thoughts of other men.

Erskine argued that people seeking to enlighten others and not intending to mislead should be able to address the
universal reason of a whole nation what is believed to be there.
Mill believed that the people had the right to think and act as they pleased if they didn’t infringed on the rights of
others.
This theory is criticised on the following grounds:-
1. Its very unclear to what extent the theory can be held to apply to public broadcasting
which now accounts for a large part of media activity in many societies.
2. The theory has been most frequently formulated to protect the owners of media and can’t
give equal rights to the editors and journalists within the press.
3. The theory seems designed to protect opinion and beliefs and has less say on information.
Principles
1. Publication should be free from any prior censorship.
2. Attacks on any govt., official, opposition party should not be punishable even after the event.
3. There should be no compulsion to anything.
4. Low restriction should be placed for gathering the information for publication.
5. The act of publication and distribution should be open to a person, a group without license or permit.
6. There should be no restrictions on getting or sending information overseas.
7. Journalists should have professional autonomy within their organisation.

 Soviet Communist Theory

Wilbur Schramm while writing this theory begins his discussion by noting that when our reporter from the
United States and one from Soviet Union get together, “the talk is act to be both amusing and frustrating”.
Their different frames of reference are simply incompatible. The American loathes the Soviet reporter life
with a govt. Control press. The soviet reporter loathes the American association with a ‘corrupt venal
irresponsible press’ control by special interest. This theory is derived from the basics postulates of Marx and
Engel. It envisigious media to be under the control of working class. The working class by definition holds
power in a socialist society. Schramm explains that mass communication in this theory is an instrument of the
state. Media do not have integrity on their own. Their integrity, such as it is, that of the state. Mass
communication is integrated with other instrument of the state. Broadcasting under this theory is designed not
so much to serve the public but to inform it.

Principles of theory can be summed up as follows:

1. Media should not be privately owned.

2. It should serve the interests of and be in control of the working class.
3. Media should respond to the needs of their audience.
4. Media should serve positive functions for society by education, information, motivation and mobilisation.
5. Society has a right to punish for the anti societal publication
6. Journalists aims an idol should coincide with the best interests of society.