Paper No.

10473

Monitoring The growth of Marine Bio-films of Different Metallic Alloys in Seawater by

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Khaled Al-Muhanna1, Khaled Habib1*, and G. Louis Hornyak2

1
Materials Science and Photo-Electronic Lab., RE Program, EBR Center
KISR, P.O.Box 24885 SAFAT, 13109 Kuwait
2
Center of Excellence in Nanotechnology, Asian Institute of Technology
P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120 Thailand
*(Author e-mail address: [email protected])

ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this study was to monitor the growth of the marine bio-film, of micro/macro-
organisms, on the surface of different metallic alloys in seawater by electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS). The alloys used in this study were; UNS 1020 carbon steel, stainless steel 304,
stainless steel 316L, Sanicro 28, Cu–Ni 70–30, Hastelloy G-30, and titanium. The EIS was used to measure
the A.C. Impedance (Z) and the double layer capacitance (Cdl) of the formed bio-film in seawater on a
frequent basis. The total exposure time of the tests was ranged between 90 days to 180 days. The visual
inspection of the tested samples showed a bio-film formation on the surface of these samples. The
microbiologically induced corrosion(MIC) was observed only on the carbon steel. Monitoring the growth
of the bio-film formation was accomplished by the EIS during the 90-180 days exposure of the tested
samples. A gradual monitoring of the growth of the bio-film formation was achieved by mathematically
correlating the obtained the A.C. Impedance (Z) and the double layer capacitance (Cdl) of the bio-film to
the thickness of the bio-film formation. The advantage of EIS is a non-invasive technique with a sensing
(spatial) resolution in a nanometer scale in a comparison to other techniques of monitoring the growth of
bio-films on metallic alloys in aqueous solutions.
Key Words: Marine bio-film; Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; Seawater , A.C. Impedance (Z),
Double layer capacitance (Cdl).

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
1
 INTRODUCTION
It has been widely known that marine bio-fouling of metal surfaces in contact with seawater is the main
cause of several technical problems and economic loss in industry. Marine bio-fouling is defined as the
community of organisms found growing on permanently submerged surfaces of objects in seawater. It has
been reported that a total of 84 species of fouling organisms belonging to 69 genera, 49 families, and 10
phyla were recorded over the entire year dependent on the temperature of the seawater 1. The growth of
this community usually interferes with the efficient use of the surfaces. For example, the organism is
known to reduce the flowing of the fluids through the pipelines, to reduce the heat transfer in the heat
exchanger systems, to reduce the ship’s speed and encrusting of the support legs of oil rigs2-3. Marine
micro fouling is defined as the growth of micro-organisms at metal–solution interfaces. Also, marine
micro fouling can be even up to a few micrometers thick. It is known that marine micro fouling reduces
heat transfer coefficient in heat exchange systems by as much as 40% besides causing what is known as
microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC) 4-5. Different types of bacteria cause corrosion by various
mechanisms ranging from formation of differential aeration cells to production of aggressive
environments through chemical changes6. It is expected that the seasonal changes in the Gulf seawater
will have an effect on the MIC, due to the growth of the marine biofouling film at metal–solution
interfaces. In other words, the growth of the marine biofouling film at metal–solution interfaces would
control the corrosivity of the submerged metals in seawater.
Therefore, in this study, roles of seasonal changes on the growth of the marine biofouling film at metal–
solution interfaces will be investigated on different alloys such as UNS 1020 carbon steel, stainless steel
304, stainless steel 316L, Sanicro 28, Cu–Ni 70–30, Hastelloy G-30, and titanium. Measurements of the
marine biofouling film of the seven alloys will be carried out by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
(EIS) for a period of 6 months under a continuous flowing seawater condition.

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
In literature, the relationship between the A.C. Impedance (Z) and the double layer capacitance (Cdl) of a
developed film on a metal sample to the thickness of the formed film is given as the
Following7-8
|Z |= 1/ Cdl = L/(e eo A) (1)
Where:
Z is the A.C. impedance of the formed film, Ohm.cm2.
Cdl is the Double layer capacitance of the formed bio-film, F.
eo is the permittivity of the free space, 8.85 X 10 -14 Farad/cm.
A is the area of the sample that exposed to the seawater, 1cm2.
L is the thickness of the formed biofilm, nm, which can be obtained here by EIS, via equ.(1).
e is the static dielectric constant of the material under the investigation, of the biofilm.
©2018 by NACE International.
Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
2
 In this investigation, the dielectric constant of the bio-film has been extended to account for the volume
fraction of the seawater in the film, as biological membrane9-10. So;
e= (e bf + vsw esw), where
ebf is the dielectric constant of the formed biofilm; ebf =5, when the pore fraction is equal to 0, an adhered
thin layer9-10.
esw is the dielectric constant of the seawater, esw =70.2 at 18 oC11 and esw =67.4, at 33oC11 .
vsw is the volume fraction of the seawater in the film. The value of vsw =50% and 75% will be considered
in the film as the film grows outward of the surface of the alloys. The value of esw =70.2 at 18oC11 will
be considered at an exposure time of 0,1,5,10,20,30,60.90 days, from the November to February season.
Furthermore, the value of esw =67.4 at 33oC11 will be considered at an exposure time of 130,150,180 days,
from the March to May season.
Equation (1) describes the relationship between the A.C. impedance and the double layer capacitance of
the thickness of the biofilm. In other words, one can measure the thickness of the biofilm by knowing the
A.C. impedance as well as the double layer capacitance of the biofilm from EIS measurements.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Metallic samples of UNS 1020 carbon steel (0.18-.23% C, 0.3-0.6% Mn, and balanced of Fe), stainless
steel 304, UNS S304, (18-20% Cr, 8-12% Ni, 2% Mn,1% Si, 0.08% C, and balance of Fe) stainless steel
316L, UNS S31603, (16-18% Cr, 10-14% Ni, 2-3% Mo, 2% Mn,1% Si,0.03% C, and balance of Fe),
Sanicro 28, UNS S 62800, (27% Cr, 31% Ni,3.5 % Mo, 0.002% C, and balance of Fe), Cu–Ni 70–30 (69%
Cu, 30% Ni, 0.5% Fe, and 0.6% Mn), Hastelloy G-30 (44% Ni,22% Cr, 7% Mo, 20% Fe, 2% Cu, and
0.015% C) and commercial pure titanium, UNS R50250, (0.2% Fe, 0.18% O, and balance of Ti) were
used in this investigation. Those seven alloys have been selected in this study because of their common
applications in seawater12. All samples were mounted on a Teflonsample holder. The sample holder was
especially designed to seal the samples from the surroundings, except the exposed area of 1 cm2. The
exposed surface of each material was first cleaned with 5% HCl, and then mechanically polished with
silicon carbide paper up to the finest grade, 1200 grit finish. The electrochemical test cell was designed to
support the continuous flow of fresh seawater of the Gulf seawater and to facilitate the EIS measurements.
The dimensions of the cell were 100 cm in length x 60 cm in height x 40 cm in width. The seawater was
pumped from a depth of several meters, of Doha Desalination plant, in Kuwait, to storage tanks. Then the
seawater was filtered prior to the electrochemical tests. This process was carried out on a frequent basis
during the 180 days of exposure to seawater. More details on the experimental set up is given elsewhere13.
Also, the cell is equipped with a reference electrode which was a saturated calomel electrode (SCE), 241
mV versus SHE, and a counter electrode which was a graphite rod. Electrochemical impedance
measurements14-16 were performed using an EG&G impedance analyzer system model 6310, and the
software used for analyzing the outputs was EG&G, 398 model(2). The frequency range used was between


Trade name.
(2)
Trade names.
©2018 by NACE International.
Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
3
 100 kHz to 10 mHz, and the voltage amplitude was ±5 mV root mean square (rms). Each EIS test was
obtained after monitoring the open-circuit potential for 1 h. The output data of EIS were the Nyquist and
Bode plots. From these plots, the A.C. Impedance (Z) and the double layer capacitance Cdl were obtained.
A simple Randles circuit was used for interpreting the EIS data. The Randles semi circle was used for data
fitting of the experimental results. The acquired electrochemical data (Z & Cdl) were obtained from 11
tests in 180 days of exposure to seawater (0,1,5,10,20, 30,60,90,120,150,and 180 days) for each alloy.
The temperature of the seawater during the tests was varied from 18 0C in winter days to 33 0C in the
summer days. Also, the resistance of the seawater has an average value of 8 Ohms cm2.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The obtained data of the Cdl and the calculated of L of the bio-film, from equ.(1), for the UNS 1020 carbon
steel, stainless steel 304, stainless steel 316L, Sanicro 28, Cu–Ni 70–30, Hastelloy G-30, and titanium are
given in Table 1-3. The value of L was calculated as a function of the volume fraction of seawater in the
biofilm, vsw =0,50,75%, and the dielectric constant of the seawater at different temperature, esw =70.2 at
18oC (November to February) & esw =67.4 at 33oC (March to May). Table 1, 2, and 3 contain the
calculated L of the bio-film of all alloys in seawater, when vsw =0% , vsw =50%, vsw =75%, respectively.
Table 1—The EIS data of Cdl & calculated L of the bio-film of all alloys in seawater, vsw =0%.
Materials Carbon Stainless Stainless Sanicro Cu-Ni 7-- Hastelloy Titanium
Steel Steel 304 Steel 28 30 G-30
316L
Exposure Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L
Time (days) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F)) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm)
0 0.25 18 1.78 2.5 1.1 4 0.74 5.6 1.14 0.4 0.58 0.75 0.65 7.1
1 4.4 1 1.23 3.6 1.14 3.9 0.58 7.63 2.7 0.15 0.67 6.5 0.268 16.5
5 8.5 0.5 1.26 3.5 1.1 4 0.91 0.5 8.85 0.1 0.722 6.1 0.28 15.8
10 0.158 30 - - - - - - - - - - - --
20 0.214 21 1.38 3.2 1.13 3.9 - - 0.48 9.2 0.77 5.75 1.1 4
30 0.195 23 1.33 3.3 9.6 0.46 0.7 0.65 0.68 6.5 0.654 7.1 0.31 14.3
60 0.216 20 3.97 1.1 3.78 1.2 0.36 1.25 0.69 6.4 0.632 7 - -
90 0.25 18 0.62 7.1 - - 0.6 0.75 0.42 10.5 1.06 4.2 0.296 15
120 - - 1.3 3.4 9.6 0.46 0.59 0.75 0.56 7.9 0.64 6.9 0.256 17.3
150 - - 0.89 5 6.26 0.71 0.58 0.75 0.54 8.2 0.54 8.2 0.325 13.6
180 - - 1.55 1 9 0.49 0.688 0.65 0.56 7.9 1.07 4 - -

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
4
 Table 2—The EIS data of Cdl & calculated L of the bio-film of all alloys in seawater, vsw =50% and
esw =70.2 at 18oC (0,1,5,10,20,30,60,90 days) & esw =67.4 at 33oC (120,150,180 days).
Materials Carbon Stainless Stainless Sanicro Cu-Ni 7-- Hastelloy Titanium
Steel Steel 304 Steel 28 30 G-30
316L
Exposure Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L
Time (days) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F)) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm)
0 0.25 142 1.78 19.9 1.1 32.3 0.74 48 1.14 31.1 0.58 61.2 0.65 54.6
1 4.4 8 1.23 28.9 1.14 31.1 0.58 61.2 2.7 13.1 0.67 53 0.268 132.5
5 8.5 4.1 1.26 28.2 1.1 32.3 0.91 39 8.85 4 0.722 49.1 0.28 126.8
10 0.158 224.7 - - - - - - - - - - - --
20 0.214 165.9 1.38 25.7 1.13 31.4 - - 0.48 73.4 0.77 46.1 1.1 32.3
30 0.195 182 1.33 26.7 9.6 3.7 0.7 50.7 0.68 52.2 0.654 54.3 0.31 114.5
60 0.216 164.3 3.97 8.9 3.78 9.4 0.36 98.6 0.69 51.4 0.632 56.2 - -
90 0.25 142 0.62 57.3 - - 0.6 59.1 0.42 84.5 1.06 33.5 0.296 120
120 - - 1.3 25.7 9.6 3.5 0.59 56.5 0.56 59.7 0.64 52.1 0.256 130
150 - - 0.89 37.5 6.26 5.3 0.58 61.2 0.54 61.8 0.54 61.8 0.325 102.6
180 - - 1.55 21.5 9 3.7 0.688 48.5 0.56 59.7 1.07 31.2 - -

Table 3—The EIS data of Cdl & calculated L of the bio-film of all alloys in seawater, vsw =75% and
esw =70.2 at 18oC (0,1,5,10,20,30,60,90 days) & esw =67.4 at 33oC (120,150,180 days).
Materials Carbon Stainless Stainless Sanicro 28 Cu-Ni 7-- Hastelloy Titanium
Steel Steel 304 Steel 30 G-30
316L
Exposure Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L Cdl L
Time (days) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm) (F)) (nm) (F) (nm) (F) (nm)
0 0.25 204.1 1.78 28.7 1.1 46.4 0.74 68.9 1.14 44.7 0.58 88 0.65 78.5
1 4.4 11.6 1.23 41.5 1.14 44.7 0.58 88 2.7 18.9 0.67 76.1 0.268 190.4
5 8.5 6 1.26 40.5 1.1 46.4 0.91 56.1 8.85 5.8 0.722 70.7 0.28 182.2
10 0.158 323 - - - - - - - - - - - --
20 0.214 238.4 1.38 37 1.13 45.1 - - 0.48 106.9 0.77 66.2 1.1 46.4
30 0.195 261.6 1.33 38.4 9.6 5.3 0.7 72.9 0.68 75 0.654 78 0.31 164.6
60 0.216 236.3 3.97 12.8 3.78 13.5 0.36 141.7 0.69 73.9 0.632 80.7 - -
90 0.25 204.1 0.62 82.3 - - 0.6 85 0.42 121.4 1.06 48.1 0.296 172.4
120 - - 1.3 37.8 9.6 5.1 0.59 83.3 0.56 87.8 0.64 76.8 0.256 192
150 - - 0.89 43.7 6.26 7.9 0.58 84.8 0.54 90.8 0.54 91 0.325 1
180 - - 1.55 31.7 9 5.5 0.688 71.4 0.56 87.8 1.07 45.9 - -

Figures 1-7 illustrate the growth of the bio-film (L) as a function of exposure time for the UNS 1020
carbon steel, stainless steel 304, stainless steel 316L, Sanicro 28, Cu–Ni 70–30, Hastelloy G-30, and
titanium, respectively. In general, biofilms were visually observed on the seven alloys during the 0-180
days exposure. The L of the biofilm was visually estimated in a range of 20-50m13. On the contrary,
the L value of the biofilms, which corresponds to the obtained values of Cdl, was calculated in the range
of nanometer to fraction of micrometer, see Tables 1-3. In other words, the predicted L was much smaller
than the visually estimated one. Also, it is obvious from the Figs. 1-7 that as the volume fraction of the
seawater (vsw) was observed to increase in the bio-film, as a biological membrane, the L value of the
biofilm increased as well, in the outward direction from the surface of alloys. This implies that the closer
the bio-film layer to the surface of the alloys, the more adhered the bio-film to the surface in a comparison

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
5
 to the outer layers of the biofilm. Consequently, the obtained Cdl corresponds to the adhered biofilm
layer, blue line in Figs.1-7, rather than the loosely biofilm layers, orange & gray lines in Figs.1-7.
In addition, it seems that the growth of the adhered biofilms has maintained a constant stable thickness
during the 180 days of exposure of the alloys to seawater, Figs.1-7. In fact, there is no particular feature
that one can tell on the effect of the seasonal temperature on the growth of the adhered bio-film, blue line
in Figs.1-7. In contrast, the growth of the loosely layer of the biofilms, orange & gray lines in Figs.1-7,
had different feature than the adhered layer of the bio-film. For instance, in the case of the carbon steel
sample, Fig.1, the layer has initially increased up to a range of 224.7nm-323 nm in the first 10 days of
exposure. Then, the layer attained a steady thickness range between 150-250nm in the rest of the 90 days
exposure time of the sample to seawater. Likewise, in the case of the stainless steel 316L (Fig.3) and the
Sanicro 28 (Fig.4) similar behavior to the growth of the biofilm of the carbon steel was recorded. The
test of the carbon steel samples was terminated after 90 days of exposure to the seawater due to the
susceptibility of the samples to microbiological induced corrosion(MIC)13. On the contrary, the stainless
steel 316L and the Sanicro 28 were observed free of any corrosion during the 180 days of exposure to the
seawater. In contrast, the bio-films on the surface of stainless steel 304(Fig.2), Cu-Ni 70-30 (Fig.5),
Hastelloy G-30(Fig.6) and the titanium (Fig.7) were observed to grow in a random fashion, independent
of the seasonal temperature. Furthermore, the stainless steel 304, Cu-Ni 70-30, Hastelloy G-30, and the
titanium were found free of any corrosion during the 180 days of exposure to the seawater.
It is worth noting that there are other real-time techniques for monitoring MIC due to the growth of the
bio-film on metallic alloys in seawater. For instance, the BioGeorge probe17,(3)and ALVIM18-19,(4) are
electrochemical sensors of bio-film formation on metallic alloys in aqueous solutions. Both sensors work
based on a signal acquisition of an applied current or a potential to two different electrodes in aqueous
solutions, in which one of the electrode is susceptible to form a bio-film under the steady applied current
or the steady potential. Consequently, a potential signal or a current signal would be detected under the
Galvanostatic (constant current) or potentialstatic (constant potential), respectively, as the biofilm forms
on the metallic sample. In other words, the acquisition of the electrochemical signal by both sensors
corresponds to the depolarization of the polarized sample due to the gradual formation of the bio-film.
Furthermore, both sensors are capable to detect bio-film in a micrometer scale. On the contrary, the
disadvantages of both sensors are not only invasive methods to the electrochemical system but also have
a lower sensing(spatial) resolution, in a comparison to the EIS.

(3)
Trade name.
(4)
Trade name.
©2018 by NACE International.
Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
6
 350

300

250

L,nm 200

150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
-50
Exposure Time, days

Figure 1: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the carbon steel to seawater.
The lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film. The
average temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 90 days, November-February.

90
80
70
60
L,nm

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
Exposure Time, days

Figure 2: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the stainless steel 304 to seawater.
The lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film. The average
temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 1st 90 days, November-February and was 33 oC during
the 2nd 90 days March-May.

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
7
 60

50

40
L,nm
30

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200
Exposure Time, days

Figure 3: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the stainless steel 316L in
seawater. The lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film.
The average temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 1st 90 days, November-February and was
33 oC during the 2nd 90 days March-May.

160

140

120

100

80
L,nm

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200
-20
Exposure Time, days

Figure 4: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the Sanicro 28 in seawater. The
lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film. The average
temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 1st 90 days, November-February and was 33 oC during
the 2nd 90 days March-May.

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
8
 140

120

100

L,nm 80

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200
-20
Exposure Time, days

Figure 5: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the Cu-Ni 70-30 in seawater. The
lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film. The average
temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 1st 90 days, November-February and was 33 oC during
the 2nd 90 days March-May.

100
90
80
70
60
L,nm

50
40
30
20
10
0 Exposure Time, days
0 50 100 150 200

Figure 6: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the Hastelloy G-30 in seawater.
The lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film. The average
temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 1st 90 days, November-February and was 33 oC during
the 2nd 90 days March-May.

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
9
 250

200

L,nm 150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Exposure Time, days

Figure 7: The growth of the bio-film as a function of exposure time of the Titanium in seawater.The
lines represent vsw =0% (blue), vsw =50% (orange), and vsw =75%(gray) in the bio-film. The average
temperature of the seawater was 18oC during the 1st 90 days, November-February and was 33 oC during
the 2nd 90 days March-May.

CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions have been drawn from the present investigation:
1-The EIS has been successfully applied to real-time monitoring the growth (L) of the biofilm of several
metallic alloys in sweater, leading to the MIC in solely the carbon steel samples during 90 days of
exposure.
2-EIS was found a non-invasive technique of monitoring the MIC due to the growth of the bio-film of
metallic alloys in seawater in a comparison to other techniques.
3-The sensing (spatial) resolution of EIS was found in a nanometer scale as compared to the other techniques,
in a micrometer scale.

4- The L value of the biofilms, which corresponds to the obtained values of C dl, was calculated in the
range of nanometer to fraction of micrometer, as a function of the volume fraction of seawater in the
biofilm, vsw =0,50,75%, and the dielectric constant of the seawater at different temperature, esw =70.2 at
18oC (November to February) & esw =67.4 at 33oC (March to May).
5-The growth of the adhered bio-film layer was observed to maintain a constant thickness during the 180
days of exposure of the alloys to seawater, blue line in Figs.1-7.
6- The loosely biofilm layer was observed to grow in a random fashion during the 180 days of exposure
of the alloys to seawater, orange and gray lines in Figs.1-7, independent of the seasonal temperature.

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
10
 REFERENCES
1. L. Heshan, W. Jianjun, L. Wei, L. Kun, Z. Shuyi, H. Xuebao, H. Yaqin, L. Junhui, M. Jianfeng,
Z.Chengxing,and Y.Tao,” Fouling community characteristics in subtropical coastal waters of the
southwestern East China Sea”, Acta Oceanol. Sin. 36(10):70–78(2017).
2. A. Mercer, Corrosion in Seawater Systems from Ellis Horwood Series in Corrosion and its Prevention.
Ellis Horwood Ltd (1990).
3. T. Bott, Fouling Notebook. I Chem E, E John Wiley &Sons Inc(1990).
4. H. Videla,” Microbially induced corrosion: an updated overview”, International Biodeterioration &
Biodegradation 48(1-4):176-201(2001).
5. T. Liengen, R. Basseguy, D.Feron, L.Beech, V.Birrien, Understanding Biocorrosion: Fundamentals
and Applications, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge,UK(2014).
6. J. Carew, A. Alhasahem, A. Alsayegh, Marine Fouling and Corrosion of Metals and Alloys in
Arabian Gulf Seawater – Field Study. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Report No.4327,
Kuwait(1995).
7. K. Habib, K. Al-Muhanna, F. Al-Sabti, and A. Al-Arbeed,” Measurement of Oxide Barrier-Film
Thickness of Al-Alloy by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy at the Nanometre-Scale”, Defect
and Diffusion Forum ,Vol. 268, pp.1-13(2007).
8. K. Habib, K. Al-Muhanna, F. Al-Sabti, and A. Al-Arbeed, ”Measurement of Aluminium Oxide-
Film Thickness: Barrier Oxide Film And Oxide Porous Layer”, Defect and Diffusion Forum, Vol.273-
276 , pp. 283-293(2008).
9. J. Weaver, and H. Schoenbach, “Biodilectrics”, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical
Insulation 10(5):715-716(2003).
10. R. Ronald Pethig'r, and D. KellS,” The passive electrical properties of biological systems: their
significance in physiology, biophysics and biotechnology”, Phys. Med. Biol., 32(8): 933-970(1987).
11. W. Ellison, A. Balana, G. Delbos, K. Lamkaouchi, L. Eymard, C. Guillou, and C. Prigent, “New
permittivity measurements of seawater”, Radio Science 33(3):639-648(1998).
12. B. Little, P. Wagner, and F. Mansfeld,” Microbiologically influenced corrosion of metals and
alloys”, International Materials Reviews 39:253-272(1991).
13. K. Al-Muhanna, and K. Habib, “Marine bio-fouling of different alloys exposed to continuous
flowing fresh seawater by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy”, Journal of Saudi Chemical Society
20:4, 391-396(2016).
14. EG&G , Application Note AC-1 EG & G (Princeton Applied Research, Princeton, NJ, 1982).
15. R. Boboian1986, Electrochemical Technique for Corrosion Engineering, NACE, Houston,
TX(1986).

©2018 by NACE International.

Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
11
 16. ASTM5: Standard Test Method for Measurement of Impedance of Anodic Coating on Aluminium,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, B457-67, PP.179-181, Metal park,Ohio (1994).
17. Evans, L., 2015,”Biofilms: Recent advances in their study and control”, Harwood academic
publishers, UK, p.350,370(2015).
18. G. Pavanello, M. Faimali, M. Pittore, A. Mollica, A. Mollica, and A. Mollica,” Exploiting a new
electrochemical sensor for biofilm monitoring and water treatment optimization”, Water Research 45(4),
pp.1651-1658(2011).
19. G. Pavanello, A. Mollica, and M. Faimali, “Wrapped by bacteria - Biofilm detection and removal in
paper mills”, Journal of Science & Technology for Forest Products and Processes, 4, accepted in press
(2017).

5
ASTM International,100 Barr Harbor Dr., West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.
©2018 by NACE International.
Requests for permission to publish this manuscript in any form, in part or in whole, must be in writing to
NACE International, Publications Division, 15835 Park Ten Place, Houston, Texas 77084.
The material presented and the views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author(s) and are not necessarily endorsed by the Association.
12