Chapter-10 Agriculture

Chapter 10
Commercial Flower Production
Iftikhar Ahmad and John Martin Dole♦
Abstract
Commercial flower production is a lucrative business that generates higher returns
by marketing to wholesale and retail florists, roadside stands, pick-your own and
farmers markets. This chapter describes innovative techniques and protocols for
commercial flower production and describes basic requirements for the
establishment and maintenance of a successful commercial flower business. This
chapter also provides brief production, pest management and handling techniques for
cut roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, gerbera, gladiolus, lily, tulip and tuberose
that have high demand in local and international markets. At the end, brief
information regarding several miscellaneous bulbous crops such as alstroemeria,
anemone, freesia, hyacinth, iris, narcissus, and ranunculus as well as specialty cut
flower crops has been provided for diversification of cut flower production. New cut
flower species are needed to satisfy consumers’ aesthetic demands.
Keywords: Cut flowers, carnation, chrysanthemum, greenhouse production, rose,
specialty cuts, value added.
10.1. Introduction
Cut flowers are the flowers or inflorescences cut from plants along with strong stout
stalks/stems and a reasonably long vase life. Flowers grown commercially are
♦
Iftikhar Ahmad
Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: iahmad@uaf.edu.pk
John Martin Dole

Department of Horticultural Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC-27695, USA.
Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Ahmad Sattar Khan and Khurram Ziaf
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad – Pakistan.
245
246 I. Ahmad and J.M. Dole
generally used in fresh flower arrangements due to their beauty, fragrance, long
stems and extended vase life. Fresh cut flowers are highly perishable and need
continuous water and carbohydrates after harvest to maintain metabolic processes
and stay turgid. Fresh cut flowers are mainly used for decorative purposes, viz.,
designs for weddings and funerals; Valentine’s Day, Mother’s Day, and other formal
occasions; vase arrangements and bouquets at formal events; personal support in
times of illness; holidays such as Eid and Christmas; and informal displays to
beautify homes, offices and public places. Over 200 different types of fresh cut
flowers are grown and marketed in the global markets.
Fresh cut flowers can also be preserved after dehydration by adding a chemical
solution or air- or oven-drying for use in wreaths, corsages, formal and informal
displays, and similar ornamental articles. Preserved flowers, known in the industry
as “everlasting flowers” are not as perishable as fresh cut flowers.
Roses, carnations, and chrysanthemums are the three principal fresh cut flowers
produced in the world. Roses are deciduous woody perennials that can be used for
cut flowers, drying and preserving, and for landscaping. Roses are members of family
Rosaceae having at least 150 species and thousands of varieties. Commercially
important types of roses include hybrid tea, sweetheart (intermediate), and spray
roses. Hybrid tea roses have one large bloom of 5-12 cm per stem. Sweetheart roses
also have one bloom per stem, generally smaller than hybrid tea roses with flowers
1-5 cm in diameter, and are typically used in bridal bouquets. Spray roses are a
relatively new group with multiple blooms of 1-5 cm in diameter on a single stem.
Although the most typical roses are red, they may be found in almost any colour
except true blue or black. As fresh cut flowers, roses should last 3 - 7 days in the
home without using floral preservatives, depending on the variety of the rose and
environmental factors such as temperature and care. The vase life of a rose can be
doubled when floral preservatives are used (Ahmad and Dole 2014; Ahmad et al.
2014a).
Carnations, members of family Caryophyllaceae, are relatively inexpensive flowers,
and are divided into two major groups, the standards and the sprays. Standard
carnations produce double, 5-7 cm wide fragrant flowers, which are borne singly on
45-60 cm tall stems. Carnations may be pink, red, yellow, or multicoloured. White
carnations can also be coloured artificially with hues absent in natural cultivars.
Carnations last for 7-10 days as cut flowers without the use of a floral preservative
and up to 4 weeks when a floral preservative and an anti-ethylene agent is used.
Chrysanthemums, members of family Compositae (Asteraceae), are commercially
grown as standards and pompons. Mums may be yellow, red, pink, white, or
bicoloured and can also be artificially coloured. Standard chrysanthemums have one
8-20 cm diameter flower per stem on 45-90 cm long stems. Pompon chrysanthemums
have 4 to 6 flowers per 45-75 cm long stem and are 8-12 cm in diameter. Depending
on temperature and cultivar, cut pompons last for 10-14 days, and standards last for
7-12 days. Chrysanthemums are available in a wide variety of colours, shapes, and
textures, making them the flower of choice for the mass-market bouquet business.
Commercial flower production is a lucrative business and cut flowers can be
marketed to wholesale florists, farmers’ markets, retail florists, roadside stands and
10 Commercial Flower Production 247
pick-your-own operations. Other possible markets include restaurants, corporations,

grocery stores, craft fairs, and hotels/motels. Internet marketing is currently a novel
approach, which can be considered to increase the potential consumer base. When
selling directly to businesses, adding value to the product by arranging the flowers
in some manner may increase sales; though, it will also increase labour costs.
10.2. Innovations in Commercial Flower Production

For getting higher returns and to compete in ever-challenging global markets,
modern innovative techniques are used to produce quality flowers with longer vase
life. Use of optimal production and postharvest management approaches increase
profitability. Some of these innovative techniques are summarized here:
10.2.1. Market Selection

Most critical aspect of growing highly perishable flowers is finding an appropriate
market to sell the produce. Market selection should be well planned even before
planting of the crop to ensure timely marketing of these flowers.
10.2.2. Crop Selection

After selecting the market, most important decision is what to grow; growers should
select potential crops that fit into the existing growing environment. Growing species
that do not suit the environment leads to higher labour costs and poor productivity.
Crops should be resistant to diseases and pests prevalent in the area. In addition,
flower crops should produce long stems, particularly if the target market is a retail
florist, have high production of marketable stems per unit area, be easy to harvest,
have a longer production period with repetitive harvests, and have a postharvest life
longer than a week. Annuals, herbaceous perennials, woody plants and bulbs can be
grown as cut flowers/foliage crops (Armitage and Laushman 2003).
10.2.3. New Cut Flower Species and Cultivars

To fulfill the aesthetic needs of highly demanding customers, many new species and
cultivars have been developed/ tested for production as specialty cuts. Annuals,
herbaceous perennials, woody plants and bulbs can all be grown as specialty cut
crops. Annuals complete their life cycle in one growing season. Herbaceous
perennials and bulbs usually die back to the ground at the end of the growing season
and again resume growth when favorable weather returns. Majority of hardy woody
plants survive the winter season in the dormant state, but do not die back to the
ground as the herbaceous perennials do. Producing new introductions, such as
specialty cut flower crops, e.g., eucomis, lisianthus, stock, delphinium, antirrhinum
etc., as well as old favourites, such as roses, gladioli, chrysanthemum, and carnation
cultivars increase the market appeal.
10.2.4. Production Systems

A wide variety of production systems can be used for each species which vary in the
type of substrate used, mulches and establishment methods. Moreover, optimum
plant densities and staggered plantings provide a consistent supply of product for
producers, which help increase profitability of the cut flower businesses.
10.2.5. Open Field Production

Field plantings can be established by a variety of methods. Direct seeding can be
used with species that germinate and grow rapidly. Plants with large seeds, such as
sunflowers and zinnias, do well when they are sown directly. Some species, such as
larkspurs, do not transplant well and are also sown directly. Bulbous flowers are also
directly planted on ridges or beds in field plantations. Other crops are first grown in
germination trays and transplanted in the field at the 3-4 true leaf stage (Fig. 10.1).
Finally, some perennial and woody species can be cutting propagated into trays or
small containers and transplanted to the field later.
Fig. 10.1 Field-

grown annual and
perennial cut
flower
plantations.
10.2.6. High Tunnel Cut Flower Production

High tunnels are simple, low tech, unheated structures that protect flowers during
production and may increase soil and air temperatures during cool weather.
Production of cut flowers particularly annual or bulbous species for early season
production using high tunnels can extend the availability of cut flowers of choice for
longer periods. Such crops such as stock, delphinium, lisianthus, snapdragons,
lupines, tuberoses etc. provide more vibrant colour and texture flowers and increase
profitability when produced off-season or earlier than normal season production
(Fig. 10.2).
Fig. 10.2 Specialty cut flower production in high tunnels/ hoop houses for
extending availability season and preserving flower quality.
10.2.7. Greenhouse Production

There are cut crops that can be grown commercially in controlled or semi-controlled
greenhouses for cut flower markets (Fig. 10.3). Each potential species/cultivar should
be evaluated for intended market, consumer demand, and sales potential.
Greenhouses are expensive to construct and operate; thus, the flowers grown in
greenhouses must be high value and the greenhouse space used efficiently to generate
maximum production of product and sales.
Fig. 10.3 Greenhouse production of cut lilium for export.
10.2.8. Organic Cut Flower Production

Production of organic flowers is increasingly popular in some global markets and
production without using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides can increase
profitability. Several organic growing substrates, mulches and IPM products are
available for successful production; however, if not managed properly, poor quality
flowers with less yield may be produced.
10.2.9. Flower Forcing

Flower forcing is an operation or treatment applied to the plant to stimulate flowering
earlier or later than the normal flowering period. Flowers are forced to produce off-
season or at certain specific dates to avoid surpluses of in-season cut flowers, avoid
wastage or spoilage of surplus cut flowers, provide employment throughout the year,
increase farmers' income, reduce imports and trade deficit, and satisfy ongoing
customer demand. Thus, it is sometimes beneficial for growers to produce cut
flowers during the off-season period to obtain higher price, although the inputs may
be higher and yield may be less or inferior quality than normal season production.
Similarly, the demand for cut flowers is generally very high during certain occasions
such as New Year, Eid/Christmas, Mother's Day, Valentine Day, marriage season
etc. and production of cut flowers at these occasions will increase profitability of the
growers.
10.2.10. Harvest and Postharvest Management

Postharvest success begins with harvesting high quality flowers. Cut flower quality
can be enhanced by providing the best growing condition and harvesting at ideal
harvest stage. Harvesting time varies with individual species and market demand.
After flowers are cut, vase life can be extended by providing floral preservatives and
additives, ethylene inhibitors to ethylene sensitive flowers, good quality water, and
low storage temperatures (5˚C), except for tropical and few other specialty cut crops
such as celosias and zinnias which are best stored at 5˚C for a few days only.
10.2.11. Economic Considerations

Cut flower production, especially in greenhouses, is a high-risk business with
significant start-up costs, as well as demanding labor and management. Initial
investments include greenhouse construction, production system costs, equipment,
and harvest, handling and marketing costs. All components must be well planned
before starting cut flower production business.
10.3. Establishment of a Cut Flower Business

Successful establishment of cut flower business demands careful planning to be able
to produce crops with high market demand. Many important factors must be
considered all along the production and post-harvest chain including sources of
planting material and crops to be grown; availability and proximity of markets for
selling flowers; appropriate infrastructure; easy access to international markets; good
production conditions with plentiful sunlight, favourable temperatures, abundant
supply of good quality water, good soil or substrate for soilless culture; investment
and working capital; trained skilled labour; knowledge about modern innovative
production and handling techniques and products; and market requirements and
quality specifications required (Liemt 2000).
Cut flowers are highly perishable and start to deteriorate at harvest. For those selling
globally international trade regulations and standards need to be met. Therefore, a
firm needs adequate logistic structure for export, adequate supply chain
infrastructure, including post-harvest treatments and a network of supplying industry.
Firms also need to be familiar with the destination markets, especially the consumers’
preferences and fashion trends as these are important for determining the type and
colour of flowers that will earn the highest profits. Moreover, knowledge of strengths
and weaknesses compared to the competitors, innovative and responsive
infrastructure and trade standards and codes of the destination markets must be
ensured. Therefore, not only the production circumstances are important but also
postharvest handling, marketing and logistics (Scoggins 2014).
10.3.1. Site Selection

The best locations for cut flower production are sunny and relatively flat with well-
drained soil. The site should be accessible at all times, even after a heavy rainstorm
as flowers will need to be harvested regardless of the weather. On the other hand, the
site should have plenty of good quality water for irrigation and postharvest handling.
While air movement is necessary to prevent or reduce disease problems, the site
should also be protected from excessive winds that can damage the plants and
flowers.
10.3.2. Propagation
The propagation of flowering plants at site depends on type and size of business.
Growers can either buy ready-to-plant young plants or seed/bulbs from breeders or
suppliers or can propagate their own plants through seed, cuttings (either stem tips
or rooted cuttings), bulbs, grafting, or division. Buying ready-to-plant young plants
can be more expensive, but eliminates the need for a propagation area and allows
growers to focus on the finished crop. In a covered setting, the propagative material
is typically placed in a mixture of organic material in a raised greenhouse bench, a
shallow concrete box usually 120 cm wide and raised 60-90 cm, for drainage.
Before planting, the soil should be disinfected either by solarization, steam
sterilization or chemical sterilization to kill disease causing pathogens present in the
soil. Growers may also use soilless media (rice hulls, coco coir, peat, sand, or
composted bark), which have already been pasteurized to kill pathogens, weeds, and
seeds or are naturally pest free. Soil preparation usually takes place between each
harvest. Although seeds or cuttings are planted directly into the greenhouse beds,
bulbs can also be planted directly into the beds or can be stored and monitored in
cool, dark rooting rooms until they sprout, and then transferred to the greenhouse
(Dole and Wilkins 2005).
10.3.3. Production Systems

Production can be in rows spaced far enough apart for a tractor or rotavator to pass
between the rows. In the row system the crops are difficult to economically support
and there is a high potential for dirt and other debris to splash on the foliage and
flowers. Consequently, most field cut flower production occurs in 75-120 cm wide
beds with 2 to 4 rows of plants within each bed (Fig. 10.4). The beds should not be
too wide, because of the difficulty of reaching into the center of the bed to harvest
flowers. The beds are often raised 5-20 cm high to encourage drainage and allow
quick access after a rain. Beds can be mulched before or after planting with plastic,
landscape fabric, or organic materials to reduce weeds and water loss. Support can
be provided by means of a plastic mesh stretched between posts, usually of metal or
wood, spaced in pairs every 7-10 m down the bed (Armitage and Laushman 2003).
Without support some of the flowers may fall over due to inclement weather.
In protected structures, cut flowers may be grown in soil on raised beds or in plastic
lily crates containing different soilless substrates. The crates can be on benches for
ease of plant care or on the ground, Crate culture is being used successfully in many
parts of the world, especially for bulbous or specialty cut crops due to reduced soil
borne diseases, better water drainage, and easy flower harvest and handling. Plant or
crate spacing in greenhouses depends on the crop to be grown, available space and
production facilities.
Fig. 10.4 Bed

plantation system
for annual and
perennial
specialty cuts.
10.3.4. Greenhouse Production

The greenhouse structure may provide a completely controlled environment, or just
provide shade and protection from the wind. For a controlled environment, a
greenhouse can be covered with fiberglass, polycarbonate or acrylic sheets, which
are durable and generally last for 10 to 20 years without replacement. On the other
hand, lower cost polyhouses are made of aluminum or steel framework and covered
with a single or double layer of polyethylene film may last for up to 3-4 years. The
latter requires significantly less capital investment than the other types of covered
structures and accounts for the majority of protected growing areas for specialty cut
crops (Armitage and Laushman 2003). Polyhouses can be used for a controlled
environment production or, more commonly, can have open sides, providing shade
and wind protection.
Some greenhouses are equipped with computerized environmental control systems
for heating, cooling, irrigation, fertilization, carbon dioxide, and ceiling shade
blackout for artificial night. Supplemental lighting is often used to control flowering
(low intensity) and quality (high intensity). Majority of major cut flowers, such as
roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, gerberas, and several geophytes such as lilium,

tulip, calla lily, curcuma etc. are best grown commercially in greenhouses.
10.3.5. Labour
Availability of skilled labour is very important for successful cut flower production,
because approximately 50 percent of all direct labour is used in harvest activities. At
harvest, labourers carefully inspect plants for the proper flower to pick. Flowers are
harvested when the stems are long enough and the inflorescence has reached required
stage of development for marketing. Flowers must be harvested at proper stage for
ensuring longest possible vase life. In addition, flowers must be turgid and free of
pest damage or other disorders.
10.3.6. Soilless Substrates

For soilless production, various substrates are available which should be used based
on their availability and cost. Soilless substrates are best suited for cultivation on
marginal lands where soil is not fit for flower production or may cause problems if
used for flower production. Commonly used substrates for cut flower production
include coco coir, rice hulls, peat, perlite, and pine bark.
10.3.7. Soil Preparation

Soil should be amended with fertilizers and organic matter prior to planting. A soil
test should be done annually as soil pH and fertility can vary greatly between years.
Inadequate nutrition will reduce cut flower yields and quality. However, excessive
fertilization wastes fertilizer, may pollute the ground or surface water and can
damage plants. Unless the soil is the perfect sandy-loam, it will probably need to be
amended with organic matter.
The addition of organic matter may loosen and increase the aeration of heavy clay
soils or increase the water and nutrient retention of sandy soils. Compost, cover
crops, manures, straw, hay, silage, and wood chips may be used as source of organic
matter and can be applied prior to planting or as mulch during production to control
weeds and water loss. However, these should be dried and well composted before
application.
10.3.8. Field Establishment

The field plantings may be established by several ways. Crops with large seeds that
germinate and grow rapidly or those which do not transplant well can be direct
seeded. Other species can be established using young plants produced in plastic
germination trays. Young plants, also known as plugs, can be raised on the farm for
easy to grow crops, such as marigolds and zinnias, or can be purchased for some
difficult to propagate species, such as lisianthus. Use adequate size plugs when
producing plugs on the farm. Small plug sizes are generally less expensive, but may
need to be irrigated frequently after planting in the field. In addition, small plugs will
easily outgrow the flat if not planted promptly and can be difficult to irrigate properly
in the greenhouse. Larger plugs are usually more expensive, but easier to establish in
the field and can be held in the greenhouse longer before they need to be planted
Perennial cuts and major cut flower crops can be established by means of divisions
or rooted cuttings. Dormant divisions can be planted soon after arrival from the
supplier or held in a cooler or cool location until they can be planted. Non dormant
divisions and rooted cuttings should be planted as soon as possible. A variety of
species produce bulbs, corms, tubers, or tuberous roots, which can be planted. Hardy
bulbs can be left in ground, while tender bulbs need to be lifted after flowering for
curing and low temperature storage.
10.3.9. Plant Densities

Planting density can play vital role in final product quality and yield per unit area.
Large size plants should be planted in 2-4 rows per bed with plants staggered, while
smaller, single harvest annuals such a plume celosia may be spaced only 10-15 cm
apart with up ten rows across the bed. Generally tight spacing increases yield and
profit per square meter of bed space, but decreases yield per plant and air circulation.
Thus, if initial plant costs are high, a wide spacing may maximize the number of
harvestable stems per plant. Additionally, wide spacing increases air circulation and
may reduce diseases.
For some species like celosia and sunflowers, a closer spacing can increase stem
length, which may be particularly important with species that tend to be too short.
However, close spacing does not increase stem length for many species. For the
major cut flower crops grown in greenhouse beds the plant density will vary
depending on the production system and vigour of the cultivar. Annuals are generally
spaced anywhere from 10 × 10 cm to 45 × 45 cm apart. Perennial spacing ranges
from 30 × 30 cm to 60 × 60 cm and woody shrubs and trees are spaced 60 to 180 cm
apart (Armitage and Laushman 2003).
10.3.10. Fertilization and Irrigation

Cut flowers are generally a high value crop and nutrients and water need to be applied
for best flower quality. Drip irrigation is the preferred irrigation system as it not only
saves water compared to overhead irrigation, but also does not splash soil on the
plants and can be used to apply fertilizer. For this purpose, water soluble fertilizers
are used. After soil cultivation or planting, 1-3 irrigation drip tapes per bed can be
laid depending on the soil type and the irrigation needs of the crop. With row
cultivation, one drip tape can be used per row or double row (two rows closely spaced
together). Hand irrigation with a hose and nozzle is time consuming, which results
in high labour costs, but may be necessary for the first irrigation after planting to
ensure that young plants with their small roots systems receive enough water.
Overhead irrigation later in the season may splash soil on the foliage and flowers,
may knock plants over, and/or deposit fertilizer salts on foliage, which may be toxic
to the plants or may spread disease problems. Other methods of fertilizer application
such as side dressing or broadcasting can also be used for some production systems
10.3.11. Weed Control

Weed control is the most labour intensive and time consuming component of field
production. Large numbers of weeds in the production area reduce flower quality and
quantity, and increase the labour time and cost of harvesting. Weeds also make insect
and disease control more difficult, increase irrigation requirements, and provide the
seeds for the next batch of weeds, later in the season. Do not cultivate too deeply as
that might bring up new weeds seeds which will germinate. Use hand weeding,
cultivation or selective herbicides to control weeds and increase flower yield.
10.3.12. Integrated Pest and Disease Management

Integrated pest management (IPM) - a strategy to prevent pest damage with minimum
adverse impact on human health, environment and beneficial microorganisms. The
term “pest” may refer to more than one cause of problems such as insects, diseases,
nematodes and weeds. In IPM programs, growers use their knowledge of crop and
pest biology to take actions that reduce the environment’s suitability for pest
establishment and increase in pest populations. IPM employs careful monitoring
techniques and combinations of biological, cultural, mechanical, chemical and
environmental or physical control. Pesticides are only used when monitoring
indicates their need and applied in a careful way. For cut flower crops, monitoring of
population of specific pest or disease causing organism is vital as it determines the
mode of IPM to control that problem. Regular removal of debris and weed seeds also
reduce the insects and diseases. Sticky cards may also be used to scout flying insects.
Moreover, monitoring of incoming germplasm and plant material also need to be
regularly inspected to minimize risk of insect and disease problems.
10.3.13. Harvest and Handling

Proper handling of cut flowers from harvest to consumer vases is as important as
production practices to ensure the longest vase life. Cut flowers should be harvested
at proper stage (generally less developed for export and more open for local markets)
and proper time of day (morning or evening). After harvest, place stems immediately
out of the head in a shed to remove field heat and conserve carbohydrates. After
grading and sorting, treat stems with preservative solutions, which can be followed
by packing and storage or transportation to the markets. Keep flowers hydrated
during postharvest handling and use clean buckets and knifes for handling cut
flowers. Protect ethylene sensitive flowers from ethylene and keep gravitropic stems
vertically during handling and storage.
10.4. Production Technology

10.4.1. Roses
Introduction, history and botanical description
Rose (Rosa L. hybrids), a member of family Rosaceae, has more than 100 genera and
over 2000 herbaceous to woody species (Dole and Wilkins 2005). Many food and
ornamental plants are included in this family. Most rose species are found in
temperate parts of northern hemisphere. Recurrent flowering roses were introduced
into Europe from the Far East at the end of the 18th century and were bred in China,
India, and Japan. Rosa chinensis Jacq. and R. gigantea Collet ex Crepin. were major
genetic contributors to recurrent roses (Zieslin and Moe 1985). Rosa centifolia L., R.
gallica L., R. damascena Mill. and R. borboniana Desp. are also believed to be
included in the development of modern hybrids (Post 1949). Modern roses are
available in a wide range of colours, except true blue or true black, with varying
sizes, shapes and impressive forms. Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely
grown for their beauty, elegance and often fragrance. Historically, the ancient rose
fossils have been found in Colorado dating back to 35 million years ago. Roses in
ancient Egypt were considered the most sacred flowers as offerings to the goddess.
Funeral wreaths of roses have also been found in Egyptian tombs.
Roses are woody shrubs that may be upright or trailing or climbing, having prickly
stems. The leaves are alternate and may be deciduous or persistent. Flowers may be
solitary, corymbose, or panicled. Many species have five petals and numerous
stamens. The ovary is inferior and develops into a fleshy fruit or “hip,” which can
become a colourful yellow to red when ripe. The prominent five-part sepals (calyx)
are leaf-like, cover the flower bud, and become reflexed at flowering to expose the
petals. Petal colours range from white to pink, yellow, orange, or red with an
unbelievable variety of shades and colour combinations. Rose fragrance is the world
renown, but unfortunately is absent in many modern cultivars (Bailey and Bailey
1976).
Classification
A) Hybrid Tea and Grandiflora: These are free-branching, upright or bushy roses
with glossy or matte, mid to dark green leaves and prickly stems. They usually bear
large, double often scented flowers, which are borne solitary or in small clusters of
3-6 flowers. ‘La France’ is considered the first Hybrid Tea, while ‘Queen Elizabeth’
is considered the first Grandiflora. Hybrid Tea roses are the most common type used
as cut flowers and have highest demand in global markets. Examples include
Kardinal, Gold Medal, Anjelique, Signature, Perfume Delight etc.
B) Floribunda: These are ever blooming free-branching upright or bushy shrub
roses, usually with glossy green leaves and prickly stems. They bear single to fully
double, occasionally scented flowers in clusters of 3-10 flowers. Examples include
Iceburg, Queen Elizabeth etc.
C) Large-Flowered Climbers: These include vigorous climbing, often prickly roses
with glossy dense green leaves and stiff canes which bear scented flowers in a variety
of form, singly or in clusters of 3-6 flowers. These types bloom primarily in spring
or early summer on short shoots from second-year wood. Examples include Golden
Gate, Lawrence Johnston, Leaping Salmon etc.
D) Groundcover: These are spreading and trailing shrub roses, mostly with glossy
leaves and prickly stems and bear clusters of numerous single to fully double,
occasionally scented flowers mostly in summer only. Examples include Snow
Carpet, Magic Carpet, Rushing Stream, Flower Carpet etc.
E) Hybrid Rugosa: These include hardy shrub roses with bright green wrinkled
leaves with single or semi-double, scented flowers, in clusters of 3-10
flowers. Examples include Scabrosa, Snowdon, Hansa etc.
F) Miniature: These are shrub roses with small leaves and very compact, short
stems, which bear single or small clusters of flowers. Examples include Little Flirt,
Stars & Stripes, Sweet Magic, Pearl Door etc.
G) Polyantha: These include compact growing shrub roses with repeat flowering,
glossy green leaves and prickly stems. They bear small, single to double flowers in
flushes from late spring to fall. Examples include Baby Faurax, Coral Cluster,
Katharina Zeimet etc.
H) Shrubs: This group contains very diverse set of cultivars that neither belong to
old garden roses nor any of the modern classes. They are usually larger than Hybrid
Teas, with medium size leaves and prickly stems and usually have scented, single to
fully double flowers borne in clusters. Examples include Ballirina, Magenta,
Marchenland etc.
Propagation
Cut roses are commercially propagated though budding or grafting. In recent years,
stentling, a form of grafting in which a piece of stem of a cultivar with a leaf and a
dormant bud is simultaneously grafted on an intermodal piece of rootstock, has
replaced traditionally used budding for cut flower production (van de Pol and
Breukelaar 1982; Park and Jeong 2012; Fig. 10.5). The union of rootstock and scion
cultivars occurs within 2-3 weeks under mist, or in high-humidity chambers at 25°C.
Grafting can also occur simultaneously with rooting of the rootstock cuttings
(Ohkawa 1984).
The rootstock species for cut flower production vary from location to location
worldwide. Rosa manetti rootstocks are commonly used in South America, ‘Natal
Briar’ in North America, R. chinensis L. (synonym: R. indica major) in southern
Europe and the Mediterranean region, R. borboniana in Pakistan and India and R.
canina L. in other parts of Europe. However, occasionally cut flowers can be grown
on their own roots, starting with cuttings from “mature” wood or shoots with one to
three nodes. Interestingly, cut rose plants propagated from cuttings produced more
flowers than similar cultivars propagated by stentling (Bredmose and Hansen 1996).
Fig. 10.5 Cut rose propagation through stentling. (Source: Park and Jeong 2012)
Substrates
Cut roses can be grown in rockwool or coco coir with fertigation. However, in areas
with less technology available, soil production is still practiced (Fig. 10.6).
Hydroponic production is thought to increase production by improving nutrient
balance, maintaining optimum root temperature, reducing soil-borne diseases,
improving aeration, and increasing water availability compared with ground bed
production (Blom and Kerec 2000). Soilless culture is the best option to control soil
borne diseases and maintain uniform quality.
B
A
Fig. 10.6 Cut rose plantation in (A) greenhouse soilless culture or (B) raised soil
beds.
Flowering physiology
Greenhouse roses are generally day neutral, and flowering is recurrent and year-
round. Flower initiation is independent of environmental factors. However, under
low light, some cultivars produce fewer leaves than under high irradiance. Moreover,
some cultivars produce flowers with fewer leaves under long days, making them
facultative LD plants. Floral differentiation occurs shortly after axillary buds are
released from apical dominance. In cut flower cultivars, the transition from
vegetative to reproductive growth occurs in 4 to 21 days, when the axillary shoots
are only 3 to 4 cm long (Zieslin and Moe 1985). The speed and quality of a
subsequent cut flower crop depend on the nodes remaining after the flower is
harvested. If the cut is made low, the resulting axillary shoot will have more leaves
and be longer (higher quality) and the time to the next harvestable stems will be
longer (Byrne and Doss 1981). The opposite occurs when the cut is high or more
nodes are left because the resulting shoots will be quicker to flower but of lower
quality. Further, the buds selected for budding and stentling are also based on node
location.
Climatic conditions
Roses respond dramatically to temperature. The rate of axillary bud break, shoot
development, leaf unfolding, and flowering increases as the temperatures increase.
On the other hand, excessively high temperatures increase the number of blind shoots
that fail to produce a flower and decrease flower quality, petal number, flower stem
length, and weight of the entire flowering stem. Interestingly, when temperatures are
too low, blindness is also increased due to greater branching and competition for
photosynthates. Optimal night temperature for cut roses is 15-18°C with day
temperature from 22 to 27°C (Jiao et al. 1991). Optimum temperatures often vary
with the cultivar. In areas with excessive summer heat, fan and pad cooling is used
to reduce temperatures; if not, flower quality will decrease (Urban 1994). Medium
temperature is also important to increase flower yield and stem length and the number
of axillary shoots developing from the base of the plants (Moss and Dalgleish 1984).
Cultural practices
Spacing
Typically, budded plants are spaced at 0.09 to 0.13 m2 per plant and there are usually
2-3 rows across a bed. De Hoog et al. (1999) reported using 10 plants/m2 is optimal
for higher yields of good quality stems. With the arching production technique, 7 to
10 plants/m2 are used (Hamrick 2003).
Nutrition
Roses are heavy feeders and particularly darker colour flowering cultivars need more
nutrients for optimal flower growth and colour development. Generally, the basic
nutrient concentration is between 150 and 200 ppm N. Ammonium is essential for
good stem elongation at a ratio of 5:1 nitrate: ammonium in the summer and 10:1 in
the winter. While N tissue analysis was not a dependable indicator of productivity
due to variations throughout the growing season, minimum leaf tissue N level has
traditionally been set at 3% (White 1987). However, Cabrera (2001) noted that
maximum yields can occur with N levels as low as 2.4 to 2.5% in some situations.
Irrigation
The decision to irrigate has been mainly made by human judgment. Now various
irrigation indicators such as tensiometers can be used to aid in the decision (Oki et
al. 1996). Computer monitoring can replace day-to-day irrigation decisions (Lieth
and Raviv 1999).
Pinching, disbudding and pruning
Pinching and disbudding at proper time are critical for cut rose production. First of
all, prior to planting dormant plants, broken roots and shoots are removed and cane
height may be reduced, leaving three to four dormant axillary buds. Once planted
and new shoots begin to elongate, flower buds are removed at either one of two stages
of growth. If the flower bud is smaller than a pea, this pinch is termed a soft pinch;
if flower buds are larger than a pea, the pinch is termed a hard pinch. Most cut flower
growers pinch twice and prefer the soft pinch. This practice builds up the plant and
establishes the basic structure or architecture of the plant. At flowering, if additional
buds develop on the stem, extra buds need to be removed, called disbudding, for the
better growth and quality of the remainders. For hybrid teas, axillary buds are
disbudded while for floribundas, terminal buds may be removed. At the time of
harvest, a decision must be made regarding where to cut the stem — leave one, two,
or three nodes on the shoot or cut below the knuckle, which is the junction of an
axillary shoot and the stem from which it is growing. The plants can be slowly
reduced in height if the stem is cut below the knuckle.
The rate and number of return shoots can be controlled by cutting above the knuckle.
For example, the return shoot will be slower to break and flower and will have a
longer stem with more leaves if the stem is cut at the lowest node with a five-leaflet
leaf compared with cutting higher. Five to eight weeks prior to a major holiday,
depending on the cultivar and production temperature, growers may sacrifice
flowering shoots and pinch the developing shoots to ensure that a large number of
flowers will be available at the same time for a holiday. Some producers do not
practice this to maintain consistent year-round production or use it only on a limited
percentage of their crop. After Mother’s Day and into late June when demand for cut
roses declines, rose plants are severely cut back to a height of 30 to 60 cm,
particularly for older plants. The pruning can be done by hand or by electric shears.
However, in sub-continent, some growers severely prune their roses either in
dormant season, December-January or in mid-February, after Valentine’s day sales,
while lightly pruned in summer (June), when poor quality production due to high
temperatures and low market demand.
Scheduling
Timing of harvests is dependent on temperature, light, and date of the last pinch,
cutback, or harvest. In northern latitudes, the time span between a pinch or a cutback
and the next harvest can be 7 to 8 weeks for winter festivities and Valentine’s Day,
6 to 7 weeks for spring festivities, and 5 to 6 weeks for summer festivities and
Mother’s Day. In addition, the position of the cut above an axillary bud can influence
the rate of axillary bud elongation and flowering.
Arching/Shoot bending
The arching technique begins with a cutting rooted in a rockwool or coco coir
medium and either grafted with the desired cultivar or grown on its own roots. After
rooting, the rockwool or coir block is placed on a waist-high bench and plants are
grown using a nutriculture system and pinched. Thirty to forty days later the resulting
shoots have a pea size bud. These shoots are of poor quality and are not harvested.
Instead, the buds are removed and the shoots bent downward above the second node
from the axis of shoot and main stem (Fig. 10.7). If plants are grown on a bench with
supports and wires, the stems can be bent down in the correct position without
interfering with harvest or contacting the medium. The bent stems supply
photosynthates to new shoots that develop from the basal buds (Blom and Tsujita
1996).
Fig. 10.7 Arching/Shoot bending in roses.
Unharvested blind or poor-quality shoots are bent downward to provide axillary buds
for the next cycle of flowers. This process is repeated throughout the year and the
plant height does not appreciably increase when shoots are bent, compared with the
traditional method. Shoots are bent when young and gently pushed downward to
prevent breaking. Bending is usually performed on cloudy days because shoots may
wilt and die if bent on sunny days. After enough shoots have been bent on a new
planting, the excess can be removed to make pest control easier. Dead shoots should
also be removed. In some areas, stems are not bent during the winter months due to
low light levels. Bending may cause lower production than traditional systems but
the stem length and weight are increased, resulting in greater numbers of high grade
stems. Because plants do not have to be pruned heavily to reduce plant height,
production can continue uninterrupted (Ohkawa and Suematsu 1999). The process
of bending the stems allows light to penetrate the base of the plant, which increases
the quality of the resulting shoots. In addition, longer stems can be harvested because
there is no need to leave two to five-leaflet leaves to provide photosynthates for the
axillary shoots as in traditional production systems. Bending can also be used with
rose bushes planted in traditional ground beds. Bending generally increases stem
thickness and uniformity of length, allows easier harvest, and eliminates support
wires. However, spider mites and Botrytis control can be difficult within the dense
foliar canopy.
Insects, pests and diseases

Warm and sheltered areas in greenhouse or field being favourable conditions for
insect attractions, increasing need for some primary defensive cultural practices
against these insects. Rose flower is susceptible to a number of diseases and insect
pests in open fields, such as mildew, rust, black spots, die-back, purple spotting,
canker, and vein bending. These diseases may emerge as a result of poor cultural
practices such as over watering, not applying proper fungicide, etc. Mildew
(Sphaerotheca pannosa cv. rosae) and gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) (Fig. 10.8) are
the two major disease problems.
Fig. 10.8 Botrytis attack on cut rose

flower.
Environmental control can prevent their spread. Water condensation occurs when
temperatures fall below the dew point. Drying must occur to prevent disease
establishment. Increase the temperature 1 to 2°C when the relative humidity reaches
85% and ventilate by slightly opening the greenhouse vents. If the thermoscreen is
closed, open it by 50% so that the humid air can escape. However, increasing air
movement in the greenhouse may interestingly increase susceptibility of the plants
to Botrytis.
Red spider mites, thrips, aphids, whiteflies, caterpillars, and fungus gnats are
common insects in rose production. Exclusion and monitoring are a priority.
Chemicals should also be used at start of outbreaks. Biological control of thrips and
mites on roses is a reality when used in conjunction with biological soaps and
chemicals. These new environmentally sound techniques can be used as a marketing
tool to customers (Jørgensen 1992).
Disorders
Petal tipburn or black petal edge is a severe disorder, which is thought to be caused
by ultraviolet light and is more prevalent in polyethylene-covered greenhouses. To
reduce the severity of this disorder, use supplementary lighting during cloudy
weather and maximize air movement within the canopy to reduce air to flower
temperature differences. “Bullhead” flowers are a disorder in which the flowers are
not tapered at the apex, but are flatter and often darker than normal flowers
(Fig. 10.9A). Vigorous new shoots from lower buds often produce bullheads. Other
potential causes may also be temperatures that are too low during flower
development or thrips damage. Some cultivars are more prone to producing
bullheads than others.
Rose is most important and widely grown cut flower in Pakistan, but approximately
30-40% of its cut flowers are wasted due to mishandling during pre or postharvest
handling. Bent neck is major problem associated with head droop or bending
immediately below their point of attachment (Fig. 10.9B). It is caused either due to
immature flower harvesting or insufficient water taken up by the flower stem after
harvest. If flower stem straightens after placing it in water, the bent neck was just a
postharvest handling issue, but if not, then it is related to the immature harvest of
flower. Sometimes rose flowers are harvested at too tight stage known as bullet,
which cause problems in proper flower opening or it may cause neck bending.
Postharvest handling
A major concern for cut rose producers is postharvest keeping quality. Numerous
factors are involved in causing and preventing poor keeping quality and these have
been summarized by Nowak and Rudnicki (1990), Sacalis (1993) and Torre et al.
(2001). Factors involved in extending longevity are:
1) Cultivar (cultivars vary in postharvest life)
2) Optimal growth environment (proper light and temperature)
3) Presence of sufficient calcium in the tissue
4) Production season (flowers produced in the spring or early summer are
superior than fall and winter)
5) Relative humidity (increasing humidity from 75 to 90% during production
reduced vase life)
6) Correct stage of development
7) Placement of stems in warm water as soon as possible
8) High-quality water with an appropriate pH adjustment and with low fluoride
content
9) Preservatives with a carbon source (sucrose), an inhibitor of
microorganisms, and an ethylene inhibitor
10) Presence of light during storage [water uptake is greater with 100 to 300 fc
(20 to 60 µmol m-2 s -1) of light than in the dark]
11) Minimal duration of storage and shipping
12) Low storage and shipping temperature
13) Recutting stems each time stems are out of water to remove air-blocked
xylem tissue.
Fig. 10.9 (A) Bullhead – malformed rose flowers, and (B) Bent neck of cut rose
flowers.
Harvesting stage will vary with the cultivar, but some general guidelines can be
made. Red and pink cultivars are harvested when the calyx has reflexed below the
horizontal position and one to two petals have started to unfold. White cultivars can
be harvested later; yellow cultivars sooner. Tighter buds may be harvested if cut rose
flower stems are to be held in cold storage for 1 to 2 days. Stems should always be
in a floral preservative solution. Cold storage should be at 0 to 1°C; water should
always be warm at 23 to 25°C when handling and shipping operations occur.
10.4.2. Carnation
Dianthus caryophyllus, commonly known as carnation, divine flower or clove pink,
is a member of family Caryophyllaceae. In Greek, Dianthus means ‘Flower of Zeus’,
or ‘Divine Flower’. Carnation, one of the most popular garden plants, is among some
300 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbs in genus Dianthus. Along with
these, there are hundreds of hybrid varieties. Dianthus caryophyllus is a native of the
Mediterranean area, originally flowering only in the early spring (Bailey and Bailey
1976).
The carnation is one of the world’s most popular cut flowers. The precise
development of the present-day hybrids is not known; however, the original species
had single flowers with five petals and a spice-like fragrance. Carnations are best
suited for bed planting, borders, cut flowers, rock gardens or even for pots.
Carnations grow from 5-90 cm high, most garden varieties grow 25-50 cm tall. The
present-day cut carnation flower form originated in the United States as the Sim
cultivar group. The “miniature” or “spray” carnation is considered to be more similar
to the original specie’s branching habit.
Flowers are available in many hues and colours like red, pink, cherry, white, crimson,
orange, lavender, lemon, purple, cream etc. Some commercial growers also dye the
white blooms to get tinted flowers. The plants have grayish-green foliage and single
and double blooms in various combinations and also stripes. Another eye catching
characteristic of carnations is the frilled edges of some varieties. If properly treated,
carnations can last up to a month.
There are two basic inflorescence types, standard and spray or miniature type
(Fig. 10.10). With standard carnations, the axillary flower buds below the terminal
flower are removed so that only one large flower will develop. With sprays, terminal
bud is removed to encourage the axillary buds’ development. The standard types
have genetically larger flowers than the spray types.
A B
Fig. 10.10 Standard and Spray carnation.

Propagation
Rooted cuttings are purchased from specialty propagators, who produce culture-
indexed, virus-free cuttings. The plants are propagated through cuttings taken from
the terminal growth. Four to six inches long cuttings are harvested, preferably in fall,
and the basal two to three leaves are removed. Cuttings are ready to transplant in 25
to 30 days.
Seeds of garden cultivars can be germinated at 18 to 21°C and in vitro propagation
is also possible (Jeong et al., 1996). Seeds can be sown 0.5 cm deep in a well-drained
soil or a growing medium in spring or early summer. Make sure that the compost is
moist but not wet. Mist spray occasionally and keep it moist. The seeds will
germinate in 2 to 3 weeks.
Carnations can also be propagated by division. Dig up the whole non-productive
clump of an old plant, gently separate the plant segments, and replant each new
division in a well-drained growing medium and keep it moist. Layering can also be
used to propagate carnations and the plants do this themselves once mature. Within
a few weeks, new plant will start rooting.
Climatic requirements
Temperature influences the rate of both floral induction and development. The
optimal temperature for flower production is 10°C night and 13 to 16°C day. Flower
quality is reduced as temperatures increase to 16°C, because high temperatures
reduce the flower diameter. Cool temperatures and high irradiance are a prerequisite
for quality cut carnation flowers. Fan and pad evapourative cooling can also be used
for quality flower production.
Light intensity determines the rate of floral induction. When light levels are low,
floral induction is slow and more leaves are produced; with high light, floral
induction is more rapid and stems have fewer leaves at harvest. However, rate of
flower development is not influenced by light irradiance. Low irradiance is
responsible for weak stems and, consequently, poor quality or low grades, regardless
of flower diameter.
Planting
Carnations are planted at 15 × 15 cm for 1-year production, whereas 20 × 30 cm apart
for 2 years’ production system. Traditional production often uses soilless substrates,
which is suitable for long-term production with sufficient aeration and drainage,
because the plants are grown for 1 to 2 years. The plants should not be mulched;
their tender root tops and trailing stems require good air circulation at all times and
must be kept as free from excessive moisture. Carnations usually lose their vigour
after their second year and should be replaced.
Cultural Practices
Nutrition
Some soil rich in manure or ‘well-fed with nitrogen’ is not suited to the carnation. It
may cause heavy vegetative growth, fewer blooms or even lead to the splitting of the
calyx (green cup-like structure that holds the petals). The manure is to be mixed deep
into the soil. At the time of preparation of soil, superphosphate and muriate of potash
are added at 100 g and 20 g, respectively, per square meter of bed area. Calcium
ammonium nitrate (CAN) at 50 g per square meter is applied while preparing the bed
and a similar dose a month later.
The optimal nitrate level in the medium is 25 to 40 ppm, phosphorus 5 to 10 ppm,
potassium 25 to 40 ppm, calcium 150 to 200 ppm, and magnesium 30 to 40 ppm.
Nitrate nitrogen is favored over ammonium in low light areas to avoid soft winter
growth and ammonium toxicity under cold temperatures. On the other hand, excess
nitrates can cause weak stems.
Irrigation
Soil and irrigation are very important aspects of growing carnations. Sub-irrigation
is the preferred method of irrigation, keeping the foliage dry and not damaging the
flower heads. Avoid over-watering as it may tend to turn the foliage yellow.
Reducing available water can result in stronger stems under low light. However,
reduced flower diameters can occur if water restriction is carried to an extreme.
Soluble salts should be checked because carnation roots are sensitive to high EC and
leach medium when needed.
Pinching, disbudding and dead heading
Pinching of vegetative shoots is an “art” with carnation. Two types of pinches are
used for newly planted rooted cuttings:
1) Three to four weeks after the cutting has become established and growth
has commenced, the young plant is pinched leaving four to five pairs of
leaves behind. Although four shoots usually develop, some growers allow
only three shoots to develop on the inner rows of plants.
2) Plants are pinched as in method 1 but half of the developing axillary shoots
are pinched again. The second pinch can be up to 5 to 7 weeks after the first
pinch.
3) Plants are trained to produce single flower on each stem (standards) or
cluster of flowers (sprays). Excessive buds are disbudded to enhance the
growth of the desired flowers. Proper harvesting of the flowering stems
influences future production. With standard cultivars, two to three nodes are
left on a shoot, while four to eight nodes are left on spray carnation shoots.
Spent or unmarketable flowers should also be removed promptly to promote
continued blooming. The plants should also be staked in the beginning to
get straight growth.
Scheduling
The timing of flower production starts when the rooted cutting is placed in the bench,
and the appropriate pinch(es), temperatures, and light intensity and duration are given
(Bunt 1973). Cultivar response is a major factor in timing.
Insect-pests and diseases

The major insects are the spider mites, thrips, and aphids. Other mite species,
caterpillars, and slugs can also be a concern. Sanitation and monitoring can help keep
these problems under control. Pathogen control starts with purchasing rooted cuttings
from a reliable propagator. Systemic diseases such as Pseudomonas,
Corynebacterium, and Fusarium are best controlled by using disease-indexed
cuttings, pasteurized medium, and strict sanitation.
Alternaria, Botrytis, Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and various other diseases
can be found on the foliage, stems, or flowers (Horst 1990). These can be frequently
controlled by keeping the plants dry. Numerous carnation viruses are known and are
fortunately controlled through certified virus-free cuttings from reputable suppliers
(Langhans 1961). A number of other diseases have also been reported including
flower rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), root rot (Armillaria mellea), southern blight
(Sclerotium rolfsii), alternaria blight (Alternaria dianthi and A. dianthicola), leaf spot
(Septoria dianthi and Cladosporium), powdery mildew (Oidium dianthi), downy
mildew (Peronospora dianthicola), rust (Uromyces dianthi), and viruses.
Physiological disorders
Calyx splitting is the most common non-pathogen problem (Fig. 10.11). The calyx
develops under rapid growth conditions, such as high temperatures followed by cool
temperatures, which are conducive for optimum petal initiation and development. As
a result, the calyx splits under mechanical pressure and individual petals spill out.
Uniform night temperatures and reduced variation between day and night
temperatures will aid in reducing this problem. Reducing ammonium, using mainly
nitrate nitrogen, and applying sufficient boron will also aid in reducing splitting.
Cultivars differ widely in the propensity to split and proper cultivars should be
selected (Laurie et al. 1969). One solution is to place a rubber or plastic band ring
around each calyx while removing axillary buds.
Fig. 10.11 Calyx splitting

in carnation.
Harvest and handling

Harvest cut stems in the morning when stems are fully turgid, shift immediately in
cooler shed and grade. Carnation flowers can be harvested at various stages of
development, from very tight buds to when the petals have reflexed over the calyx.
For long distance shipping, standard flower buds are best cut when the petals are 0.5
to 1.5 cm above the calyx and the appropriate petal colour is visible. Spray carnations
are harvested when two or three flowers have opened and petal colour is evident on
the rest of the buds. When stems are dehydrated, warm 38 to 43°C water should be
used (Sacalis 1993). Tight flower buds with little or no colour showing can be
harvested, pulsed with silver thiosulfate (STS), and stored dry for up to 24 weeks
with light at 0 to 1°C. When typical flowers are “bud harvested” they can be stored
for 4 to 5 weeks; open flowers are best stored for 2 to 4 weeks at 0°C and 90% relative
humidity (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990; Rudnicki et al. 1989). Buds can be stored for
as long as 14 weeks in plastic bags if treated with fungicides, sucrose, and STS prior
to storage. Botrytis is a constant potential problem with any stored carnation.
Carnations are very sensitive to external and self-generated ethylene and their
response to STS, 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), and other floral preservatives is
dramatic (Serek et al. 1995; Sisler et al. 1996). Vase life for an untreated control
flowering stem is 6 to 9 days; whereas; STS treated flowers held in a preservative
have a vase life of up to 30 days. If a sucrose-based floral preservative is used, vase
life is only 12 to 16 days. If flower buds are exposed to very low levels of ethylene,
they fail to open; the petals of open flowers turn inward and upward, lose turgidity,
and become “sleepy” (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990; Sacalis 1993; Fig. 10.12).
Fig. 10.12 Sleepiness of carnation due to ethylene exposure.

10.4.3. Chrysanthemum
Dendranthema ×grandiflorum Kitam. (synonym Chrysanthemum × morifolium),
florist’s chrysanthemum, is a member of family Compositae, which contains many
other important ornamentals genera including Aster, Calendula, Callistephus,
Centaurea, Cosmos, Dahlia, Echinacea, Gerbera, Helianthus, Liatris, Solidago,
Tagetes, and Zinnia. Chrysanthemum hybrids originated from China and have been
cultivated for over 1200 years in Japan and over 1400 years in China. Garden
chrysanthemums were grown in Europe in the 18th century. This herbaceous
perennial plant is grown as a cut flower, potted flowering plant, or garden plant for
fall colour. Cut chrysanthemums are available as lateral disbuds or standards,
respectively, with one flower/shoot or as center disbudded or sprays, respectively,
with several flowers/shoot.
Modern chrysanthemum cultivars come in an astonishing variety of colours (white,
yellow, red, bronze, and pink), colour combinations, and petal styles (spoon, quill,
and flat). The central disc florets may be numerous to nearly absent; the outer ray
florets may also be numerous or have only one or two rows. For the daisy types,
consumers tend to prefer the central disc florets be yellow, while growers and
wholesalers favour green centers.
Propagation
A wide range of media have been successfully used with medium pH ranging from
5.7 to 6.2. Terminal cuttings, 6.5 to 7.5 cm long, are sold either unrooted or rooted
(Fig. 10.13). Cuttings root with ease in 1 to 2 weeks under mist, fog, or plastic (white
in the summer and clear in the winter) laid directly over the cuttings. A rooting
hormone may be dusted onto the base of the cuttings to speed up rooting. Rooted
cuttings are directly planted in pots or beds and kept fogged or misted for several
days until established. Rooted cuttings are usually purchased directly from specialty
propagators. Rooted cuttings of some cultivars can be stored at 1 to 3°C for 4 to 6
weeks; other cultivars can be stored for only 1 week.
Plants form suckers in the garden and develop into a multi-stem clump. Suckers can
also be separated from the mother plant and can be grown individually. Seed
propagation is not used other than in breeding programs. However, seed will
germinate in 5 to 10 days when held at 16 to 21°C.
Flowering physiology and response groups
Flowering is controlled by the naturally shortening day lengths of late summer and
fall with flowering occurring from early fall to winter. By altering the photoperiod
in the greenhouse, flowers are available any time of the year. Long days are used to
maintain vegetative growth of stock plants and cuttings prior to placing young plants
under short days for flowering (Cockshull 1985). The critical photoperiod is 12 hr or
less for reproductive growth, 14 hr or more for vegetative growth. Juvenility exists
because cuttings from older stock become reproductive sooner than those from
younger stock, which is thought to be related to the physiological age of the
meristem.
Cultivars are grouped into response groups, which are based on the required number
of weeks from the start of short days to flower. Flower initiation and development
are facultative short days responses for the early flowering cultivars found in the
shortest response group.
Fig. 10.13 Terminal cuttings of chrysanthemum.
Classification
For ease of identification, chrysanthemum cultivars are separated into 13 classes on
the basis of bloom forms:
1) Irregular Incurve: These are the giant blooms of the chrysanthemum
genus. The florets (petals) are loosely incurved and make fully closed
centers. The lower florets present an irregular appearance and may give a
skirted effect.
2) Reflex: The florets in this class curve downward and overlap, similar to bird
plumage. The tops of these blooms are full, but somewhat flattened.
3) Regular Incurve: A true globular bloom equal in breadth and depth. The
florets smoothly incurve and form a ball.
4) Decorative: A flattened bloom with short petals. As in classes 1-3, the
center disk should not be visible. The upper florets tend to incurve, but the
lower petals generally reflex.
5) Intermediate Incurve: This bloom class is smaller than the irregular
incurve, with shorter florets, only partially incurving with full centers, but
giving a more open appearance. Many of the popular commercial incurving

types are in this intermediate class.
6) Pompon: A small globular bloom, somewhat flat when young but fully
round when mature. Size ranges from small button types to large disbudded
blooms almost 4 inches in diameter. The florets incurve or reflex in a
regular manner and fully conceal the center.
7) Single and Semi-Double: A daisy-like flower with a central disk and one
or more rows of ray florets.
8) Anemone: These blooms are similar to the semi-doubles, but have a raised
cushion-like center.
9) Spoon: Essentially the same as the semi-double, except the ray florets are
like spoons at the tips. The central disk is round and visible.
10) Quill: The florets of quill are straight and tubular with open tips. The
bloom is fully double with no open center.
11) Spider: Spiders have long tubular ray florets which may coil or hook at the
ends. The florets may be very fine to coarse.
12) Brush or Thistle: Fine tubular florets which grow parallel to the stem and
resemble an artist’s paint brushes or in the thistle form. The florets are
flattened, twisted and dropping.
13) Unclassified or Exotic: Those blooms which fit in none of the other
classes. They are often exotic, with twisted florets. They may also exhibit
characteristics of more than one bloom class.
Floral initiation and development are temperature dependent and inappropriate
temperatures during short days will delay floral initiation and development.
Temperature greatly influences initiation and early development during the first
weeks of SD. The delay of floral induction and early development is common if
temperatures are above 29°C during the early portion of the short days’ period
(Whealy et al. 1987). This problem is known as heat delay and can be prevented if
black cloth is pulled late in the evening as temperatures drop and opened in the
middle of the night to release the heat under the cover.
Vegetative growth and floral initiation and development under short days are slower
with low light levels and more rapid under high light. High humidity delayed
flowering and reduced flower dry weight by reducing transpiration and nutrient
uptake.
Cultural Practices
Nutrition
As soon as cuttings are rooted, fertilization commences and continues until the
flowers are in colour; fertilization ceases prior to harvest for optimum postharvest
life. During the last third of the production period, fertilizer levels can be reduced
because vegetative growth is almost completed and only flower development is
occurring. Nitrogen uptake is greatest in the first month and then decreases for the
next 60 days, which is correlated with the switch from vegetative to reproductive
growth. Rates not only vary between stages of growth, but also between cut flower
crops in beds, where 200 ppm N constant liquid fertilizer is frequently used with a
soilless medium. Organic fertilizer sources such as bonemeal have been as effective
as commercial chemical fertilizers (Williams and Nelson 1992).
Irrigation
The roots must be in a well-drained environment. Drip irrigation systems are most
commonly used for ground beds. Water should be low in salts, which can accumulate
and injure the plant.
Pinching and disbudding
For cut flowers, the time span from planting a rooted cutting to pinching varies from
winter to summer. Excess shoots may need to be removed; only three to four axillary
shoots per plant should remain. The time of pinching relative to the start of natural
short days and the start of flower initiation is important. If the pinch is too early, the
spray becomes too long; if pinched too late, the spray is clubby because of lack of
time for vegetative growth before flower initiation.
Cut chrysanthemum cultivars are frequently classified as having a disbud or spray
inflorescence. If disbudded, all subtending axillary flower buds are removed as soon
as they can be handled, leaving only the apical or terminal bud to develop into one
large flower. Decorative, incurved and spider flower types are most commonly
disbudded. Some cultivars with large daisy or anemone flowers can also be
disbudded. If a spray inflorescence is desired, only the apical flower bud is removed,
which breaks apical dominance and allows all of the subtending axillary flowers to
develop. This results in a full inflorescence with most flowers opening at the same
time; if the older terminal bud is not removed, it will reach anthesis before the axillary
flowers open. The terminal bud is removed when the buds develop some
pigmentation. Terminal bud removal is used most commonly on daisy types but
occasionally on anemones and decoratives. Pinching and disbudding is labour
intensive but can also be done chemically by using Florel.
Spacing
For pinched cut flower production, rooted cuttings are planted in beds at spacing
ranging from 15 × 18 cm in the summer to 18 × 23 cm in the winter. For non-pinched
plant production, spacing is 10 × 15 cm in summer or 13 × 15 cm in winter.
Scheduling
Chrysanthemums can be scheduled to flower for any day of the year by lighting to
keep plants vegetative or by placing plants under short days’ black cloth to induce
flowering.
Staking
For cut flower cultivars, a galvanized wire or plastic mesh with 15 × 20 cm openings
is commonly used. Two layers are used and are raised as the plants increase in height.
Insect pests and diseases

Numerous insects can threaten a chrysanthemum crop. Sanitation, inspection, and
treatment of isolated infestations will reduce spraying. Commonly reported insects
are aphids, caterpillars, leaf miners, and thrips. Cultivars vary in their resistance to
leaf miners, thrips, and aphids. Cuttings from cultured indexed stock plants and the
use of pasteurized, well-drained media have eliminated many diseases. Pythium,
Rhizoctonia, and Sclerotinia stem rots can occur. Botrytis on foliage and flowers can
also occur if moisture and humidity are excessive and air movement is low. Fusarium
wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. chrysanthemi and F. oxysporum f. sp.
tracheiphilum), stem canker (F. solani), bacterial leaf spot and flower blight
(Pseudomonas cichorii), white rust (Puccinia horiana), brown rust (Puccinia
chrysanthemi), and tomato spotted wilt virus can be found on chrysanthemums.
Crown buds form even under LD after a certain number of leaves have developed on
a shoot or a number of cuttings have been removed from a stock plant. These crown
buds differ from true flower buds and do not develop normally. Frequently, crown
buds are removed and discarded at a pinch. However, if single stem plants are grown,
crown buds may appear. Crown buds may also form when flower initiation occurs
under short days, but the correct conditions for further flower development are not
present-day length is too long or the temperature is too high.
High night temperatures during the short days’ phase and insufficient photoperiodic
light intensity or duration during the long days’ phase results in delayed development
(heat delay). However, breeding lines are available that are insensitive to heat delay
(Anderson and Ascher 2001). High production temperatures also decrease branching
(Schoellhorn et al. 2001). Similarly, during the short days’ phase, light leaks or
inconsistent pulling of black cloth will result in delayed or erratic flowering. Low
light levels or temperatures below 16°C may result in inappropriate flower
development, particularly during the early weeks of short days.
For cut flowers, longevity is enhanced if there is high light during the last 3 to 4
weeks of production [5000 to 6000 fc (1000 to 1200 µmol m-2 s -1)]. Lowering
temperatures to 13 to 16°C for 2 to 4 weeks prior to harvest will enhance the flower
colour of many cultivars. However, white cultivars may develop a pink cast.
Nutrition regimes with 60 to 70% of the nitrogen in the nitrate form are essential;
ammonium rates above this level reduce longevity (Roude 1991). Equal amounts of
N and K are also advised. Eliminating fertilizers at the disbud stage 3 to 4 weeks
prior to marketing enhances longevity without reducing quality (Nell 1993; Nell et
al. 1989). Chrysanthemum is considered to be sensitive to ethylene and the
application of STS reduced the transpiration rate, which may delay water stress
during shipping (Rajapakse et al. 1989). Lastly, tremendous differences exist
between cultivars in regard to longevity.
Spray daisy chrysanthemums are harvested when the older flowers are open, but no
pollen has been shed. Spray anemone are cut when the older flowers are open but
before disc flowers start to elongate, and spray decoratives are harvested when the
centers of the older flowers are fully open. Standard chrysanthemums are harvested
when the outer petals are fully elongated. Standard chrysanthemums and spray types
can be opened in holding or opening solutions.
Longevity of leaves is enhanced if flowers are kept under 100 fc (20 µmol m-2 s -1)
of light. Every time stems are out of water during the marketing process, they should
be recut and placed in 38°C warm water (Sacalis 1993). Commercially prepared
floral preservatives can be used, but larger firms often find it more economical to
prepare their own solutions. Citric acid is used to adjust the water to 3.5 pH; a
material that will control the growth of microorganisms [100 to 150 ppm HQC
(hydroxyquinoline citrate)] and sucrose (lower than 3%) is also advised (Hussein
1994). Silver nitrate is beneficial (25 ppm). However, antimicrobial agents had no
effect on longevity according to Jones and Hill (1993). Leaf senescence has been
reported to be reduced by benzyladenine (10 to 100 ppm). Once flower stems are
hydrated, they should be stored at 0 to 4°C. Large flowered standard mums, 13 cm
in diameter, can be stored in wax paper-lined boxes dry for 3 weeks; smaller, 7- to
13-cm diameter flowers are stored for only 2 weeks (Fig. 10.14). For opening and
hydration, use the same procedure as described, and a wetting agent may aid water
uptake.
Fig. 10.14 Packaging of cut chrysanthemum stems for transportation.

10.4.4. Gerbera
Gerbera, Transvaal daisy, is perennial herbaceous ornamental plant which belongs to
family Compositae (Asteraceae). The genus Gerbera has about 40 species. Present-
day cultivars are probably hybrids of G. jamesonii and G. viridifolia. It is an
important commercial flower cultivated throughout the world in a wide range of
climatic conditions. This flower is native to South African and Asiatic regions and is
ideal for beds, borders, row and rock gardens. The gerbera was introduced into
England as a novelty in 1886. By 1910, the gerbera was well established in commerce
as a garden or cut flower along the Riviera in France and by the 1930s as a cut flower
in North America (Tourjee et al. 1994).
The daisy like flowers are available in a wide range of colours including white,
yellow, red, pink, orange, or scarlet. The disc flowers may be numerous to almost
absent. Disc flowers can be yellow, the same colour as the rays, or a vividly
contrasting black. The double cultivars sometimes have eye-catching bicoloured
flowers. The flower stalks are long, thin and leafless. Based on flower styles, they
may be classified as single, semi-double and double cultivars. Gerbera is most
commonly used worldwide as a cut flower; however, dwarf hybrid lines are available
for potted plants or bedding plants.
In tropical and subtropical climates, gerbera is grown in open conditions, while in
temperate climate, it is protected from frost and cultivated in greenhouses. It likes
sunny situation in cool weather, while during the summer months it should be lightly
shaded if left out in beds. Poor light during winter adversely affects the flower
production. Gerbera plants are only slightly photoperiodic but dramatically respond
to light intensity × duration. Day temperatures of 22-25°C while night temperatures
of 12-16°C are favourable for growth and production of gerbera, and naturally
ventilated or 50% shaded poly house produce quality flowers (Fig. 10.15).
Fig. 10.15 Gerbera production in greenhouse.

A low temperature of 13°C, whether in the greenhouse or field, favors vegetative

axillary shoots and results in high flower numbers later. Gerbera is also cultivated in
greenhouses and more flowers are produced as compared to the open field
production. Height of greenhouse should be 5-6.5 m for proper air circulation, 50-
60% shading to control light intensity and solar radiation, and 70-75% relative
humidity for good quality gerbera production.
Soil requirements
A well-drained, rich, light, neutral or slightly acidic soil is most suitable for gerbera
production. The growth of plants is adversely affected in ill-drained soil. Gerberas
like an organic soil with high nitrate contents. In soils with good structure and
drainage, the root system reaches very deep. In soils with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.0,
gerbera produces significantly more flowers and slightly longer flower stems. Flower
diameter did not seem to be influenced by the pH of the soil.
Propagation
Gerberas can be propagated by both sexual and asexual methods. Historically,
propagation was by seed or division; however, division is too slow and impractical
(Erwin et al. 1991). In vitro propagation is now commonly used to quickly increase
cultivar selections for both cut and potted flowering plants (Jeong et al. 1996). Seed
propagation is not always satisfactory since impurity of strain produces a great deal
of variation. It also requires longer time to produce flowering plants. For germination
of seeds, 20 to 23°C was optimal, with germination occurring in 7 to 14 days.
Germination decreased at temperatures above 24°C. Flowering can be expected
within 16 weeks after germination or 11 to 16 weeks after transplanting in vitro
propagated plugs. High relative humidity of 85% should be maintained until almost
all seedlings are germinated. Vegetative propagation overcomes the problem of
unpredictable characters, and plants obtained by this method perform better than
those from seeds. The crop can be cultivated throughout the year.
Cultural requirements
Spacing
Cut flower production works well in containers rather than ground beds due to the
improved drainage, ease of leaf removal and pest management, and less bending to
harvest flowers. Growing plants in containers also allows diseased plants to be
removed and the remaining plants respaced. The spacing in rows ranges from 30 to
40 cm. The closer spacing produces the largest number of flowers per m2 and the
widest spacing the least. Thus, close spacing is suitable only for an annual crop and
a wider spacing is better for a perennial crop. Spacing does not appear to affect flower
quality. The crop yields 2 to 3 stems per plant per month. Harvest starts from 3rd
month after planting and continues up to two years. Under open conditions, 30-60
flowers per m2 per year and under greenhouse condition 75-100 flowers per m2 per
year can be obtained.
Fertilization
Gerbera requires plenty of organic matter in the soil for proper growth and flowering.
The application of 7.5 kg well rotten farm yard manure/m2 to gerberas growing in
fairly light sandy soil gives good results. They also need more nutrients, a 70:30
nitrate: ammonia ratio enhances earliness and flower yields. Magnesium and iron
deficiencies are common because gerbera plants have a high requirement for these
nutrients. Magnesium sulfate and iron chelates should be applied monthly at 1.2 g L-
1
and iron chelate constantly at 0.037 g L-1 to prevent chlorosis. Application of NPK
proved very effective in increasing the number of leaves and suckers and in
producing larger number of flower heads of bigger size. An excess of N reduces yield
and vase life.
Irrigation
Gerbera needs thorough irrigation instead of light sprinkling at frequent intervals.
However, water logging should be avoided as it is damaging to plants. Never
overwater gerberas during any stages of production, even though plants tend to dry
out rapidly due to their large leaf areas. It was also observed that differences in flower
number due to seasonal differences in light intensity could somewhat be reduced by
irrigation, but more flowers are still produced in the summer than in the winter. Stem
length is positively correlated with the water supply at flower initiation. Gerberas are
not specifically sensitive to chloride in the irrigation water, but are susceptible to
high total salts contents (conductivity) and cultivars vary in their response. No
pinching, disbudding or staking is required.
Scheduling
For both cut flowers and potted plants, transplants require similar times to flower
regardless of whether the plants were propagated by seed or in vitro. Plants for cut
flower production should be replaced after every 2 years.
Insect-pests and diseases
Gerbera are susceptible to aphids, leaf miners, spider mites, thrips, whiteflies, slugs,
and snails. However, with proper exclusion and continuous inspection procedures,
serious infections and routine chemical treatments can be avoided (Rogers and Tjia
1990). Thrips and whiteflies are particularly troublesome. Sanitation, venting, proper
watering, and continuous plant inspections are required. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe
sclerotiorum) is the most common disease on gerberas. Environmental management
of humidity, appropriate chemical applications, scouting, and prompt removal of
infected plants are the control strategies. Removal of infected plants is best done in
the morning when spores are less likely to be dry and less easily spread. Other
common diseases of gerberas are Phytophthora, Pythium, and Rhizoctonia solani.
An appropriate chemical drench combination for these diseases may be required.
Insufficient flower stem hardening or maturation of the stem tissue below the
harvested flower can result in stem collapse, which is known as bent-neck. Poor
winter growing conditions contribute to the problem and the flower head may break
easily. In the winter, do not harvest flower stems when they are immature (van Doorn
et al. 1994). Delayed flowering can be due to close plant spacing. Bending of stalk
due to loss of cell turgidity and insufficient nutrition (lack of calcium) and double-
faced flowers due to imbalance of nutrients are common physiological disorders. An
abnormality characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles and small laminae,

which give some cultivars of gerbera a bushy appearance, is known as bushiness.
Moreover, stem break is a common postharvest disorder in cut gerberas mainly
caused by water imbalances. It could be ethylene controlled and associated with early
senescence caused by water stress.
Flowers are generally cut when the two outer rows of disc florets are open and pollen
can be seen. Stems are pulled, not cut, and the “heel” (base of the stem) is then
removed to allow hydration. Freshly harvested cut gerbera stems can last from 2 to
3 weeks and cultivar differences in vase life can be extreme. The stage of harvest is
critical as the flowers should not be cut before the outer row of flowers show pollen.
Bent-neck, stem break, or stem bending is the common cut flower postharvest
disorder and it has been related to bacterial contamination, anatomical
characteristics, ethylene, and cultivar (Sacalis 1993; van Doorn et al. 1994).
Commercial floral preservatives specifically formulated for gerbera are available. A
variety of hydration, short-term pulses, and long-term holding solutions have also
been recommended. Pulse cut stems for 10 min with silver nitrate (1000 ppm) or
sodium hypochlorite (600 ppm) and Tween 20 surfactant (0.1%) to reduce bacterial
stem blockage and increase vase life (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990).
Sucrose at 6% can be added to increase vase life; however, sucrose will encourage
scape elongation immediately below the flower and is often not used. After long-
distance shipping, rehydrate with warm water at 43°C. For short term storage, either
8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (8-HQC) at 200 ppm or 8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate at 300
ppm can be used to lower water pH and act as an antimicrobial agent. Flowers are
also sensitive to fluoride (1 ppm) in the holding solution, which causes brown
spotting (Sacalis 1993). Ethylene should be avoided because senescence will be
hastened. Precooling flowers at 5°C is acceptable for 3 days; shipping and storage
should be at 0 to 2°C (Sacalis 1993). Dry cold storage at 4°C is preferable to storage
in water for long-term storage of 3 to 4 weeks (Rogers and Tjia 1990; Sacalis 1993).
However, gerberas do not store well for long durations as the flowers lose 40% of
their vase life even after one-week storage. The flower heads are packed in insulated
boxes to protect them from cold or freezing temperature. Plastic coated metal grids
measuring (50×70 cm) with a mesh size of (2×2 cm) are used to pack gerbera flower
heads. The flowers heads are supported by the grid, which is suspended above a
plastic tray measuring 48×70×30 cm, at a height which can be adjusted according to
the length of flower stalk so that the stem ends should be immersed in water
(Fig. 10.16).
Fig. 10.16 Handling of gerbera stems in buckets with plastic coated metal grids for
protection.
10.4.5. Gladiolus
Gladiolus (Gladiolus L. hybrids), a member of family Iridaceae, is a very popular
bulbous ornamental plant used as cut flower. There are between 250 and 300
gladiolus species. Other important genera in this family are Crocus, Freesia, and Iris.
The name of the genus comes from gladius, which is Latin word meaning ‘sword’ so
that it is also known as ‘Sword Lily’. The name describes the shape and upright
position of the plant’s long, pointed leaves. Its glorious inflorescence with florets of
dazzling colours, varying forms and sizes and long keeping quality makes it a
gorgeous cut flower. The majority of Gladiolus species are from Africa, especially
South Africa, but a few species are from Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Near
East. It is being grown commercially in almost every part of world in varying
amounts and is leading bulbous and 2nd most popular cut flower crop in Pakistan
(Ahmad et al. 2014b; Saleem et al. 2014). Gladiolus is an important cut flower and
garden plant and minor potted plant whose dry corms are also marketed.
The inflorescence is called a spike, which consists of numerous florets, each one a
tubular corolla with several petals of one or more colours and fluted or smooth edges.
The individual flowers open acropetally and consist of two subtending bractlike
green structures, six perianth segments, three stamens, and a trilobed stigma. All
colours are present except true blue. Flower size varies from 2 to 20 cm in diameter.
Gladiolus has numerous cultivars numbering into tens of thousands worldwide
(Cohat 1993). Gladiolus cultivars are divided into groups based on floret size, colour,
and days to flowering after planting. In commercial floriculture, the two main groups
of cultivated Gladiolus are “grandiflorum” types, which have large flowers, and
“nanus” types, which have small flowers (Table 10.1).
Table 10.1. North American Gladiolus Council Classification System for Gladiolus
cultivars.
System Category Characteristic
Floret size (cm) Miniature Under 6.0
Small 6.0–9.0
Decorative 9.0–11.5
Large (standard) 11.5–14.0
Giant More than 14.0
Flowering time (Days) Very early (VE) Under 70
Early (E) 70–74
Early midseason (EM) 75–79
Midseason (M) 80–84
Late midseason (LM) 85–90
Late (L) 91–99
Very late (VL) 100 or more
Source: Dole and Wilkins (2005)
Gladiolus can be grown in a wide range of climatic conditions, from plains to an
altitude of 2500 m. For successful cultivation of gladiolus, mild climate is ideal,
while very hot and too cold conditions are harmful. Temperature is the most
important factor controlling the rate of development or days to flower. Short days
accelerate flowering and reduce days to anthesis under any given temperature with
adequate light. However, summer grown crops are harvested after 60 to 80 days and
winter grown crops after 120 days due to cooler temperatures (Halevy 1985). Low
temperatures also contribute to reduce floret number and failure to flower.
Production should be in full light. Reduced numbers of florets and failure to flower
can be attributed to low light intensity, short days, low temperature, and poor growing
conditions (Halevy 1985).
Soil requirements
Gladiolus can be grown in a wide range of soils varying from light sandy to clay
loam soils. However, deep (at least 30 cm), well drained, friable soils rich in organic
matter and nutrients are suitable for its cultivation. Soil pH should be between 6.0
and 6.5. Before planting, the soil should be disinfected either by solarization, steam
sterilization or chemical sterilization to kill disease causing pathogens present in the
soil (Fig. 10.17).
A B
Fig. 10.17 Soil disinfection through solarization to kill disease causing microbes;
(A) open field, and (B) in movable greenhouse.
Propagation
Propagation is by cormlets (cormels) derived from stolons developing between the
new and old corm, which is discarded annually. Disease free stock can be derived
from tissue culture and consequently disease-free cormlets are possible. The cormels
of the first year would be normally of very small size and would not yield any flower.
It would require one or two growing seasons for the cormels to become corms that
can produce flowers. Generally, corms are classified based on their diameter. The
size of the corm has a definite bearing on the length of the spike (floral stem). A
medium sized corm with high crown is better than a flat large corm. Good quality,
adequately sized corms, free from pathogens should be selected for planting.
Flowering physiology and dormancy

The number of flowers on the spike depends on the size of the corm, cultivar, and
cultural conditions (Cohat 1993). Emergence and flower development rate are mainly
controlled by temperature and light (intensity × duration). Dormancy exists and
varies between cultivars and the conditions under which the corms were grown prior
to harvest. Plants grown in the winter under SD are less dormant (shallow dormancy)
than those grown in the summer under LD (deeper dormancy). Dormancy can be
overcome by a 2- to 5-month cold storage treatment at 2 to 5°C. Cohen et al. (1990)
stated that 5°C was better than 2°C. A high-temperature treatment of 38°C for a few
days followed by cold is more effective than cold treatments alone for breaking
dormancy. Growth regulators such as gibberellic acid are also effective in replacing
the cold treatment of mature gladiolus corms to overcome dormancy.
Plant spacing
Spacing and planting depth of corms will vary according to season, corm size, and
cultivar. A general corm field spacing is 5-7 cm apart and 10-13 cm deep. Planting
can also be made on the surface followed by mounding (earthing) up instead of
planting in pre-formed ridges. In this case, further mounding up at a later stage
becomes mandatory. Generally, gladiolus is grown in the winter in warm climates
and in the summer in cool climates. However, in moderate weather conditions, it can
be grown virtually year round. The corms and cormels are planted in a row, base
down, and are covered with soil. Shallow planting of corms results in more cormel
production but may result in lodging in high wind areas.
Fertilization
Nutrition requirements and nitrogen sources will vary with the soil type, rainfall
amounts, and production season. Application of organic manure is important for both
flowering and corm development. However, too much manure should not be used to
avoid too tall and slender flower spikes. Nitrate nitrogen should be used when soil is
cool and wet, whereas ammonium or urea nitrogen can be used when plants are
actively growing and soil is warm. Fertilizer application may be applied at planting
of corms or delayed until sprouting. Apply NPK at 50:60:50 kg per acre
(125:150:125 kg ha-1). Best quality production also requires application of secondary
nutrients at 2-3 leaf stage and foliar application of Zn, B, and Fe at 4-6 leaf stage to
control leaf chlorosis and produce good quality spikes.
Irrigation
High-quality water is needed for irrigation. Gladiolus plants are sensitive to water
stress, which results in reduced flower yields (Halevy 1985). Excellent drainage is
also required. The frequency of irrigation largely depends on the type of soil and
prevailing weather conditions. During warm weather, irrigation can be done twice a
week, while the same can be brought down to once a week during winter. After
harvest of flowers, watering should be reduced. Irrigation 4-7 days before lifting of
corms, depending upon the weather conditions, would allow corms and cormels to
be easily and effectively lifted.
Mounding up and staking

If planted on ridges and furrows system, when the shoots are about 20 cm in height,
mounding up or hilling can be done for keeping the plants erect and to prevent
exposure of corms. By adopting surface planting system, mounding up can be done
at the fourth leaf stage. Generally weeding can be taken up at two leaf and four leaf
stages. Weeding and staking may be carried out as and when necessary. If corms are
planted deep and mounding up has been practiced, staking is typically not required,
but some growers may want to provide support in windy areas to tall growing spikes.
Pinching and disbudding are not required.
Scheduling
Temperature and light (intensity × duration) determine the time from planting to
harvest after the appropriate storage treatment. Corms planted under warm summer
conditions flower in 60 to 80 days, depending on the cultivar. Time to flower may
increase to 120 days for plants grown during the cool winter in frost-free climates.
Extended harvest is produced by staggered planting every 1 to 3 weeks and by using
cultivars with variable flowering times.
Insects are a concern during production. In particular, various aphid and thrips
species are attracted to gladiolus. Nematode and weed control in the field are also
problems and expensive to control. Fumigation for nematodes, weeds, and diseases
is frequently required if land is reused (Cohat 1993). Other problems include mites,
whiteflies, stem borers, mealybugs, caterpillars, and cutworms. Application of
Malathion or Chlorpyriphos at 0.2% is found to be effective in controlling these
pests.
Diseases are a constant concern and corms, roots, leaves, stems, and flowers are
vulnerable. Fusarium on the corms is the most serious and destructive disease.
Ammonium or urea-based nitrogen may cause more Fusarium than nitrate nitrogen.
A number of other organisms can cause wet or dry rots of the corm, including
Stromatinia gladioli, Sclerotium rolfsii, Botrytis gladiolarum, Rhizoctonia solani,
and Penicillium gladioli (Dreistadt 2001; Horst 1990). Corms may need to be
chemically treated after digging, during storage, and/or before planting to prevent
losses. Hot water treatments of approximately 55 to 58°C may eradicate Fusarium,
Penicillium, Botrytis, and Stromatinia gladioli in corms. Fungal diseases can be
controlled by application of fungicides like Dithane M-45, Elite, Ridomil Gold,
Topsin-M, Captan, Bavistin etc. For viral disease, the affected plants should be
uprooted and destroyed.
The bacteria Pseudomonas and Xanthamonas cause serious diseases on the leaves
and developing spike. Fungal leaf spots include Curvularia lunata, C. trifolii,
Urocystis gladiolicola, Stemphylium, and Septoria gladioli (Dreistadt 2001). Botrytis
is destructive on the flowers during shipping, particularly during cold wet harvesting
periods, and can develop on the corms as well. Numerous viruses such as cucumber
mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, and tobacco ringspot also infect gladiolus (Cohat 1993;
Horst 1990).
Fluoride from air pollution can turn leaf tips brown. Fluoride in superphosphate can
also cause leaf injury and should not be used as a source of phosphorus. Other
possible causes of tip burn include low soil pH, root damage, and nematodes.
Spike tips may bend upwards if placed horizontally resulting in loss of quality. Keep
spikes upright all the time during postharvest handling and shipping to avoid negative
gravitropism. Other treatments can be used to prevent geotropic responses (calcium
chelators) and ethylene inhibitors such as STS can be useful (Philosoph-Hadas et al.
1995).
Spikes are harvested when the lower two or more flowers are just beginning to show
true colour. Two to three leaves are left on the plant for photosynthesis and
regeneration of the new corm. Individual flowers on the spikes will continue to open
after harvest and stems are transported upright because of geotropism (Fig. 10.18).
At time of harvest, cut stems are usually pulsed with a floral preservative prior to or
after grading. Flowering spikes respond to floral preservatives in that the flower size
increases and the individual flowers last longer. A common opening solution
contains sucrose (10%) and 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (300 ppm), which acidifies
and acts as a microbial inhibitor. The stems are recut, placed into this solution, and
held for 24 to 72 hr at 21°C. Afterward, stems are placed in deionized, pH 3.5 water.
If stems have been previously pulsed with a preservative by the producer, use only
acidified-deionized water for storage (Sacalis 1993).
Fig. 10.18 Upright (vertical)

transportation and handling of
gladiolus spikes to prevent curvature
due to gravitropism.
Removal of the uppermost stem with a few buds will improve opening of the
remaining buds and decrease spike curvature (Sacalis 1993). Temperatures of 1 to
2°C are optimum for grading and transport (Nell and Reid 2001). Stems hydrate best
in deionized water with a 3.5 pH. Cut gladiolus spikes are highly sensitive to
fluorides (0.25 ppm) in water, which is common in municipal drinking water. The
outer margins of the petals become transparent and prematurely wilt. Spikes can be
dry stored at 4°C for 1 to 2 weeks when previously pulsed, treated for Botrytis, and
wrapped to prevent water loss. Gladiolus apparently is not sensitive to ethylene, but
longevity is enhanced by STS in the floral preservative (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990).
Corm lifting and curing
The corms are lifted after maturity, when nearly 25% of the cormels turn brown and
the leaves turn yellow and start drying. It takes nearly one and half to two months
after flowering for the corms to attain maturity. The spike and corm yield in gladiolus
vary depending on the cultivar, corm size, planting density and management
practices.
Corms can be cured immediately after harvest by storing at 35°C and 80% relative
humidity for 6 to 8 days (Dreistadt 2001). After curing corms, presoak corms for 2
days at 16 to 27°C and discard any that float. Immerse corms in 55°C hot water for
30 min. Cool corms rapidly afterward with cold water and dry thoroughly. Dust
corms with fungicide and store at 4°C and 70 to 80% relative humidity.
10.4.6. Lilium
Lilium L. hybrids, Asiatic or Oriental lilies are members of family Liliaceae and are
highly popular cut flowers around the world. Other important lilies include the Easter
lily (Lilium longiflorum Thunb.) and many garden species and hybrid lilies. The lily
family is very large and contains many commercially important floriculture crops
including Allium, Alstroemeria, Brodiaea, Convallaria, Eremurus, Hyacinthus,
Lachenalia, Muscari, Ornithogalum, and Tulipa. The genus Lilium includes almost
100 species, most of which are distributed between 10° and 60° north latitude. Asia
has 50 to 60 species, North America has 24 species, and Europe has 12 species.
Numerous hybrids and cultivars exist and are grown as garden perennials for summer
colour, as field- and greenhouse-grown cut flowers, and as potted flowering plants.
Cut flowers and potted plants are grown either for specific holidays or for regular
year-round production.
Although collectively referred to as “hybrid lilies”, lilies are often referred to by the
hybrid group to which they belong such as “Asiatic,” “Oriental,” or “LA” (Beattie
and White 1993). Asiatic hybrids include such flower colours as orange, red, yellow,
tan, and white and flowers are usually orientated upward with little or no fragrance.
Oriental hybrids have various shades of red, pink, and white with strongly fragrant
flowers oriented horizontally. The leaves of commercial hybrids and most species
are evenly spaced along the stem, but the leaves of some species are in distinct
whorls. Crosses between Lilium longiflorum and Asiatic lilies have resulted in “LA
hybrids,” while crosses between L. longiflorum and Oriental types have produced
“LO hybrids.” The incorporation of L. longiflorum genes into these complex gene
pools was intended to provide the long, graceful L. longiflorum leaves and to enhance
lower leaf characteristics. In addition, the individual flowers of LA hybrids are
oriented outward rather than upward as with the typical Asiatic hybrids (van Tuyl et
al. 1988). Many more hybrid groups are being developed, further blurring the lines
between Asiatic, Oriental, and Easter lilies.
Propagation
The storage organ is an imbricated bulb that consists of numerous fleshy scales,
which are modified leaves attached to a compacted stem (basal plate) (Bailey and
Bailey 1976). Commercially, scale propagation or in vitro propagation are most
common (Park et al. 2002). Plants can also be propagated by seed, aerial axillary
stem bulbils, underground stem bulblets or bulb divisions. Larger bulbs generally
produce more flowers/stem than smaller bulbs. Never allow bulbs to dry out during
shipping, storage, programming, and planting.
Flowering physiology and dormancy
The primary responses of lily to temperature (cold) are rapid stem elongation, flower
initiation, and flower development. The respiration rate of several Asiatic cultivars
during cold treatment increases and then declines; the decrease in respiration could
be used by commercial growers to determine when floral initiation is complete. Light
influences flowering both photoperiodically and photosynthetically. Plant quality is
increased and height is usually reduced with natural high light levels or with
supplemental high-intensity lighting. Long photoperiods enhance floral initiation,
making lilies a facultative long days’ plant (Grueber and Wilkins 1984; Roh 1989).
Increasing light intensity increases photosynthesis, which increases the rate of flower
development and the number of flowers formed, reduces bud abortion, and enhances
the total flower potential.
Asiatic hybrids are cooled at 2 to 5°C for 6 to 10 weeks, cultivar dependent, prior to
greenhouse forcing (De Hertogh 1996). Oriental and LA hybrids are cooled at 2 to
4°C for at least 8, preferably 9 to 10, weeks prior to greenhouse forcing (Beattie and
White 1993; De Hertogh 1996; Fig. 10.19). Moving bulbs from cold storage too early
will extend the forcing period. Bulbs can be held in moist peat for many months if
temperatures are lowered from -1 or -2 to -4°C) (Beattie and White 1993; De Hertogh
1996). Asiatic and LA bulbs are typically stored at -2°C and Orientals and LO bulbs
are stored at -1.5°C. Consequently, year round forcing is possible. However,
prolonged storage lowers the number of flower buds. Prior to freezing, bulbs are first
cooled for 9 to 12 weeks and then frozen. During freezing, high humidity must be
maintained to prevent sprouting. For maximum stem strength and minimum bud
abortion, avoid warm temperatures. During hot weather, try to keep the soil and air
below 20°C and use soil mulch, if possible (De Hertogh 1996).
Once flower initiation occurs in Asiatic hybrids, light intensity and duration have
little influence on rate of flower development, which is temperature dependent. Up
to 40 to 50% shade can be used on Oriental lilies to increase stem length of cut lilies;
remove when buds are well developed.
Fig. 10.19 Pre-

cooling of lily
bulbs planted in
lily crates and
staked in cold
store.
Soil requirements
Lily bulbs are grown in a wide range of soil and media types both in the field and
under protection in ground beds, bulb crates, or pots. De Hertogh (1996)
recommended a well-drained, fluoride-free, sterilized planting medium. A 1:1:1 soil
mix of “composted soil, peat, and perlite, “ordinary” garden soil, coco coir or peat
and sand can be used for successful cut lily production. The pH of the growing
medium is extremely important, with pH 6.0 optimum.
Nutrition
With cut lilies, excessively high nutrient levels can reduce plant height. Because the
bulb has nutrient reserves, it is suggested that fertilization is not needed during
forcing (McKenzie 1989), that fertilization should commence only after shoot
emergence (Aimone 1986), or that fertilization should start at the visible bud stage
of development if the medium has nutrient reserves. However, experience has shown
that a nutrition program should commence at shoot emergence, using calcium nitrate
and potassium nitrate at a 2:1 ratio on a weekly basis, assuming that the medium has
been amended with phosphorus. Slow-release fertilizers can also be used.
Irrigation
The growing medium should be kept moist but not saturated, because root rot
problems can be intensified by poor aeration. Water stress and wilting can cause bud
abortion or abscission.
Spacing
Bulb size and type of hybrid determine spacing for cut flower production. Due to the
smaller plant circumference of Asiatic hybrids, more bulbs per square meter can be
planted compared with Oriental hybrids. Generally, 54 to 86 bulbs can be planted/m2
with the Asiatics and 32 to 43/m2 with the Orientals when using 15 to 17.5 cm bulbs.
The bulbs should be planted at least 5 cm below the surface of the medium to
encourage stem roots. Bulbs for cut flower production are commonly grown in plastic
crates, which are placed crate to-crate on the ground. Crates allow easy handling of
large numbers of bulbs. No pinching or disbudding required.
Staking
Some cut flower cultivars require one or two layers of netting for support. It is wise
to place the net on the beds at planting and then slowly raise it as the shoots elongate
(De Hertogh 1996).
Scheduling
Bulbs can be forced any week of the year from frozen bulbs or from bulbs produced
in the other hemisphere. Precise timing is complicated because the forcing time
varies greatly with each cultivar. The leaf numbers at any particular forcing date and
flower development rate also depend on the cultivar. Days to shoot emergence vary
from 2 to 3 weeks in midwinter to 3 to 4 days for bulbs planted in April or later.
Generally, Asiatics require 60 to 85 days of total greenhouse forcing time with 30 to
35 days to flower from visible bud, and Orientals require 85 to 120 days of
greenhouse forcing time with 50 to 55 days to flower from visible bud (Fig. 10.20;
De Hertogh 1996).
Fig. 10.20 Forcing of pre-cooled lily bulbs in crates in greenhouse.

Although a variety of insect pests can infest lilies, including aphids, fungus gnats,
bulb mites, and thrips, the most serious are aphids and fungus gnats. The root rot
complex of diseases (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lilii, Pythium, Rhizoctonia solani,
Phytophthora cactorum, and P. parasitica) (Dreistadt 2001; Horst 1990) should first
be prevented by using reliable bulb sources, pasteurizing the media, and sanitizing
the growing area. If necessary, both preplant chemical bulb dips and routine media
drenches can be used (De Hertogh 1996). Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) can occur on
flowers and leaves if air circulation and humidity control are not practiced. Gray
mold can be especially troublesome during shipping if open flowers are present; the
fungus finds a suitable environment in the sugar-laden nectar at the end of the stigma.
Various viruses can be present, but the control of these diseases is in the hands of the
bulb producer. A number of other diseases can be found, especially on lilies grown
outdoors in perennial gardens, including scale rot (Colletotrichum), bulb rot
(Rhizopus stolonifera or Penicillium), rust (Uromyces), or leaf spots (Cercospora,
Cercosporella, Heterosporium, and Ramularia).
Flower bud abortion at an early stage of development or abscission at a later stage is
a low light and ethylene-mediated phenomenon. High temperatures or depletion of
the carbohydrate supply may accentuate bud abortion and abscission. Mechanical
stress (shaking plants twice daily), which tends to cause the release of ethylene,
reduces bud abortion. Leaf or leaf tip burn, also known as upper leaf necrosis, is a
common problem, which occurs when the palisade parenchyma cells under the
epidermis collapse. These areas turn a white-gray approximately 2 cm back from the
tip, while the tip remains green. The typical developmental sequence of the
symptoms from bottom to top of the plant is normal leaves, injured leaves, and then
normal leaves and flowers. These symptoms occur shortly before or at visible bud.
Leaf burn is thought to be due to insufficient translocation of calcium (Chang and
Miller 2003). Culturally, high relative humidity and little or no stem root
development are considered responsible for leaf burn. The problem can be reduced
experimentally by removing the lower leaves or commercially by routinely spraying
calcium chloride or calcium nitrate (68 to 136 mM).
Another foliar problem, leaf scorch, appears as a burned-looking, crescent-shaped
area on the margins of the leaves, or as an actual tip burn. The cause is fluoride,
which is a natural contaminant of phosphate or is injected into municipal water
sources (De Hertogh 1996).
Cut stems are generally harvested when buds are well coloured but not yet open
(Fig. 10.21). Each cultivar, however, has an optimal stage of development (number
of flowers showing colour) for harvest. Various types of postharvest preservatives
can be used to allow all buds of cut Asiatic hybrid flowers to open and to prevent
leaf yellowing. Many lilies are considered sensitive to ethylene, and silver thiosulfate
should be used to protect the flowers against ethylene. Postharvest life is also
improved even when bulbs were soaked in STS. The soaking treatment protected
flowers from exogenous ethylene, resulting in a similar improvement to vase life as
placing the stems in STS solutions. 1-MCP is also effective at preventing bud and
flower abscission and vase life decline due to exogenous ethylene.
Cut stems can be stored for 4 weeks at 1°C if stems are first treated for 24 hr in silver
nitrate at 50 ppm. After cold storage, recut the stems and place in 30 ppm sucrose
and 200 ppm 8-hydroxyquinolin citrate (8-HQC). Antimicrobial agents other than 8-
HQC are also effective. Cold storage decreases longevity by increasing leaf
yellowing and bud blasting and reduce vase life.
Leaf yellowing can also be prevented by spraying [1:1 benzyladenine: gibberellic
acid (BA:GA)] at 25:25 ppm on the cut stems prior to or immediately after cold
storage. The chemical cannot reverse leaf yellowing so it must be applied when the
leaves are still green. Leaf yellowing can also be prevented by spraying BA:GA at
100:100 to 250:250 ppm BA:GA on the entire plant.
Fig. 10.21 Cut lilies ready to harvest for export/shipping.
Bulb uplifting and storage

The packing material must be moist for the cold storage of bulbs because (1) both
cold and moisture are required for physiological processes to occur and (2) lily bulbs
lose water and desiccation must be prevented particularly during long-term storage
(Beattie and White 1993). Bulbs frequently sprout in the package, reducing plant
quality. Using low-O2 atmospheres (1%) during distribution can reduce shoot
elongation.
10.4.7. Tulip
Tulip, Tulipa gesneriana, a member of family Liliaceae, is one of the most popular
bulbous cut flower. Tulipa is a Latin derivation of the Turkish word “tulbend”
(muslin or guaze) and the Persian “dulband” which means turban and refers to the
shape of the blooms. Other Tulipa species in commerce are T. fosteriana Hoog ex
W. Irv., T. greigii Reg., and many miscellaneous species (Bailey and Bailey 1976;
Le Nard and De Hertogh 1993). The lily family is very large and contains many
commercially important floriculture crops including Allium, Alstroemeria, Brodiaea,
Convallaria, Eremurus, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Lilium, Muscari, and
Ornithogalum.
The center of origin is central Asia: Siberia, Mongolia, and China. The area of
greatest diversity occurs south into the Kashmir (Pakistan) and west into
Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey (Bailey and Bailey 1976; Le Nard and De Hertogh
1993). Tulip breeding was already occurring in the 12th and 13th centuries in Persia
prior to the tulip being brought to Western Europe in the mid–1500s.
Tulips are important garden bedding plants, cut flowers and potted plants. In warm
climates, precooled bulbs can be planted and are discarded after flowering.
Generally, the cooler the climate, the more likely tulips will perennialize. The
Netherlands is the primary tulip bulb producer and the largest acreages are devoted
to Triumph tulips and Darwin hybrids. Forcing bulbs as cut flowers or as potted
plants is an old, large, and well-established industry. Potted tulip plants are more
popular than cut flowers in North America (De Hertogh 1996; Le Nard and De
Hertogh 1993).
All tulips are herbaceous perennials with a bulb. The mature bulb consists of up to
six tunicated (circular) scales attached to a basal plate, which at maturity develops a
rooting plate. Axillary buds (one per scale) are found on the basal plate in the interior
of these tunicated scales. These buds later develop into flowering scapes with leaves
and various numbers of daughter bulbs. The apical (dominant) axillary bud typically
forms four leaves and a terminal flower. The lowest (basipetal) leaf is the largest and
is called the wrapper leaf. This leaf will always emerge and develop on the side of
the bulb that is slightly flattened. Some species and cultivars produce more than one
flower per stem. At least one new bulb, totally encased in a papery scale, forms
annually.
Classification
Cut tulips are available in a wide range of colours except true blue. Flowers may be
striped or “broken” in green, black, red, and other colours, or multicoloured,
frequently with different tints on the outer and inner petals. Tulips also have a wide
range of flowering dates, leaf characteristics, and plant heights (De Hertogh 1996) as
indicated below. T. gesneriana is classified into following four early and seven late
flowering types based on flower morphology and plant size:
1) Single early - Single-flowered cultivars, mainly short-stemmed and early-
flowering. Examples include Beauty Queen, Bellona, Van der Neer etc.
2) Double early - Double-flowered cultivars, mainly short-stemmed and early-
flowering. Examples include Bonanza, Peach Blossom, Monte Carlo etc.
3) Midseason triumph - Single-flowered cultivars, stem of medium height,
flowering in mid-season. Originally, they are the result of hybridization
between cultivars of the Single early group and the Single late group.
Examples include Barcelona, Purple Star, White Dream etc.
4) Midseason Darwin - Single-flowered cultivars, long-stemmed, flowering in
mid-season. Originally, they are the result of hybridization between
cultivars of the Darwin group with T. fosteriana. Examples include
Apeldoorn, Big Chief, Golden Apeldoorn, Parade etc.
5) Singles late - Single-flowered cultivars, mainly long-stemmed and late-
flowering. This group includes such tulips as those from the former Darwin
and Cottage groups. Examples include Sorbet, Dreamland, Francoise etc.
6) Lily-flowering - Single-flowered cultivar, flowering mid-season or late,

displaying flowers with pointed, curled back petals. Stem length varies.
Examples include Marilyn, Mona Lisa, Ballerina, Aladdin, China Pink etc.
7) Fringed - Single-flowered cultivars, petals edged with fringes, flowering
mid-season or late. Stems are of variable length. Examples include Aleppo,
Hamilton, Fancy Frills, Burgundy Lace etc.
8) Viridiflora – Cottage group tulips which are least significant among other
groups but have fascinating tepal colour. Their blooms are cup-shaped
which open in late spring and have 2-3 weeks long life. Examples include
Golden artist, Green Wave, Hummingbird etc.
9) Rembrandt - Cultivars with broken flower colours: striped or marked with
brown, bronze, black, red, pink or purple, on a red, white or yellow
background. Cause of markings is a virus infection. Plants are long-
stemmed and not commercially available. Examples include Prince
Carnival, Burning Heart, Sorbet, Mona Lisa etc. which although belong to
other types but have Rembrandt colouring.
10) Parrot - Single-flowered cultivars with fringed, curled and twisted petals.
Mainly late-flowering. Stems are of variable length. Examples include
Fantacy, Orange Favourite, Apricot Parrot, Black Parrot, Blue Parrot etc.
11) Double late (peony) - Double-flowered cultivars which flower late. Plants
are mainly long-stemmed (Bailey and Bailey, 1976; Le Nard and De
Hertogh, 1993). Examples include Angelique, Mount Tacoma, Miranda,
Lilac Perfection etc.
Tulips have goblet-shaped blooms in a variety of forms from slender and pointed to
round. The hybrids that are most commonly grown as cut flowers are:
• Single (having six “petals”- tepals)
• Double (peony flowered)
• Parrot (ruffled petal edges and multicoloured)
• Lily flowered (pointed petals)
• Fringed (serrated petal edges)
Propagation
Although cut tulips are most abundant from January through April, they are available
year-round. Commercially, bulb production is based on the annual development of
daughter bulb offsets from the vegetative axillary buds in the axils of the tunicated
scales. This occurs naturally, and the success, failure, and cost of a new cultivar
depend on the rate of asexual multiplication, which is different for each cultivar. The
average rate is typically two to three new bulblets annually. The time required to
produce a commercial-size bulb capable of flowering varies from 2 to 3 or more years
depending on cultivar and bulblet size.
Sexual propagation is only used to develop new cultivars in a breeding program or
in a species exchange program. In vitro propagation is in the research stage of
development. When the bulbs are lifted in the summer, offsets can be removed, stored
and replanted in autumn.
Bulb selection
Bulbs are measured by circumference (cm) in a horizontal plane at the middle height
of the bulb. The ideal bulb size for tulips is top size 12/+ cm because smaller bulbs
result in a poorer quality crop with smaller flowers and shorter stems. Most suppliers
provide the tulips in trays of 500 per variety for a 12/+ size and 750 per variety on
the 11/12 size bulbs.
To produce flowers on a certain date, specific temperature regimes are followed.
Rooting Room temperatures are maintained to accomplish specific physiological
requirements in bulbs. These temperatures will result in optimal growth responses in
the briefest time span to achieve flowering for a particular date. There are two main
types of bulbs, pre-cooled and non-pre-cooled. Pre-cooling is defined as “the dry
storage of spring flowering bulbs at temperatures between 2-8°C after floral initiation
and development is completed, and prior to planting”. Pre-cooled bulbs need to be
planted fairly quickly upon receipt. Pre-cooled tulip bulbs must be stored for a short
period by keeping them at the temperature specified by the supplier (usually 5-8°C).
The second type, non-pre-cooled bulbs, are stored at non-chilling temperatures
(typically 16°C) until cooling begins by the final forcer. Non-pre-cooled tulip bulbs
can be potted and stored in a dark, cool shed at 1-5°C for 12-14 weeks. Monitor the
stacked crates often to prevent the shoots from growing into the crate above.
Bulbs are cold treated in the dark. Only 1000 to 2500 fc (200 to 500 µmol m-2 s-1) are
needed for greenhouse forcing (De Hertogh 1996).
Soil requirements
Any medium that is well drained and light weight is acceptable. The pH should not
be acidic, nor should high levels of peat or pine bark be used. Hydroponic forcing of
cut tulips is now more common than forcing in media. Hydroponic forcing is more
automated, environmentally neutral, and cost effective. However, these can also be
successfully grown in soil beds.
Planting
In greenhouse, raised beds are useful for tulip production because they help to
improve drainage and prevent disease problems caused by root rots. Do not replant
in beds that have had tulips in the past unless you are able to steam sterilize the
substrate at 70-80°C for 30 min. During the heat of the summer when a greenhouse
is not in use, plastic covers can be used to solarize (using the sun to heat the soil) the
beds for 4-6 weeks. Growing tulips in raised beds is very similar to greenhouse
production of tulips in crates of soilless substrate (Fig. 10.22). Programmed bulbs are
used and planted in steam-sterilized soil. Keep the beds well-watered and the
greenhouse night time temperatures between 5 and 13°C. The warmer the house is
kept, the shorter the crop time, with potentially lower flower quality.
Fig. 10.22 Greenhouse production of cut tulips in crates containing soilless

substrates.
In field, it is easier to plant tulips by digging a trench than it is to plant the individual
bulbs. To form a trench, cultivate the planting area 30 cm deep and then shovel the
soil to one side of the bed. In field production, tulip bulbs can be planted up to 15-20
cm deep. The deeper the bulb is, the longer the stem will be when pulled at harvest.
If a deeper trench is needed, cultivate the area again and remove more soil. Place the
bulbs in the bottom of the trench leaving about as much space between each bulb as
the size of the bulb itself. Cover with soil, being careful not to overturn the bulbs in
the process. The loose soil can be used to create a raised bed over the tulip bulbs.
Water the bed well. A pre-emergent herbicide can also be applied at this time to
prevent winter and early spring weed germination. Low tunnels can be constructed
over field grown tulips in winter to force the bulbs into flower 3-4 weeks before other
field tulips. Low tunnels will also help to protect early crops from animals. Later
crops can be protected by placing posts along the sides of the bed and using row
cover vertically along each side of the row.
Nutrition
Tulips are not considered heavy feeders, and the bulbs themselves store many
nutrients for the plant’s initial growth. Excessive fertilization can lead to the reduced
plant height, which may affect marketability. The use of slow or controlled release
fertilizers is not recommended as the plant will be harvested before most of the
nutrients are released. For field production, use 1 kg nitrogen per 1000 sq. ft. at
planting, making sure not to allow the fertilizer to come in contact with the bulbs.
After bulb emergence in the spring, the application of 780 g of actual nitrogen per
1000 sq. ft. of row is recommended. The substrate should have a pH of 6.2-6.8 for
the greatest nutrient availability and plant growth. Adjust phosphorus and potassium
to the optimum range.
Low nutrition and medium EC are acceptable. After removing the bulbs from the
cooler, apply 2.4 g L-1 Ca(NO3)2 at each watering to reduce the potential for stem
topple (De Hertogh 1996).
Irrigation
Moisture levels must be continuously monitored while bulbs are in the rooting room,
because the medium dries out even though the medium may have been thoroughly
watered when bulbs were planted. Dry areas may be localized within large rooting
room facilities due to lack of uniform air circulation or temperatures. Maintaining a
fog of near 100% humidity in the rooting room is optimal (De Hertogh 1996).
Spacing
For cut flower production, bulbs are placed in flats or planting trays, which are
usually 10 cm deep. Again, the upper portion of the bulb is planted above the medium
(De Hertogh 1996). No pinching, disbudding, or staking is required.
Scheduling
The scheduling process begins when the correct cultivar is selected for the desired
flowering date and for potted plant or cut flower use. Forcers calculate backward
from flowering date to determine the days to force (date to bring into the greenhouse)
and date to plant the bulb. The forcers must also decide on the number of weeks of
cold treatment that the bulb must receive, which rooting room to use, and whether
precooled or regular bulbs should be ordered (De Hertogh 1996).
Pests and diseases
Aphids in isolated colonies may appear during forcing. At planting, all bulbs must
be inspected and discarded if infected with Fusarium. Planting labourers must be
properly trained to inspect bulbs. Fusarium infects the tulip bulb and can be identified
by a white to tan mold growing on the outer tunic of the bulb, by soft bulbs, or by
very lightweight bulbs. Infection can also be internal. All infected bulbs must be
discarded. If more than 10% of the bulbs are infected with Fusarium, the entire lot
may need to be discarded.
During cold temperature programming, Penicillium (blue mold) may develop over
the surface of the bulb above the medium level, but is usually not a serious problem.
Botrytis infections may occur during forcing under high humidity conditions with
little air movement, and usually occur on the stem, which then collapses. Abortion
can occur if Botrytis develops on the flower early in forcing. Botrytis can cause small
circular lesions on the petals. Good air circulation and proper venting and heating are
the best preventive measures (De Hertogh 1996). A similar disease, tulip fire
(Botrytis tulipae), can occur on tulips outdoors in which the buds are blighted, foliage
blasted, and open flowers covered with spots (Horst 1990). Diseased plant parts must
be removed promptly to prevent spread of disease. Other diseases that have been
reported include bulb, root and stem rot (Pythium, Phytophthora, and Rhizoctonia),
bacterial soft rot (Erwinia), and southern wilt (Sclerotium rolfsii).
Flower abortion during early developmental stages can be caused by a variety of
conditions. One is excessively high temperature during transport of the bulbs from
the Netherlands. Ethylene exposures at any point in shipping, programming, or
forcing will result in abortion or malformation of the flowers. Fusarium will induce
ample levels of ethylene, which results in abortion or malformation of flowers (De
Hertogh 1996; Le Nard and De Hertogh 1993). Flower abortion can also occur when
immature bulbs are cold treated and due to under watering or high soluble salt levels.
Interruption of the cooling sequence with warm temperatures can cause flower bud
abortion, petal malformations, increase plant height during cold storage, reduced
forcing time, and shortened scape length.
Stem topple occurs where the stem collapses a few centimeters below the base of the
flower. This problem is related to a calcium deficiency (transport) and forcing of
bulbs that have been excessively cold treated and/or forced at very high temperatures.
Cultivars vary in their sensitivity to stem topple. The problem can be reduced by air
circulation, which will aid in transportation of calcium within the plant and by
calcium nitrate fertilization (De Hertogh 1996; Le Nard and De Hertogh 1993).
Frost damage may appear as oblong to oval spots along the veins of the leaves,
although not very common. Storage at excessively warm conditions or immature
bulbs may result in retarded or suppressed growth. Sunscald may occur in sunny, dry
conditions and result in the scorching of flower parts, particularly along margins.
Tulips are harvested when petals show colour, but are not completely coloured or
open. When harvesting, tulips can be cut or pulled. Tulips are generally pulled at
harvesting to increase the stem length (Fig. 10.23). If the soil is soft, the bulb usually
comes up when the stem is pulled. When pulling tulips, grasp the stem at the soil line
and pull straight up. The stem should snap off at the base of the bulb, producing a
longer stem. The used tulip bulbs should be discarded after harvest. This pulling
method removes the used bulbs from the bed, making bed preparation for the next
cut flower species easier. Rotating tulips to another field the following year will help
to reduce disease occurrence. If the tulips experience wilting after harvest, any bent
stems must be wrapped or somehow supported in the bucket while rehydrating.
Otherwise, they will remain bent even after being properly hydrated. Cut flowers are
harvested and stored with the bulbs attached if stems are to be stored for any duration.
Later, bulbs are dissected and the stem broken or cut from the basal plate while
grading (Fig. 10.24). This procedure also adds 2.5 cm or more length to the stem.
Fig. 10.23 Cut

tulips harvested by
pulling to extend
stem length.
Fig. 10.24 Tulip

grading and
postharvest
processing.
Dry storage is preferred method for long-term cut flower storage. If the bulb is
attached, store at 0-2°C for 2 weeks; if not attached, 5 days is the limit. Re-cut the
stems when they are out of water for any length of time. Though it has been reported
that floral preservatives have little influence on vase life, GA3 enhanced longevity
but caused excessive elongation. Ethrel at 10-25 ppm in combination with 2-5%
sucrose and 100 ppm 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate completely inhibited stem
elongation without changing the positive increase GA3 had on vase life.
Benzyladenine has also been shown to slow stem elongation. Cut Narcissus stems
exude mucilage that is toxic to tulips and reduce their vase life.
Most varieties of tulips are not sensitive to ethylene; therefore, anti-ethylene products
probably will not extend the vase life and administration of such a product can
increase postharvest stem elongation. Longevity at the consumer level is relatively
short, usually from 3-7 days, depending on cultivar, care received and stage of
maturity at harvest.
10.4.8. Tuberose
Tuberose, Polianthes tuberosa L., is a member of family Agavaceae and is a popular
summer flowering hardy bulbous perennial cut flower. In addition to the well-known
Agave and Yucca desert plants, Cordyline, Dracaena, and Sansevieria are important
ornamental genera in the family. The Polianthes genus contains 13 species (Huxley
et al. 1992). It was originated in Pre-Columbian Mexico and is popular in Indo-Pak
subcontinent and France for its sweet-scented spikes used as cut flowers, in garlands,
and essential oil extraction for fragrances (Bailey and Bailey 1976). The spikes
inflorescences bear fragrant single or double tubular waxy flowers and are harvested
commercially as a summer cut flower.
Polianthes are herbaceous perennials with a basal whorl of leaves that are succulent
and linear. The spike can be up to 90 cm tall with 30 or more white flowers. Plants
are grown from a thickened bulb with basal roots. Single-flowered (‘Single
Mexican’) and double flowered (‘The Pearl,’ ‘Excelsior Double Pearl’) forms exist
(Bailey and Bailey 1976).
Propagation
In the spring, axillary rhizomes are removed, allowed to callus for 24 hr, and
replanted. These offsets are produced in large numbers; 15 to 20 offsets develop from
a larger bulb in a single season. Two to three years are required for a bulblet offset
to reach flowering size, which is between 6.5 and 11 cm in diameter. In addition,
plants can be propagated by seed or in vitro techniques.
The capacity of a bulb to flower is dependent on the supply of carbohydrates.
However, high temperatures are required for flower initiation, differentiation, and
development. A minimum production temperature of 24 to 29°C is optimum for
growth and flowering. Shoots are slower to emerge but flower faster from large bulbs
than from smaller ones. After flowering, the bulb apparently enters a period of
dormancy, the onset of which is hastened by water restriction and cooler

temperatures.
Plants thrive at high temperatures from 21 to 29°C (Bailey and Bailey 1976).
Optimum soil temperature should be above 20°C for maximum root growth and the
air temperature should be between 20 and 30°C for maximum bulb production
(Makhopadhyay 1987). Flower production is best when the climate is neither too hot
(greater than 35°C) nor too cool (less than 13°C). Minimum temperature for spike
formation is 13°C and for individual flower formation 19°C.
Plants are field grown in full light. While tuberose is a day-neutral plant, vegetative
growth and flowering were advanced by 10 days under 16-hr photoperiods.
Soil requirements
Tuberose thrives best in a wide array of field soil types, but good drainage is
essential. A light sandy soil make bulb harvesting easier. The reported optimum
medium pH ranges from 6.5 to 7.5 to 8.1 to 8.4.
Nutrition
Tuberose has a high nutrient requirement of 100 kg ha-1 N. The balance among N–
P–K varied if bulb/bulblet formation is desired or if flower production is the only
concern.
Irrigation
Good drainage is a requirement (Armitage and Laushman 2003). Plants should not
be water stressed. The amount of irrigation water required varies with the stage of
plant growth, soil type, and climate.
Spacing
Bulbs can be planted in rows 23 to 30 cm apart at a depth of 5 to 8 cm. Bulbs are
planted 10 to 15 cm apart within the rows. Smaller axillary bulbs, which are removed
in spring, can be planted in a nursery bed for 1 year. Bulbs can be up to 20 cm in
diameter; smaller bulbs 8 to 10 cm in diameter are available and quickly increase in
size if grown at 20°C or higher in the summer (Armitage and Laushman 2003).
Scheduling
Bulbs are planted after the danger of frost is over. Bulbs can safely remain in the
fields in areas of mild winter (Armitage and Laushman 2003). Approximately 5
months are required for annual plantings to flower. Flower harvest can extend over
a 2-month time span. Yields per bulb increase with perennialized plantings. No
pinching, disbudding or staking is required.
Pests and diseases
Nematodes, thrips, and spider mites are reported to be problems (Armitage and
Laushman 2003). Although the tuberose is quite disease free, problems can occur.
Bulbs will rot during the winter if left in fields that are too wet and poorly drained
(Armitage and Laushman 2003). Botrytis can be a problem for the flowers if the
climate is cool (Steenstra and Brundell 1986). Erwinia, Fusarium, and Sclerotinium
have been reported. Root and crown rot (Pythium and Rhizoctonia), southern wilt
(Sclerotium rolfsii), and various leaf spots (Cercospera, Curvularia, and
Helminthosporium) also occur. No physiological disorder is reported.
The spikes are harvested when two to four flowers have opened. Unfortunately, the
lower flowers may senesce by the time that half of the flowers on the spike are open
(Armitage and Laushman 2003). For long-distance shipping, spikes should be
harvested when only two florets are open. For local domestic markets, more flowers
can be open on the spikes. Stems should be harvested in the cool morning or very
late in the evening. The former is better and stems should be placed immediately in
water.
Each floret lives for approximately 3 days. The average life of a spike is 10 - 14 days.
Single flowers last longer than double flowers (Vaughn 1988). A floral preservative
or a 1.5% sugar vase solution is recommended (Naidu and Reid 1989). Pulsing with
a 20% sugar solution for 12 - 24 hr prior to storage greatly increased vase life.
Ethylene reduce floret opening; however, STS had no effect on vase life. A 0 - 5°C
temperature is recommended for shipping and storage (Armitage and Laushman
2003).
10.4.9. Miscellaneous geophytes

10.4.9.1. Astroemeria
Botanical name: Alstroemeria L. hybrids
Common name: Peruvian lily
Family: Liliaceae
Origin: South America. Chile appears to be the center of distribution.
Propagation
Alstroemeria grows easily from seed. However, for cut flower production, it is
commonly propagated by rhizome division.
Planting
For cut flower production, plants can be planted in the spring (February to April),
summer (June to July), or fall (September). The date selected will depend on the
cultivar, future production cycle, and location. Some cultivars can be planted any
month of the year and will produce flowers year round as long as soil temperatures
do not become excessive.
Soil and climatic requirements
Alstroemeria prefers sandy loam soil. The most suitable range of soil pH is 5.5 to
7.0. Greenhouse temperatures are maintained at a night temperature of 10 - 13°C,
whereas day temperatures in winter are 16 to 18°C. During the summer, soil mulches
should be used to reduce soil temperature. Monitor soil temperatures and frequently
apply short intervals of mist to allow water evaporation off the mulch, which will
keep the medium cooler. Full light should be used for production. Shade plants only
in an effort to maintain 13 - 17°C medium temperature.
Flowering is controlled by the temperature of the rhizome, which is controlled by the
temperature of the medium surrounding it. Regardless of the air temperature, plants
will flower for extended periods if the medium temperature is held at 16°C. For cut
flower production, plants are spaced 12.5 - 60 cm apart on center, depending on the
cultivar and the expected amount of time that the plants are to remain in the
production beds.
Alstroemerias are responsive to nitrate nitrogen, which is responsible for dark-green
foliage. Weekly applications of nutrients when the medium becomes dry are
recommended. They are best grown slightly dry. Too much water will encourage root
rot, which is especially true when plants are first planted. In the dense lower foliage,
Botrytis can develop; avoid overhead watering if possible. Generally, pinching and
disbudding are not needed. However, shoot removal is required because a majority
of the stems that emerge are vegetative.
Pests and diseases
Alstroemeria have few serious insects, such as aphids, slugs (if the lower canopy is
not kept clean and open), thrips (a serious threat, not only to flower quality, but also
to plant health), whiteflies, and two-spotted mites. Alstroemerias are remarkably free
of disease. Routinely drenching the soil with fungicides control Pythium and
soilborne organisms. If canopies become too thick, thereby reducing air movement
and drying, Botrytis can become a problem.
Flower abortion can occur when light levels are too low. Leaf scorch from fluoride
contamination in super phosphate can develop.
Alstroemeria as cut flowers have two basic problems: (1) poor flower opening and
petal pigment development, and (2) leaf yellowing. Do not harvest stems too
prematurely. The use of sucrose and 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (8-HQC) has been
reported to increase vase life. Gibberellins, (GA4 or GA7) and cytokinins (BA) delay
the onset of leaf senescence.
10.4.9.2. Anemone
Botanical name: Anemone coronaria L.
Common name: Lily-of-the-field
Family: Ranunculaceae. There are approximately 120 perennial herbaceous anemone
species.
Origin: Anemone coronaria is native to the Mediterranean area.
Propagation
Most cultivars are propagated by seed from which tubers are produced for forcing.
Controlled parental lines are used to produce hybrid seed and tubers of A. coronaria.
Propagation by tuber division is not economically acceptable, because the
multiplication rate is low and disease incidence is high.
Planting
Never plant anemones too deep or cover the crown. Ground beds should be 60 to 80
cm deep and should be well prepared. When tubers were planted in beds with a 15-
cm spacing, production was higher than with 20-cm spacing. Production time
depends on climatic temperatures, photoperiod, and moisture.
Flower yield and quality are highest when night temperatures are 5 to 10°C and day
temperatures are 14 to 18°C. A temperature of 25°C suppresses growth and delays
flowering. In a greenhouse environment, use shade only if summer temperatures
must be reduced. Full light intensities are used during the winter.
Fertilizer low in ammonium and urea is recommended because this crop is grown
under low temperatures. Keep anemone plants uniformly moist, but do not
overwater. Keep the foliage and growing point (crown) dry. No pinching, disbudding
or staking required.
Pests and diseases
Aphids, whiteflies, and thrips are commonly attracted to anemones. Thrips are
difficult to control and infested flowers must be harvested and destroyed. Keep water
off the foliage and crown of the plant. Removing old leaves may enhance ventilation
and reduce Botrytis. When stems are harvested, cut the stem as close to the crown as
possible. Do not leave a stem stump to rot, which allows disease to enter into the
crown of the plant. It is suggested that knives be frequently sterilized. Other diseases
include downy mildew (Plasmopara), southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii), cottony
rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), rust (Puccinia or Tranzschelia), and leaf and stem
smut (Urocystis anemones) (Dole and Wilkins 2005). If high nutrient levels are used,
flower stems may crack. Foliar necrosis may result from iron deficiency due to high
medium pH.
Harvest when sepals have separated from the center but not yet fully opened. Flowers
last from 3 to 10 days. Postharvest holding solution should contain a carbohydrate (2
to 4% sucrose), STS, and an antimicrobial agent. Flowers are sensitive to ethylene.
Store cut flowers or plants at 1 to 2°C. Long-term storage can be in dry pack. Stems
should be sent to market in an upright position or a geotropic response will occur.
Tubers can be stored at 20 to 25°C until cooling treatments or planting commences.
10.4.9.3. Freesia
Botanical name: Freesia ×hybrida
Common name: Freesia
Family: Iridaceae. There are 19 species in the genus Freesia.
Origin: South Africa.
Propagation
Freesias annually form a new corm and numerous cormlets, which normally require
an additional year of growth to flower. Plants can be grown from seed with ease and
will flower in approximately 9 months. Tissue culture is also used to obtain disease-
free stock.
Planting
The medium must be free of fluoride and no superphosphate added. Beds, ridges or
benches should be at least 25 cm deep and contain pasteurized, well drained media
with a pH of 6.5 to 7.0.
High-quality freesias grow best at 13 to 16°C. Temperatures above 16°C should be
avoided after corms have been planted. Freesias may be a difficult species to grow if
proper temperatures are not maintained. Floral initiation normally occurs 6 to 9
weeks after planting. Floral initiation is enhanced by short days, even though freesia
is a day-neutral plant. Vegetative growth is favored by long days and high light
levels. Plant and flower quality are best when the light level is greater than 2500 fc
Application of 200 ppm N from a balanced N–P–K fertilizer every two weeks is
adequate. Ammonium-based nitrogen should be avoided because freesias are a
“cold” crop. No superphosphate must be used, because it may contain a natural
fluoride contaminant, which will cause leaf tip burn. The medium should be kept
moist, but not wet. Freesias have contractile roots and the corm is systematically
“pulled” deeper into the medium profile where moisture is more abundant.
Consequently, corms are easy to overwater and thus rot. The best irrigation system
for cut flower production is drip irrigation laid between the rows of planted corms.
Corms are spaced an average of 4 cm apart; 2.5 cm during bright weather and 5.0 cm
during dark periods. Corms are planted 5 cm deep as measured from the base of the
corm. No pinching or disbudding is required. After harvesting the first stem, two to
four lateral shoots may develop if temperatures remain cool. Lateral stems will be
shorter than the first stems harvested. Up to three layers of mesh are required for cut
flowers to produce straight stems. When corms are planted for cut flowers, a harvest
can be expected in 16 to 17 weeks at 10 to 13°C and can last 4 weeks.
Pests, diseases and disorders

Aphids and thrips are the most commonly observed insects on freesias. Botrytis can
infect flowers, stems, and leaves. Fusarium can infect the corms, so growers should
inspect them carefully. Any corms showing pinkish lesions should be discarded.
Fusarium is favoured during production by warm temperatures and excessively wet
medium.
Thumbing is a term used to describe a freesia inflorescence where the lowest two to
three flowers are unevenly spaced, separated from the main grouping of flowers
along the spike, and the spike is nearly straight. If light levels are very low or if
temperatures are extremely high during flower initiation, flower bud abortion can
occur. During production, plants are highly sensitive to ethylene. Exposures can
result in flower bud malformation, abortion, and premature senescence.
Cut flowers should be harvested when the first floret is puffy and beginning to open
and at least two other buds are well coloured. Cut stems can be stored at 0 to 2°C.
Cut flowers can be held dry for brief periods, but should be stored in water with
preservative for longer periods. Treating flowers with 0.5 mM STS or 740 ppb 1-
MCP can prevent the decline in vase life due to dry storage. Sucrose and other
components found in a floral preservative extend the vase life. Freesias are very
sensitive to ethylene. Fluoride in water can reduce cut flower life.
10.4.9.4. Hyacinth
Botanical name: Hyacinthus orientalis L.
Common name: Hyacinth.
Family: Liliaceae. There are only 1-3 species in the genus Hyacinth.
Origin: This tunicated bulbous perennial is native to Mediterranean climates and
found in Asia Minor, Greece, North Africa, and Syria.
Propagation
Seeds are used only for breeding programs because flowering requires 4 to 6 years.
Few bulblets are naturally formed. Bulblets can form from leaf scale tissue.
Commercially, the two primary processes used for bulblet formation are scoring and
scooping mother bulbs. Scoring involves removing the apical portion of the bulb
above the basal plate and making cross cuts through the basal plate. Scooping
involves digging out the base of the bulb with a specially curved knife.
Planting
Hyacinth is a herbaceous geophyte with six basally attached narrow leaves arising
from the bulb’s basal plate. The flowers are numerous and create a formal, cylindrical
raceme inflorescence. The individual flowers are bell shaped, six lobed, reflexed, and
intensely fragrant. Colours range from pure white to yellow, peach, pink, red, and
various shades of blue. Double forms are available. Any medium that is well drained
and pasteurized and has a pH between 6.0 and 7.0 can be used.
Hyacinth is best grown in greenhouses. Low temperatures of 10-13˚C favor good
quality flower production, which should be gradually increased to 23˚C from rooting
room to the greenhouse. Full light is preferred for flower development.
No nutrients are needed, but 250 ppm N from calcium nitrate can be used. Keep
medium moist but not wet. Excess available water or rapid water absorption by the
roots has been determined to be involved with spitting. Keep water off the foliage.
Space bulbs at 10-15 cm apart. No pinching, disbudding or staking is required.
Among insects, aphids and thrips may become a problem. Bacterial bulb rot,
Xanthomonas hyacinthi and Erwinia carotovora, can be observed internally and on
the bulb surface. Penicillium, blue mold, can be a serious problem during cold
storage. The fungus covers the bulbs and can penetrate and rot the tissue. Rooting
rooms must be well vented and bulbs inspected during cooling on a regular basis.
Botrytis can cause circular blemishes on the florets or foliage if humidity is too high.
The papery outer remains of the tunicated scales may result in skin irritation for some
people. Moisten bulbs during planting and use gloves and masks to reduce potential
skin irritation. Splitting of the inflorescence is cultivar related and occurs when the
flower scape base ruptures at the union with the basal plate. Freezing bulbs may be
a cause; rapid water uptake or temperature changes associated with excess moisture
may also contribute to the problem. Reduce spitting by allowing media to be on the
dry side when moving bulbs to the greenhouse after cooling, slowly increasing the
temperature for forcing, and by avoiding susceptible cultivars. Toppling of
inflorescence stems should be prevented by using Florel (ethephon) sprays. Abortion
of the uppermost florets is known as straw-nails due to the colour of the aborted
florets. The problem is thought to be due to shipping the bulbs too early at incorrect
temperatures or using poorly ventilated storage (Dole and Wilkins 2005).
Cut hyacinth flowers should be marketed when they show colour and the basal plate
should be attached for maximum water uptake. Customers should be advised to keep
the basal plate attached and not recut the stems. Flowers can be stored at 0 to 2°C
and the vase life should be 6 to 8 days (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990).
10.4.9.5. Iris
Botanical name: Iris. × hollandica hort. (Dutch iris)
Common name: Iris
Family: Iridaceae
Origin: Mediterranean and European countries.
Propagation
Rhizomatous irises are propagated by division or in vitro propagation is possible. In
vitro propagation of Dutch iris is possible and pathogen-free stock is available from
specialty growers. This elite disease-free bulbous stock is increased by “chipping,” a
procedure similar to that used with narcissus. Commercial quantities of bulbs are
dependent on natural propagation from bulb offsets.
Planting
A well-drained loose medium is required for ground beds or forcing flats. The pH
should be near 7.0. Bulbs are planted 10 cm deep. Dutch iris bulbs should be given
greater planting space in late autumn, winter, and early spring than in the late spring
or early summer. Lack of light is a primary reason for flower abortion during winter.
Field-grown irises are spaced in a row at 15 cm between bulbs. Lower planting
densities may be required for low-light climates.
Bulbs of the Dutch iris perform best when greenhouse forced at 13 to 16°C. Plants
scarcely grow at 6°C. Temperatures above 21°C should be avoided to prevent bud
abortion, particularly during the winter. Forcing duration is 6 to 9 weeks, depending
on the temperature and cultivar. When non precooled Dutch iris bulbs are grown
outdoors in the cool areas, 4 to 9 months may be required to produce flowers after
the bulbs are planted. Bulbs of Dutch iris are used only once and not allowed to
perennialize. Some field cut growers in warm climates treat Dutch iris as a perennial
and grow individual plantings for two or more years (Dole and Wilkins 2005).
During winter, Dutch iris flower buds abort under periods of low light levels of short
duration. Clean glass, adequate plant spacing, large bulb sizes, and supplemental
lighting can prevent this physiological problem. Irises require high light during
winter forcing. Shade would only be used to control temperature during bright sunny
days.
Bulbous Dutch iris can be fertilized weekly with 250 ppm of calcium nitrate once
growth has commenced. Field-grown Dutch iris needs a balanced 10–20–10
fertilizer. Use of 1 kg/33 m row is optimum. Most irises do not tolerate poor drainage.
After planting Dutch iris bulbs, water medium thoroughly. Thereafter, keep the
medium moist, but do not overwater. No pinching, disbudding or staking required.
Aphids and thrips may be seen during forcing, but are usually not serious. Bulbs can
be heat treated to eliminate some insects. Bulbs can be infected with Fusarium.
Growers are dependent on obtaining clean stock from suppliers. During bulb cold
storage, Penicillium can be a concern. Rhizoctonia is rarely seen in forcing stock.
Disease is not a serious problem provided humidity is controlled, proper
temperatures are maintained, and air is circulated during storage, forcing, and
marketing.
Numerous disorders encountered are (1) blindness (no flower buds formed), (2)
abortion (flower buds form, but cease to develop), (3) formation and development of
abnormal flowers, (4) flowering stems that are too short, and (5) leaves and flower
sheaths that are too long. It is not surprising that physiological disorders occur
considering all the steps involved in bulb curing, heat treating, retardation, cooling,
shipping, and forcing.
Dutch iris flowers should be harvested before the falls reflex and the standards
expand. Open flowers are easily damaged and tight, coloured buds open quickly in
postharvest solutions. For most cultivars, flowers are best harvested in the summer
in the “pencil stage” of development or when the flower tip is 0.5 cm above the green
clasping sheath. Unfortunately, Dutch iris last only 2 to 5 days, depending on room
temperature. Using a floral preservative is essential to increase postharvest life.
Flowers can be stored up to 5 days at 0°C. Slightly warmer storage temperatures, 2
to 5°C can also be used. Dry storage, long duration dry shipping, and wilting should
be avoided. Always recut the stems when hydrating. Deionized water (pH 3.5) is
preferred. Gibberellic acid pulses induced flower opening of stems that had been
harvested with tepal tips just visible and dry stored for 2 days at 20°C.
10.4.9.6. Narcissus
Botanical name: Narcissus species
Common name: Narcissus pseudonarcissus L., trumpet narcissus, is also called
daffodil, Easter flower, and Lent daffodil. N. tazetta L., paperwhites, is also called
Lent lily or polyanthus narcissus.
Family: Amaryllidaceae. The genus Narcissus is taxonomically complex with 50
species and three subgenera: Ajax, Corbularia, and Narcissus.
Origin: The genus is primarily found in the Mediterranean area and the center of
origin is Spain and Portugal.
Propagation
Narcissus can be propagated by seed, natural bulb division, scales (twin scale or
chipping), or in vitro.
Planting
Field soil is still used occasionally in media along with bark, peat, perlite, sand,
vermiculite, or other available components. Regardless of the formula, the medium
must be well drained, pasteurized, and have a low EC and a pH of 6.0 to 7.0.
High temperatures control floral initiation and development for all species that
require cold for further floral development and differentiation (N. pseudonarcissus)
and for the noncold requiring species (N. tazetta) for flower scape and leaf
elongation. Cold temperature treatments required for flowering vary between
cultivars. Paperwhite bulbs are best held at ambient temperatures of 24 to 30°C.
Weekly inspections should be made to determine if root initials are developing or

shoots (leaves) are emerging. If roots or shoots are developing, hold the bulbs at 2°C.
Full light is required for maximum bulb production and field production of cut
flowers (Dole and Wilkins 2005).
No fertilizer is used during the rooting or forcing. Keep planted bulbs moist, not
overwatered, for good root formation. Similarly, for bulb production, constant
moisture is required. No pinching, disbudding or staking is required.
Numerous insects and nematodes are serious problems in bulb production. Bulbs
may be heat treated to eliminate some insects. When bulbs arrive, they should be
inspected for Fusarium basal rot. Infected bulbs should be discarded, because they
will not produce salable flowers, and will affect adjacent bulbs through ethylene
production. Numerous other types of neck and bulb rot can occur, usually outdoors.
If trumpet narcissus are forced at temperatures of 18°C or higher, bull nosing can
occur, a symptom in which the flower fails to expand and open in a proper manner
(De Hertogh 1996). Flower distortion is attributed to boron deficiency.
Cut narcissi are best harvested when they are in the gooseneck stage. Stems can be
stored dry or hardened for 2 hr in water. Do not place narcissus in the same water as
other cut flowers, because narcissus cut stems exude sap, which is not conducive for
water uptake by other species. All Narcissus species can be stored or shipped at 0 to
2°C. Harvest paperwhite narcissus cut flowers when the first flowers are showing
colour (De Hertogh 1996).
Use a commercial preservative or 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (8-HQC) at 200 ppm
and sucrose at 2% for cut flowers. Germicides other than 8-HQC may also be
effective. Cut stems can be held up to 2 weeks at 1 to 2°C in 90% humidity. Stems
are rehydrated in warm water (Sacalis 1993). STS at 0.1 mM increased the vase life
of paperwhite narcissus.
10.4.9.7. Ranunculus
Botanical name: Ranunculus asiaticus L.
Common name: Ranunculus
Family: Ranunculaceae. 250-400 species.
Origin: Generally, found in the eastern Mediterranean area: southern Europe, Asia
Minor, Syria and Iran.
Propagation
Although tubers can be divided in the fall, ranunculus are more easily and commonly
propagated from seed. In the first year, flower yield is limited and flowering is late
when grown from seed. Tubers are easily transportable and vernalized for rapid
flowering. In vitro propagation is possible and the resulting liners are mainly used
for cut flower production.
Planting
Ranunculus are typically sold in late winter through spring as cut flowers. For cut
flower production, plant 45 to 65 tubers/m2. Ranunculus require a well-drained
medium. Ranunculus are tolerant to a wide pH range from 5.8 to 7.5; however, a low
soluble salt level is required.
Temperatures of 12 to 16°C result in rapid growth and high leaf numbers. Increasing
temperature from 8 to 20°C decreased time to flower but also decreased flower
number and quality and increased height. Temperatures above 16°C are detrimental.
Above 27°C, lower foliage will turn yellow. Short-day conditions and cool nights are
optimal for high-quality flower production and high yields. Long days accelerate
floral development and increase plant height but reduce flower quality (Dole and
Wilkins 2005).
Stored food in the tuberous roots is considered sufficient with a starter solution at
planting; while after establishment, a nitrogen level of approximately 100 ppm can
be used. Ranunculus requires well-drained media. Overwatering or anaerobic
medium conditions increase disease incidence. No pinching, disbudding or staking
is required.
Leaf miners, caterpillars, and thrips are major problems. Leaf miners are probably
the most serious and thrips can vector the tomato spotted wilt virus. Pseudomonas
(bacterial leaf spot), Rhizoctonia, and several viruses are of primary concern in
tuberous root production. Tubers are frequently soaked in a fungicide solution prior
to planting and presprouting treatments. Tomato spotted wilt virus is a serious threat
and is spread by thrips.
Freshly harvested tuberous roots may be slow and erratic in emergence. The lack of
uniformity of plants from F1 seed lines prevents rapid and efficient clearing of the
production area and accurate scheduling. Overcooling of tuberous roots results in
early flowering.
Harvest cut flowers when buds show colour and are almost fully open. Flowers close
at night and harvesting, grading, and packing are best done early in the morning when
flowers are still closed. Flowers are stored and shipped at 1 to 2°C. If stored for long
periods, the temperature should be 0 to 1°C and good-quality water should be used.
At 10°C, deterioration is rapid (Nowak and Rudnicki 1990).
10.4.10. Specialty cut flowers

Specialty cut flowers refer to all species other than roses, carnations, and
chrysanthemums. These include a variety of plant materials, both fresh and dried or
preserved. Buds, flowers, stems, colourful branches, seed pods or any plant part used
for floral and decorative purposes, are considered specialty cut flowers. As specialty
cut flowers become more important to the floral industry, growers are finding these
flowers making easier to compete with imported products. Flowers that don't ship
well or can't handle long intervals in a box can be picked by a grower in the morning
and be in a customer’s house that afternoon. Specialty cuts can be grown as annuals
or perennials, from seeds, plugs, or bulbs. They also include woody plants from
which flowers, stems, fruits, or foliage are harvested. They can be grown in the field,
in unheated hoop houses, and in heated greenhouses (Fig. 10.25). Selection of ideal
specialty cut species, either fresh or dried, should have the following characteristics:
1) high value and unlimited demand
2) low cost of production
3) high production per square meter space
4) extended production and marketing season
5) longer productive life
6) longer (>30 cm) stems
7) acceptable (at least 7 days) postharvest vase life
8) resistance to pests and diseases
9) resistance to drought and heat stress
10) ability to sell fresh as well as dried or preserved floral product
11) easy harvest and handling
12) aesthetically pleasing and fragrant flowers, foliage, or stems
Many annual or perennial herbaceous or woody species can be successfully grown
as specialty cut flowers. Among annuals, floss flower (Ageratum houstonianum),
snowflake (Ammi majus), snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), China aster
(Callistephus chinensis), cockscomb (Celosia cristata), feather or plume Celosia,
cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), godetia (Clarkia amoena), larkspur (Consolida
regalis), sweet william (Dianthus barbatus), lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum),
annual baby’s breath (Gypsophila elegans), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), annual
statice (Limonium sinuatum), bells of Ireland (Molucella laevis), pincushion flower
(Scabiosa atropurpurea), marigold (Tagetes erecta), and zinnia (Zinnia elegans).
Among perennials, yarrow (Achillea filipendulina), butterfly flower (Asclepias
incarnata and Asclepias tuberosa), aster (Aster ericoides), astilbe (Astilbe), shasta
daisy (Chrysanthemum x superbum), perennial baby’s breath (Gypsophila
paniculata), gayfeather (Liatris), peony (Paeonia), balloon flower (Platycodon
grandiflorum), blue salvia (Salvia farinacea), pincushion flower (Scabiosa
caucasica), and goldenrod (Solidago). Among bulbs, flowering onion (Allium),
gladioli (Gladiolus), and lily (Lilium) are potential profitable crops for growers and
marketers. Additionally, some flowering woody stems such as Forsythia, Salix, and
Chaenomeles can be cut when dormant, held cool and forced into bloom as fresh
flowers for late winter and early spring production.
(A)
Fig. 10.25
Greenhouse
production of
specialty cut
flowers.
(B)
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Chapter 10

Commercial Flower Production

Iftikhar Ahmad and John Martin Dole♦

John Martin Dole

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

pick-your-own operations. Other possible markets include restaurants, corporations,

10.2. Innovations in Commercial Flower Production

10.2.1. Market Selection

10.2.2. Crop Selection

10.2.3. New Cut Flower Species and Cultivars

10.2.4. Production Systems

10.2.5. Open Field Production

Fig. 10.1 Field-

10.2.6. High Tunnel Cut Flower Production

10.2.7. Greenhouse Production

Fig. 10.3 Greenhouse production of cut lilium for export.

10.2.8. Organic Cut Flower Production

10.2.9. Flower Forcing

10.2.10. Harvest and Postharvest Management

10.2.11. Economic Considerations

10.3. Establishment of a Cut Flower Business

10.3.1. Site Selection

10.3.3. Production Systems

Fig. 10.4 Bed

10.3.4. Greenhouse Production

roses, carnations, chrysanthemums, gerberas, and several geophytes such as lilium,

10.3.6. Soilless Substrates

10.3.7. Soil Preparation

10.3.8. Field Establishment

10.3.9. Plant Densities

10.3.10. Fertilization and Irrigation

10.3.11. Weed Control

10.3.12. Integrated Pest and Disease Management

10.3.13. Harvest and Handling

10.4. Production Technology

Fig. 10.7 Arching/Shoot bending in roses.

Insects, pests and diseases

Fig. 10.8 Botrytis attack on cut rose

Fig. 10.10 Standard and Spray carnation.

Insect-pests and diseases

Fig. 10.11 Calyx splitting

Harvest and handling

Fig. 10.12 Sleepiness of carnation due to ethylene exposure.

Fig. 10.13 Terminal cuttings of chrysanthemum.

giving a more open appearance. Many of the popular commercial incurving

Insect pests and diseases

Fig. 10.14 Packaging of cut chrysanthemum stems for transportation.

Fig. 10.15 Gerbera production in greenhouse.

A low temperature of 13°C, whether in the greenhouse or field, favors vegetative

abnormality characterized by numerous leaves, short petioles and small laminae,

Flowering physiology and dormancy

Mounding up and staking

Fig. 10.18 Upright (vertical)

Fig. 10.19 Pre-

Fig. 10.20 Forcing of pre-cooled lily bulbs in crates in greenhouse.

Insect pests and diseases

Fig. 10.21 Cut lilies ready to harvest for export/shipping.