The Development of Anglo-Saxon Juris-Prudence

University of Iowa
Iowa Research Online

Theses and Dissertations
1912
The development of Anglo-Saxon juris-prudence

Chester Authur Corey
State University of Iowa
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Recommended Citation
Corey, Chester Authur. "The development of Anglo-Saxon juris-prudence." MA (Master of Arts) thesis, State University of Iowa, 1912.
https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.rywiigjn
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANGLO-SAXON JURISPRUDENCE.
The p u rp o s e o f t h i s th e s is i s t o p o i n t o u t th e d e v e l
opm ent o f A n g lo -S a x o n ju r is p r u d e n c e fro m th e m ig r a t i o n o f th e
A n g le s a n d S axons down t o 1066. The la w as s e t o u t h e r e ha s
b e e n g a th e r e d fro m c o s tu m a ls , c h r o n ic le s a n d c h a r t e r s , w h ic h
a lth o u g h fr a g m e n ta r y , c o n t a in d a ta s u f f i c i e n t t o make th e ge n
e r a l le g a l p r in c ip le s c le a r and g iv e to th e s tu d e n t m a t e r i a l
enough f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f h i s t o r i c a l i n q u i r y .
The T e u to n ic o c c u p a tio n o f B r i t a i n was a m ig r a t i o n of
fo lk t h a t came fro m a s e t t l e d c o u n tr y , w he re men l i v e d in com
m u n it ie s . (1 ). So th e A n g le -S a x o n i n E n g la n d m u s t h a ve s t a r t e d
w ith th e same am ount o f o r g a n iz a t io n t h a t he p o s s e s s e d on th e
c o n tin e n t. (2 ). A c c o r d in g ly th e A n g lo -S a x o n h a d q u i t th e p a s
to ra l l if e fo r lif e in fix e d s e a ts o r c o m m u n itie s o r g a n iz e d
in to e n t i t i e s h o u n d t o - g e t h e r b y th e t i e s o f k in d r e d . (3 ). The
A n g le s an d S a x o n s , and J u te s lo o k in g u p o n th e m s e lv e s as one
p e o p le e s t a b lis h e d a fo rm o f g o v e rn m e n t lik e t h a t w h ic h th e y
knew w h ile on th e c o n t in e n t . (4 ).
1. THE ADMINISTRATION.
The w h o le g e n e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h in e ry d e v e lo p e d i n
a c o n tin u o u s and p e rm a n e n t f a s h io n so as t o fu lfil th e n e e d s o f
th e f o l k in p r e s e r v a t io n o f m o ra ls and th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of
ju s tic e . N a t u r a l d i v i s i o n s o f f a m i l y and k i n made way f o r
a r t i f i c i a l u n its known as th e " t u n " , Ms c i r " , " h u n d r e d " , a n d
n a tio n . A v ie w o f th e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o d ie s w i t h th e ir o r
g a n iz a t io n an d f u n c t i o n s i s n e c e s s a ry t o an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f
th e c u s to m a ls a n d w i l l d e m o n s tra te th e fo rm o f A n g lo -S a x o n
g o v e rn m e n t. B e fo r e p r o c e e d in g w i t h th e la w , th e in s tr u m e n ts
b y w h ic h th e la w s w ere made an d e x e c u te d w i l l be d e s c r ib e d in
th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r w h ic h t r e a t s o f th e f a m i l y , h u n d re d , " s c ir K
a n d n a t io n , a n d o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o ff ic e r s o f th e la n d .
2 . THE FAM ILY.
The e a r l i e s t f i s c a l u n i t i n th e T e u to n ic s t a t e was th e
f a m ily , w h ic h i n o r g a n iz a t io n was fo rm e d o f a num ber o f i n d i v -
d u a ls t r e a t e d a s a c o l l e c t i v e e n tity . It fo rm e d a c o m p le te
b o d y d i s t i n c t fro m th e i n d i v i d u a l m em bers. (5 ). The c o r p o r a t e
n a t u r e o f t h i s b o d y w h ic h was p o s s e s s e d o f p r o p e r t y r i g h t s ,
p o l i c e a n d j u r i d i c i a l p o w ers was r e c o g n iz e d a t an e a r l y d a te
when th e la w s made p r o v is io n s f o r a d m is s io n i n t o th e f a m i l y so
t h a t s t r a n g e r s a n d men w it h o u t a f a m i l y c o u ld be c o n n e c te d w i t h
th e f a m i l y a n d p a r ta k e o f i t s s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic and j u d i c i a l
p r iv ile g e s . (6 ). T h is id e a o f c o r p o r a t e e x is t e n c e in th e
f a m i ly was c a r r i e d th r o u g h th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e k i n , t r i b e
I ' ■ , . .
and n a t i o n . I n l e g a l c o n te m p la tio n th e f a m i l y was a d e f i n i t e
b o d y t o w h ic h a c c e s s was d i f f i c u l t ; and i t c o u ld n o t be f o r s a k
en o r d is s o lv e d w it h o u t s p e c ia l r e n u n c i a t i o n . (7 ). M is c o n d u c t
on th e p a r t o f a member o f th e f a m i l y c o m p ris e d th e c o r p o r a t e
e n tity and re n d e r e d i t lia b le to th e i n j u r e d f a m i l y . {8 ).
The a im o f th e f a m i ly was m u tu a l p r o t e c t i o n in th e m a in
te n a n c e o f n a t u r a l r i g h t s . (9 ). A m an’ s m a in s ta y f o r th e e x a c
tio n o f fin e s , th e s w e a rin g o f o a th s , p r o v is io n s in case o f
d e s titu tio n , w a tc h in g o v e r h i s o ffs p r in g a f t e r I t s d e a th , was
in h is f a t h e r 's fa m ily . (1 0 ). E v e ry p e rs o n m a le o r fe m a le I *
b e lo n g e d t o th e p a t e r n a l k in d r e d . (1 1 ). The f a m i l y and l a t e r
th e k in d r e d r e g u la t e d p r o t e c t io n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l i n re g a rd
to l i f e , r e s p o n s i b i l t y f o r m is d e e d s , p a r t i c i p a t i o n in f a m ily
a ffa ir s , w a rd s h ip and m a r r ia g e ,a n d la n d s e t t le m e n t . (1 2 ).
C a e s a r n o te d t h a t la n d h o ld in g s in common w e re d iv id e d
a c c o r d in g t o f a m i l i e s . (1 3 ). The m a rk , a c o m m u n ity o f f a m i l i e s
c o n tr o lle d d e f in it e t r a c t s known as "m e a rc " la n d , w h ile p la c e
names th r o u g h o u t E n g la n d show t h a t th e r e w e re e a r l y s e t t le m e n t s
e f f e c t e d on th e p r i n c i p l e o f a l l o t m e n t . (1 4 ).
The h e a d o f th e f a m i ly c o l l e c t e d re v e n u e s a n d w e n t to
c o u n c il; ( 1 5 ) h e to o k u p th e e n n i t i e s o f h i s k in , th u s f o r m in g
th e n u c le u s o f a m i l i t a r y . (1 6 ). W ith th e f a m i l y , th e n a tu ra l
s ta te o f th e f r e e and u n f r e e e x is t e d ; fo r th e r e th e f a t h e r was
f r e e a n d th e w i f e and c h i l d r e n w ere u n f r e e as t o th e f a t h e r . (1 7 )
T h ro u g h th e e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e son th e i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y b e
came th e b a s is o f th e k in d r e d . (1 8 ). The son w e n t f o r t h and
s e t up h is own i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e h o ld and th u s th e f a m i l y became
th e s o u rc e o f th e k in d r e d and th e n a t i o n . (1 9 ).
3 . THE HUNDRED.
The t y p i c a l A n g lo -S a x o n h u n d re d was a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a
t i o n made u p o f one h u n d r e d , o r one h u n d re d and e le v e n f a m i l i e s
f o r th e p u rp o s e o f g a t h e r in g th e h o s t , c o lle c t in g tr ib u te and
a d m in is t e r in g ju s tic e . (2 0 ). The id e a was t o c e n t r a l i z e so
c ie ty b y jo in in g th e f a m i l y h e ads i n a c o m m u n ity i n an a r t i
f i c i a l u n it. (2 1 ).
The r e s p o n s i b i l t y o f th e h u n d re d was c o r p o r a t e a c c o r d in g
to th e la w s o f A l f r e d , w h ic h made th e h u n d re d l i a b l e fo r '
o n e - t h i r d o f th e " w e r " in c a s e s o f a g g r a v a te d c r im e . (2 2 ). B ut
th e h u n d re d was a ls o a t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t c a l c u la t e d a c c o r d in g
to th e h e a d s o f th e f a m i l i e s . (2 3 ). E v e ry man f o r l e g a l p u r
p o ses was t o be lo c a t e d t e r r i t o r i a l l y so as t o f u r t h e r p o l i c e
r e g u l a t i o n s and th e k e e p in g o f th e K i n g 's peace. (2 4 ). A
d o m ic ile was th u s p r o v id e d f o r e v e r y man i n th e h u n d re d so t h a t
he c o u ld b e p r e s e n te d to th e c o u r t when a c c u s e d . (2 5 ). So th e
h u n d re d was n o t h in g m ore th a n an a r t i f i c i a l u n i t ; a n d f i x e d
in d iv id u a ls in a d o m ic ile so t h a t j u s t i c e c o u ld b e o b ta in e d
an d th e K i n g 's peace m a in ta in e d , E a d g a r m a d fth e h u n d re d r e s
p o n s ib le f o r c rim e s and b re a c h e s o f peace b y r e q u i r i n g th e
h u n d re d man t o r a i s e th e hue and c r y a g a in s t w ro n g d o e rs . (2 6 ).
The h u n d re d men w e re t o do j u s t i c e to th e w ro n g d o e rs . If th e
o f f e n d e r was a t h i e f , th e “ c e a p g e ld " was p a id t o th e o w n e r of
th e c a t t l e a n d th e r e s t was d iv id e d i n t o tw o p a r t s , one h a lf
to th e h u n d re d a n d one h a l f t o th e l o r d , He who n e g le c t e d th e
p eace was f i n e d 30 pence f o r th e f i r s t o ffe n c e ; 60 p e nce f o r
th e s e c o n d and one h a l f o f a l l he p o s s e s s e d f o r th e t h i r d o f
fe n c e ; w h ile i f he p e r s is te d i n c o n n iv in g a t e v i l d o in g , he
fo r fe ite d a ll t h a t he h a d and became an o u t la w . (2 7 ).
The p r e s i d in g o f f i c e r was th e h u n d re d man whose d u ty i t
was t o summon th e h u n d re d 11m o t " , hue and c r y , a n d th e " s c l r mot*.'
The e a r l y h u n d re d man was e le c t e d , b u t in th e l a t e r p e r io d th e
f e u d a l e le m e n t c o n t r o l l e d and he was a p p o in te d b y th e n o b le t o
whom th e h u n d re d b e lo n g e d . (2 8 ).
4. THE SHIRE.
The e a r l y s h ir e ha s b e e n d e s c r ib e d as a u n io n o f tw o o r
m ore "m e a rc s " f o r r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l p u rp o s e s , ( 2 9 ) , w h ile
a c c o r d in g t o S tu b b s , th e s h ir e was a c l u s t e r o f h u n d r e d s . (3 0 ).
The s h ir e became a d e f i n i t e t e r r i t o r i a l d i v i s i o n w i t h p a r is h e s ,
h a m le ts , l i b e r t i e s , w h e r e i n " b o r h " a tid “ f r i t h " w e re e s t a b lis h e d
b y th e w it a n to h o ld men i n th e same r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d r e s p o n s i
b ilitie s t h a t h a d ISSshd^ them t o th e n a t u r a l f a m i l y u n i t . (3 1 ).
The o f f i c e r s in th e s c i r w e re th e E a ld o rm a n , (3 2 ), th e
r e e v e , a n d th e b is h o p . D u r in g peace, th e E a ld o rm a n f^ ^ h e re e v e
A,
h e ld c o u r t i n th e " s c i r m o t" , th e h e a d o f th e l o c a l ju d ic ia l
s y s te m o f w h ic h th e "m e a rc m o t" was th e f o u n d a t io n . (3 3 ). In
tim e o f w a r, th e s c irm e n w e n t t o th e h o s t u n d e r^ E a ld o rm a n . (3 4 ).
The E a ld o rm a n a n d b is h o p t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n te d th e s c i r i n th e
w it a n , w h ile th e re e v e r e p r e s e n te d th e w it a n and th e k in g i n
th e s h ir e as th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r who e x e c u te d ju s tic e
a n d s e c u re d th e r i g h t s o f th e k in g . (3 5 ). The c o u n s e llo r s o f
th e s c i r w e re th e fre e m e n who d e c la r e d th e r e p o r t o f th e s h i r e .
The ju d g e s w e re th e f o l k a s s e m b le d i n th e " m o t " .
5 . THE NATION.
The u n io n o f s c i r s was th e n a t i o n . A t its h e ad was th e
K in g who a p p e a re d as th e r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f th e u n i t y o f th e
ra c e . The c h i e f e x e c u tiv e pow er was th e n a t i o n a l c o u n c i l , th e
" w it e n a g e m o t" , a b o d y made u p o f l o r d s e c c le s ia s t ic a l and
s e c u la r . Each o f th e seve n e a r l y k in g d o m s h a d i t s " w it e n a
g e m o t" . The n a t i o n a l c o u n c il d id n o t h a v e i t s r is e u n til

W essex a n n e x e d th e o t h e r k in g d o m s . (3 6 ). The f i r s t e x a m p le o f
n a t i o n a l u n i t y was s e t b y th e c h u rc h i n its e c c l e s i a s t i c a l coun
c i l p e r f e c t e d b y T h e o d o re o f T a rs u s .
6 . THE WITENA - GEMOT OH NATIONAL COUNCIL.
The w ite n a g e m o t, w h ic h a p p e a rs as " m i c e l g e m o t " " l i c gem
o t" , Was a d e v e lo p m e n t o f the C o u n c il o f th e N a t io n as d e s c r ib
ed i n T a c itu s . A t an e a r l y p e r io d i t was made u p o f t h e » f r e e
men o f th e N a t io n , b u t i n K in g I n i ' s tim e i t h a d become r e p r e
s e n t a t iv e a n d was made up o f a r c h - b is h o p s , b is h o p s and a b b o ts ,
p r ie s t s an d d e a c o n s , s h e r iffs and e a ld o rm e n . In tru th it was
a c o u n c il o f th e l o r d s e c c l e s i a s t i c a l and l o r d s s e c u la r . (4 3 ).
The p o w e rs o f th e w ite n a gem ot w e re num erous a c c o r d in g
to th e a u t h e n t i c r e c o r d s d a t in g fro m A e t h e l b e r t 's r e ig n in
596 » 605 t o E a d w a rd . (4 4 ). The w isem en c o n s id e r e d e v e ry
p u b lic a c t w h ic h c o u ld b e a u t h o r iz e d b y th e K in g . They d e l i b e r
a te d u p o n new la w s to be ad ded to th e " f e l c r i h t " . ( 4 5 ) . D u r in g
w a r, th e y p e r f e c t e d a l l i a n c e s and a t th e end o f th e w a r, th e y
c o n d u c te d peace t r e a t i e s .
The K in g s f a t e la y in t h e ir c o n tr o l, f o r th e y n o t o n ly
e le c t e d th e K in g , b u t th e y de p o se d h im when h e u s u rp e d to o
much p o w e r. (4 6 ).
A c c o r d in g t o C a n u te 's la w th e y a p p o in t e d p r e la t e s to va
c a n t sees and l e v i e d ta x e s f o r s e c u la r a n d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
in s titu tio n s . (4 7 ). In j u d i c i a l c a p a c it y th e y c o n v e r te d b o c
la n d i n t o fo lc la n d and v ic a - v e r s a ; a d ju d g e d la n d s f o r f e i t e d
to th e K in g ; and s a t as suprem e c o u r t i n a ll c i v i l and c r i m i n a l
cases. (4 8 ).
The c h i e f po w ers r e t a i n e d w e re l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l ,
w h ile a l l e x e c u t iv e pow er c e n tr e d i n th e K in g and th e f i s c a l
o f f ic e r s o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The t r i n e d a n e c e s s it a s an d
r e n t s o f th e p u b li c la n d s w e re c h a rg e d b y th e w ite n a gem ot
f o r p u b lic expenses. L a t e r th e w ite n a p o s s e s s e d e x tra
o r d i n a r y t a x in g pow er as e v id e n c e d b y im p o s in g D a n e g e ld and
s h ip g e ld . So tw o s h i l l i n g s on e v e ry h id e r a is e d th e
D a n e g e ld , w h ile a c o n t r i b u t i o n o r a s h ip an d e q u ip m e n t was l e v i
ed u p o n a s c i r . (4 9 '). I n A e t h e l r e d 's tim e th e g r e a t e s t po w e r
l o s t was th e c o n t r o l o f th e p u b l i c la n d s ^ w h ic h came t o b e i n
th e K in g b y th e f i c t i o n th a t a l l la n d s w e re in th e ro y a l
p r e r o g a tiv e . (5 0 ).
The a c t s o f th e w it a n w ere a s e r ie s o f tr e a tie s o f peace
b e tw e e n a l l th e a s s o c ia t io n s , s e c u la r a n d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l , th a t
made u p th e s t a t e . (5 1 ).
7. OFFICERS IN THE ANGLO-SAXON ADMINISTRATION.
The K i n g : - The f i r s t s o v e r e ig n r u l e r o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n s
was o r e t w a ld a , t r e a t e d b y Bede as a w a r c h i e f , b u t n o u T b e lie v e d
n o t t o h a ve b e e n e le c t e d g e n e r a lis s im o o f th e S a x o n s . (5 2 ) •
C e r d r ic o f W essex who came u p t o th e le a d e r s h ip in 579 A .D .
was th e f i r s t A n g lo -S a x o n r u l e r t o whom th e te rm K in g was a p p lie
ea ( 5 3 ) , b u t b y th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y th e w o rd K in g was u s e d r e
p e a t e d ly i n th e la w s t o d e s ig n a te th e h e a d o f th e r a c e . ( 5 4 ) .
D u r in g th e p e r io d r a n g in g fro m th e s ix th to th e e le v e n t h
c e n tu r y th e K in g s p r e r o g a t iv e g re w and w id e n e d so t h a t many
r e g a l i a w e re i n th e c ro w n . The id e a th a t^ p e a c e o f th e n a t i o n
w a s tth e K i n g 's peace a r o s ^ in I n i ' s r e ig n and h a s p e r s i s t e d to
th is day. As c o n s e r v a to r o f th e p e a c e , th e K in g c a l l e d th e
arm y i n tim e o f w a r; he m a in ta in e d th e peace o f th e h ig h ro a d s
o f commerce b y th e u se o f g u a rd s p la c e d i n e a ch d i s t r i c t an d
a lo n g th e c o a s ts . (5 5 ).
The K i n g 's p e rs o n and e s t a t e s w e re p r o t e c t e d i n h i s
p r iv a t e “ g r it h " o r peace w h ic h e x te n d e d t h r e e m i l e s , th re e
fu r lo n g s , th r e e a c r e s , n in e f e e t a n d n in e b a r le y c o r n s each
d ir e c tio n fro m h i s " h u s " . (5 6 ). A nyone who f l e d to th is " g r ith
was a llo w e d n in e days g r a c e . (5 7 ). He who b r o k e th e K i n g 's
h a l l was l i a b l e t o any doom w h ic h th e K in g m ig h t d e c re e . (5 9 ).
M u rd e r i n th e K i n g 's “ tu n " made th e o f f e n d e r l i a b l e to f in e
w h ic h was p a y a b le to th e K in g . (6 0 ).
The la w m a k in g tr e a s o n a c a p i t a l o f f e n s e ( 6 1 ) shows a
d i s t i n c t d e v e lo p m e n t, f o r th e K in g h a d a n c i e n t l y a money v a lu e ;
th e " w e r " w h ic h was p e r s o n a l and i n h i s k in d r e d , and th e
“ c y n e b o t" th e p r i c e o f r o y a lty , w h ic h was i n th e f o l k . (6 2 ).
The K in g was l i a b l e f o r th e o ff e n s e s o f h i s s e r v a n ts .
If h is c a r p e n t e r o r c o u r i e r s le w a man, he p a id o n e - h a lf th e
" w e r " .(6 3 ). In tu r n , h is s e r v a n ts w e re h i s and i n j u r i e s to them
in c u r r e d f i n e s w h ic h w e re p a y a b le t o th e c ro w n . So A e t h e l b e r t
a n d h i s w it a n d e c re e d t h a t an yone who s l e p t w i t h th e K i n g 's
m a id e n s h o u ld make 50 s c . “ b o t s " . (6 4 ). If she w e re a m ere
g r in d in g s la v e “ b o t " was o n ly 25 s c . ; b u t i f she w e re t h i r d
c la s s th e n " b o t " was 12 s c . (6 5 ).
The K in g ’ s p e rm a n e n t f u n c t i o n s w e re p r i e s t l y and j u d i c i a l ,
w h ile th e m i l i t a r y was te m p o r a ry . (6 6 ). He c a l l e d th e a s s e m b ly
o f th e w ite n a gem ot and s a t a t i t s h e a d w he re he recom m ended
g ra v e c a u s e s . (6 7 ). In j u d i c i a l c a p a c it y he s a t as suprem e
lju d g e o v e r a l l s u b s id ia r y c o u r t s . (6 8 ). A f t e r th e p e o p le has
e x e r c is e d th e c u s to m a ry la w s th e y c a l l e d u p o n th e K in g t o exe
c u te t h e i r ju d g m e n ts . W henever th e la w p ro o v e d to o h e a v y , a
s u b je c t c o u ld se e k m i t i g a t i o n o f i t fro m th e K in g . (6 9 ).
U lt im a t e a p p e l l a t e ju r is d ic tio n was i n th e K in g , b u t no one was
to c a l l u p o n th e K in g b e f o r e he e x h a u s te d th e p o w e r o f th e lo w e r
c o u rts . (7 0 ). P a rd o n o f th e o f f e n d e r s was i n th e r o y a l p r e r o
g a tiv e . (7 1 ).
The la w s d e c la r e th e K in g to be th e g u a r d ia n o f th e i 1; *
s tra n g e r.(7 2 ). So when a s t r a n g e r was s l a i n , th e K in g h a d tw o -
th ir d s o f th e “ w e r " ; th e son o r r e l a t i v e s o f th e s l a i n th e o t h e r
th ir d ; but i f t h e r e w ere no r e l a t i v e s , t h e K in g h a d h a l f a n d th e
lo r d h a lf . (7 3 ). E adw ard th e C o n f e s s o r 's la w e x p r e s s ly s t a t e s
t h a t th e K in g was th e g u a r d ia n o f th e Jew . (7 4 ).
An im p o r t a n t r e g a l i a in th e cro w n was th e c o in a g e a n d th e
fix in g o f w e ig h ts and m e a s u re s . E adgar c a lle d in th e o l d and
is s u e d a new c o in a g e i n 9 7 5 . (7 5 ). A e t h e lr e d s t r i c t l y e n jo in e d
o t h e r m o n e ye rs b e s id e th e K in g ; t h e r e was t o b e b u t one m o n e ye r
a n d b u t one money to p a ss th r o u g h th e K in g d o m , one m e asure and
one w e ig h t . (7 6 ).
The s o u rc e o f re v e n u e ^rere v o l u n t a r y g i f t s , a s h a re o f
b o o ty g a in e d i n w a r, f i n e s fro m o f f e n d e r s , fo r fe ite d la n d s and
tre a s u re tro v e . (7 7 ). The v o l u n t a r y g i f t s w e re l a t e r e x a c te d
a s r e g u l a r ta x e s . (7 8 ).
The e a r l y K in g was one o f th e p e o p le , h i s la n d s w e re

p r iv a t e b u t b y C n u t’ s t i m e , t h e K in g was b y a p u re f i c t i o n
o w n e r o f a l l p u b l ic la n d s . (7 9 ). A e l f r e d a n d C n u t in c r e a s e d
th e num ber o f r o y a l v a s s a ls a n d b y so d o in g a u gm e nte d th e
p o w e r o f r o y a l and n o b le ju r is d ic tio n . G nu t a r r a n g e d th e
K ingd om u n d e r f o f i r la n d e d e a r l s who b y new i n v e s t i t u r e
t r a n s m it t e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y to t h e i r c h i l d r e n and b y sub
i n f e u d a t i o n r e a l l y h e ld i n fe u d a l te n u re . (8 0 ). A n o th e r
u s u r p a t io n o f a u t h o r i t y t h a t in c r e a s e d th e K i n g 's p r e r o g a t iv e
was C n u t 's p r a c t i s e o f c a l l i n g u p s u i t s b y c e r t i o r a r i w h ic h
h a d n o t e x h a u s te d th e j u d i c i a l p o w e r o f th e lo w e r c o u r t s . ( 8 1 ) .
Such a s s u m p tio n s o f p o w er show a te n d e n c y to w a fd o v e r c e n
tr a liz a t io n in th e c ro w n .
8. THE EALDORMAN.
The d i g n i t a r y n e x t i n o r d e r to th e K in g i n th e A n g lo -
S axon a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was th e e a ld o rm a n who a c te d as th e p r i n
c ip a l j u d i c i a l and e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r i n a “ s c i r " , ( 8 2 ) . The
o ff ic e was a p p o in t iv e f o r a l i f e p e r io d th r o u g h o u t m o s t o f th e
A n g lo -S a x o n p e r io d , b u t i n C n u t's tim e th e o f f i c e te n d e d to
become h e r e d i t a r y . (8 3 ). The p la c in g o f e a r l s o v e r s e v e r a l
c o u n t ie s s u b o r d in a te d th e e a ld o rm a n and le s s e n e d th e d i g n i t y
o f h is o f f ic e .
The e a ld o rm a n *s d u t ie s w e re to h o l d " s c i r m o t" s e m i
a n n u a lly w h e re he and th e b is h o p s exp o u n d e d b o th th e la w
o f God a n d o f man. (8 4 ). I n t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n s and th e f u n
c t i o n s o f th e h ig h p o l ic e w e re i n th is o f f c ie as w e l l as th e
g u id a n c e a n d th e s u p e r v is io n o f a l l p o l i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
(8 5 ). In c o u r t th e e a ld o rm a n p o s s e s s e d f u l l p o w er o f p le a *
a n d p r o c e e d in g t o e x e c u tio n i n c i v i l and c r im in a l ca se s. (8 6 ).
U nder A e t h e lr e d r th e E a ld o rm a n 's h o u s e was made a s a n c tu a r y
a n d a n y w ro n g d o e r who f l e d to it h a d t h r e e d a ys o f r e s p i t e . ( 8 7 ) .
If th e p e a ce was b ro k e n th e r e th e o f f e n d e r p a id a f i n e to th e
o w n e r. (8 8 ). The e a ld o rm a n was a d m o n is h e d t o d e a l s q u a r e ly o r
la y h im s e lf l i a b l e to a u t h o r it y ; he was t o e x e c u te th e la w o r
lo s e h i s o ff ic e . (8 9 ).
9. THE GEREFA.
The g e r i f a o r summoner, th e common A n g lo -S a x o n named
fo r an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and e x e c u t iv e o f f i c e r , a p p e a re d i n a l l
c o u rts in v a r io u s d e g re e s o f im p o r ta n c e . (9 0 ). The " c yn e g a
g e re fa " a d m in is t e r e d sac and so c i n th e K i n g 's p r i v a t e la n d s and
s a t in th e a p p e ll a t e c o u r t , )9 1 ), th e " w iv - g e r e f a " was th e w a rd
o f a m a n o r; th e " t u n g e r e fa " was re e v e o f t u n , v i l l o r fa r m .
(9 2 ). B u t th e t y p i c a l re e v e as t r e a t e d i n th e la w s was th e
" s c ir g e re fa ", th e h e a d o f th e “ s c i r gem ot**, th e c o u n ty c o u r t o r
**f o l e m o t" . (9 3 ).
The r e e v e 's d u t ie s w ere m a ifc ifo ld . As ju d g e i n doom and
s u it, th e re e v e was o r d e r e d to ju d g e r i g h t e o u s l y , to fe a r not
to p ro n o u c e f o l c r ig h t, and to h a ve a te rm f o r e v e ry s u i t . (9 4 }
E v e ry re e v e h e ld c o u r t once i n f o u r w eeks so t h a t a l l c o u ld
have ju s t ic e . (9 6 ). So th e re e v e h a d a s h a re o f th e e x e c u t iv e
p r e r o g a tiv e . (9 7 ). He e x e c u te d a l l e x a c tm e n ts , (9 8 ). an d th e
a b b o ts on s e c u la r o c c a s io n s w ere u n d e r h i s p r o t e c t io n . (9 9 ). In
h is e x e c u t iv e c a p a c it y he to o k c o g n iz a n c e o f th e c u s to m a ry la w s
as e xp o u n d e d b y th e f o l c in c o u n c il. (1 0 0 ). As p r i n c i p a l
f i s c a l o f f i c e r th e re e v e l e v i e d f i n e s and c o l l e c t e d ta x e s and
h e r io ts , a n d s e iz e d f o r f e i t e d la n d s . ( 1 1 ) . D u r in g A e l t h e l s t a n 's
r e ig n th e re e v e c o l l e c t e d b h u rc h dues ; l a t e r E a d g a r, C n u t an d
A e t h e lr e d g a ve th e re e v e p o w er t o l e v y f i n e s and i n f l i c t a h e a vy
p e n a lt y f o r r e f u s a l to p a y . (1 1 2 ). The “ s c i r g e r e f a " as summon
e r n o t o n ly a c te d as ju d g e / b u t h e was a ju ry m a n o r w itn e s s o f
a l l b a r g a in s an d s a le s o f c a t t l e so t h a t he c o u ld w a r r a n t th e m .
A e t h e ls t a n d e c re e d , IJ l e t no man e xch a n g e an y p r o p e r t y w i t h o u t
th e w it n e s s o f th e r e e v e . " (1 1 3 ). So Eadmund d e c la r e d th e la w
t o b e t h a t n o one s h o u ld b a r g a in f o r and b u y s tr a n g e c a t t l e w it h
o u t th e w it n e s s o f th e r e e v e . (1 1 4 ). H eavy p e n a l t i e s b o u n d th e
re e v e t o p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e s e d u t i e s . R em oval fro m o f f i c e and
th e pa ym e n t o f f i n e s f o l l o w d is o b e d ie n c e . (1 1 5 ). The g e r e f a
who c o n i^ tts d a t t h e f t o r a t th e e s c a p e o f a t h i e f was t o f o r f e i t
a ll t h a t he h a d . (1 1 6 ). S h o u ld h e f a i l to ju d g e f u l l y a c c o rd
in g t o th e la w , a n o th e r re e v e to o k h i s o f f ic e . (1 1 7 ). The
o f f ic e was e l e c t i v e in e a r ly tim e s , b u t fo llo w in g th e r i s e of
th e K i n g 's R o y a lt y and th e la n d e d l o r d s , it became a p p o in t iv e
b y th e cro w n o r th e l o r d who owned th e h u n d r e d . ( 1 1 8 ) . F in e s ,
g ifts , and e s ta te s w ere i n th is o ff ic e , a n d a s h a re o f th e
b o o ty o b t a in e d w h ile le a d in g th e s c i r men i n th e " f j r r d “ s u p p o r t
ed th e re e v e s h ip . (1 1 9 ).
1 0 . ECCLESIASTICAL ADMINISTRATION.
The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e c h u rc h g re w u p s id e b y s id e w i t h
th e s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; 1Js c ir s '* became a r c h e a c o n r ie s ; th e
h u n d re d s , th e d e a n e r ie s o f a l a t e r a g e ; th e to w n s h ip was th e
s p h e re o f d u ty o f a s in g le p r i e s t ; th e K ingd om was th e d io c e s e
o f th e b is h o p . (1 2 0 ). So T h e o d o re o f T a rs u s b e s id e s u n i t i n g
E n g la n d i n t o a s p i r i t u a l k in g d o m , p la c e d a p r i e s t as r e p r e s e n ta
tiv e o f c h u rc h o r g a n iz a t io n i n e v e r y to w n s h ip o r b u n d le o f
to w n s h ip s . (1 2 1 ).
The A n g lo -S a x o n s t a t e r e c o g n iz e d th e b is h o p as one o f i t s
o f f ic e r s (1 2 2 ) whose d u ty i t was t o a s s i s t i n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f ju s tic e , t o g u a rd a g a in s t p e r j u r y , to s u p e r in te n d th e o r d e a l,
t o g u a rd a g a in s t f r a u d , an d t o a c t as c u s to d ia n o f m e a su re s and
s ta n d a r d s . (1 2 3 ). So when th e g e r e f a c o u ld n o t do j u s t i c e an d
m a in t a in p e ace i n h i s ju r is d ic tio n , th e b is h o p was e s p e c i a l l y
commanded t o e n fo r c e th e f i n e s w h ic h th e K in g and th e w it a n
h a d a p p o r t io n e d t o th a t o f f ic e r . (1 2 4 ). T h ro u g h o u t th e p r e s e n t
t h e s i s m ore o f th e c o n c u r r e n t a c t i o n o f th e c h u rc h and th e s t a t e
in th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e w i l l be n o te d .
1 . S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . pp 1 9 .
Domesday a n d B e yo n d . pp 2 2 2 , 232.
V in o g r a d o f f , E ng. V i l l a g e C om m unity. pp 1 1 8 -2 0 .
2 . S tu b b s S e le c t C h a r te r s . pp 1 1 ,1 2 .
3 . S tu b b s S e le c t C h a r te r s .
4 . R o p in V o l. 1- p . 4 2 .
5 . M a in e , A n c ie n t Law . p 143.
6 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e Communit y . p 137.
7 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity. p 140.
8 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 1. p. 236.
9 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 1. p. 230.
1 0 .B e o w u lf, E ng. V i l l a g e C om m unity. p. 136.
1 1 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity. p . 136.
1 2 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity. p . 137.
1 3 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 1 . p . 230.
1 4 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity. p. 140.
1 5 .K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l. p . 235.
1 6 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. l.p .2 3 1 .
1 8 .K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l. p .129.
2 0 . S tu b b s , C o n s titu tio n a l H is to r y . p . 107.
2 1 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. l.p .2 3 8 .
2 2 .A lf r e d . p . 27.
2 3 .K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l . l . , P . 24.
2 4 . C n u t. p . 11
2 5 . A e t h e lr e d . p. 1.
2 6 . E a d g a r 1 1 , S u p p le m e n t 3 .
2 7 . E a d g a r H u n d re d Law .
2 8 . S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . pp . 9.
2 9 . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l. p .72.
3 0 . S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . p p . 9, 10.
31. I n i, 39.
32. I n i , 36.
3 3 . S axons in E n g la n d . V o l.l. p. 73.
34. S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s , PP* 1 0 .
35. S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . PP* -0 »
36. S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . P P .I O , I I .
37. H is to r y E a r ly E ng. L i t . p. 193.
4 3 . K em ble V o l . 1 1 ,p . 200 P re a m b le to
I n i ' s La w s.
4 4 . A n g lo -S a x o n C h r o n ic le . A .D . 1 0 6 5 .
45. In tr o d u c tio n to A e l f r e d 's Law .
4 6 . A n g lo -S a x o n C h r o n ic le s , Anno 755
F lo r e b c e o f W o rc e s te r. " 755
4 7 . C n u t.
4 8 . S axons in E n g la n d . V o l.IV , p 2 0 0 -2 6 .
S tu b b s S e le c t C h a r te r s . PP. I I , 13 .
49. S tu b b s S e le c t C h a r te r s . PP• 1 3 ,1 6 .
5 0 . S tu b b s S e le c t C h a r te r s . PP. 13 .
5 1 . K e m b le , V o l. 11, p 184.
5 2 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 1 1 , p 13.
5 3 . H i s t o r y E a r ly E n g lis h L i t . p 104.
5 4 . K em ble S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.11, p 30.
5 5 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.11, p 32.
5 6 . A e t h e ls t o n H , 5.
5 7 . A e t h e ls t o n 4.
5 8 . S e t h e ls t a n 1.
59. i n i 6, A lfr e d 7.
6 0 . A e t h e lb e r t 5 .
601. A l f r e d 4 .
6 2 . S axons i n E n g la n d V o l.11, p . 30.
63 . A e th e lb e r t 10.
64 . A e th e lb e r t.lft.
6 5 . A e th e lb e r t 11,
6 6 . K e m b le , Saxons i n E n g la u d . V o l.l, p 139.
6 7 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l. p 153.
6 8 . K e m b le , Saxons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 11, p 45.
69. Eadgar 2.
70. S tu b b ’ s S e le c t C h a r te r s . PP. 1 ^ .
71. I n i 6, 3 6 ; A e t h e ls t a n , 4 , 5.
7 2 . A e t h e ls t a n 1 4 ; E a d w a rd ,1 2 ; C n u t, 4 0 .
7 3 . H lo th h a e r e 2 3 .
7 4 . E adw a rd th e C o n fe s s o r ,2 5 .
7 5 . K em ble Saxons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 1 1 ,p . 6 8 ;«
7 6 . E a d g a r, S e c u la r . 8 .
7 7 . K e m b le , Saxons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l. p 159.
8 0 . S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . pp. i3 .
8 1 . S tu b b s , S e le c t C h a r te r s . PP. 1 3 .
8 2 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 11, p 139.
8 4 . C n u t, 18.
8 7 . A e t h e lr e d V I 1 , 5.
88 I n i , 6 , 4 5 ; A e lfr e d 3.
8 9 . A e t h e ls t a n 2 6 ; I n i , 36.
9 1 . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I I , p 155.
9 2 . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I I , p 170.
9 3 . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l . I I , p 76
94 S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I I , p 153.
9 5 . E a d w a rd , 1.
9 6 . E a d w a rd , 10.
9 7 . A e t h e ls t a n , 26.
9 8 . A e t h e lr e d . V o l. I I .
9 9 . A e t h e lr e d . V o l. IX , 32.
1 1 0 .E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity. p 193.
1 1 1 .S a x o n s i n E n g la n d . V o l.I I , p 164.
1 1 2 .A e d g a r, 3 ; C n u t, 8 .
1 1 3 .A e t h e ls t a n 2 .
114.E adm und 5 .

9- '
1 1 5 . E d d . l; A e t h e l s t a n , 2 0 ,2 2 .
1 1 6 .A e t h e ls t a n 2 6 .
117.E adm und, 1 .
1 1 8 .S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.II, p 165.
1 1 9 .S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.II, p 166.
1 2 0 .S tu b b s S e le c t C h a r te r s . pp. 8.
1 2 1 .S tu b b s C o n s t. H i s t o r y . V o l.I, p 277.
1 2 2 .K em ble S axons i n E n g la n d . V . I I , p 3 8 4 -5 .
1 2 3 .K em ble S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.I I , p 303.
1 2 4 .A e t h e ls t a n . 26.
THE LAW OF CRIME,TORTS, AND PROCEDURE.
The b o d y o f th e A n g lo - S axo# w h ic h c o n c e rn d c rim e s and
to rts an d th e p ro c e s s e s o f th e la w i n b r in g i n g o f f e n d e r s to
ju s tic e is c o n s id e r a b le i n e x te n t,in :, f a c t , it c o m p ris e s m ost
o f t h e known c o s tu m a ls made b y th e A n g lo -S a x o n k in g s and t h e i r
w ite n a - g e m o ts . T h is p a r t o f th e la w i s s i g n if ic a n t because i t th ro w s
l i g h t u p o n th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e o l d A n g lo - S axon and p o r t r a y s h is
n a t u r a l g e n iu s f o r g o v e rn m e n t.T h e c rim e s l e g i s l a r e d a g a in s t we
know m u st h a ve b e en comman enough to r e q u ir e l e g i s l a t i v e a tte n t
i o n . The v a r ie d fo rm and th e r a p id d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e la w make
c l e a r t h e s t r u g g le t h a t th e a u t h o r i t i e s had as th e y s e t a b o u t to
o r g a n iz e a s jjs te m o f la w u n d e r w h ic h men cou tid be c o n s t r a in e d to
k e e p th e p e a c e . The p r e s e n t c h a p te r , d e v o te d to th e la w o f c rim e s
and t o r t s to g e th e r w ith th e la w o f p ro c e d u re w i l l a id th e s t u d
e n t to an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e A n g lo -C a x o n i n E n g la n d and th e c o n
d itio n o f h i s g o v e rn m e n t.
r I. THE BLOOD-FETTD.
The b lo o d - f e u d , a c o r o l l a r y o f t h r n a t u r a l r i g h t
to s e l f - p r e s e r v a t io n , w a s n o th in g le s s th a n th e r i g h t to wage
p r i v a t e w a r f a r e ; i t was th e r u l e o f th e s t r o n g f i s t dem anding r e
tr ib u tio n f o r o rim e s and i n j u r i e s a g a in s t th e k i n d r e d . i n th e o ry ,
a c rim e was n o t a g ia n s t th e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t a g a in s t tb e k in d r e d
o f th e in d iv id u a l.
W it h in th e k in d r e d t h e r e was no f e u d , f o r th e e n t
ity d id n o t p u n is h i t s e l f . T h e r e was no p r o v i s i o n i n c u s to m f o r
th e p u n is h m e n t o f th e n a n who s le w h i s b ro th e r. T h is i s w e l l p o r
t r a y e d i n B e a w u lf when H a a th e y n by h i s a rro w b r o u g h t down H r e t h -

e l's so n .H e m is s e d th e t a r g e t and s h o t h i s b r o t h e r . f I ) ."O n e
b ro th e r k ille d th e o t h e r w i t h b lo o d y d a r t , t h a t was a w ro n g
past a ll r e d e m p tio n . Anyw ay and e v e ry w a y i t was i n e v i t a b l e th a t
th e a e t h e lin g m u st q u i t l i f e u n a v e n g e d ".T h e f a t h e r ' s g r i e f was
l ik e n e d to t h a t o f an o ld man who saw h i s young so n r i d e on th e
g a llo w s tre e ,fo rc e d to d‘o n o th in g b u t w a i t w h i l r h i s so n became
fo o d f o r r a v e n s . ( 3 ) .The f a t h e r c o u l d n o t r e q u i t e th e fe u d th o u g h
th e s l a i n s o n was n e v e r so b e lo v e d by h i m . ( 4 ) . The g ra n d s o n s o f
O ngentheow i n B e a w u lf's p a t e r n a l k in d r e d had b e e n o u tla w e d , th e y
w e re "w ra e c -m a e g a s " ( 5 ) and th e y had c a s t o f f a l l r e l a t i o n s w i t h
t h e S c y l f i n g s . They came to H e a r d r e d 's c o u r t and w h i l e h i s g \ie s t,
H e a rd re d was s l a i n by one o f th e m ,y e t th e s l a y e r l e f t th e h a l l u n
a v e n g e d . (6 ) .M u rd e r w i t h i n th e k in d r e d le d to o u tla w ry .E a d m u n d .a
jp u r d e r e r , f o r f e i t e d h is t r i b a l r ig h ts and W e o h sta n , a k in s m a n
c a r r ie d o f f h is a r m o r . ( 7 ) A lt h u o u t h o u tla w e d , th e o n ly v e n g e a n ce
t h a t ove rca m e h im was " w y r d " . A veng em e nt f o llo w e d E a d m u n d .b u t i t
came i n th e open f i g h t . (8 ^ In a l l th e A n g lo -S a x o n t h e r e was no
p r o v i s i o n f o r th e fe u d a g a in s t th e m u rd e re r who s le w h i s k in s m a n .
As l a t e as H e n ry th e F i r s t , i t was e n a c te d t h a t he who s le w h is
b r o th e r o r e it h e r o f h is p a r e n ts was to make pe nance w o r th y b e
f o r e G o d . i f th e k in s m a n o f th e dead man demanded, c o m p e n s a tio n o r
v e n g e a n c e ,w is e m e n w e re to compound th e ju d g m e n t. F rom s u c h a la w
it is a p p a r e n t t h a t th e h o m ic id e o f a k in s m a n was f r e e fr o m j u d
i c i a l in t e r f e r e n c e . T h e p u n is h m e n t was s p i r i t u a l pe nance u n d e r an
e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s p o n s o r ,e x c e p t w hen t h e r e was an arouw ed and a n g e re d
k i n t h a t demanded c o m p e n s a tio n .( 9 )
E a r ly la w s o r c o s tu m a ls r e g u la t e d th e b lo o d fe u d .
B e g in n in g w i t h th e la w s o f K in g i n i , t h e r e f o llo w e d a lo n g s e r ie s
o f e n a c tm e n ts a t t e m p t in g to c u rb p r i v a t e w a r f a r e and e s t a b l i s h
th e k i n g ' p e a c e .T h e fe n d was o n ly to be ta k e n t o w hen com pens
a t i o n o r j u s t i c e was d e n ie d b y th e w ro n g d o in g k in . T h e r e a l p r i n c
ip le t h a t b r o u g h t a b o u t th e c o n t r o l o f th e fe u d was th e f a s t e n in g
o f a ll r e s p o n s ib ility f o r o rim e u p o n th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e c o n
s e q u e n t e m a n c ip a tio n o f th e k i n d r e d . l e g i s l a t i o n d u r in g A l f r e d ’ s
tim e shows th e e n t e r in g wedge o f th e i m p e r i a l p o w er i n its s t r u g g le
to b r e a k down th e fe u d .s o th e man f o u g h t w i t h o u t a p p e a lin g t o th e
a u th o r itie s in A lf r e d 's tim e was lia b le to s e v e re p u n is h m e n t. (1 0 )
He who knew t h a t h i s fo e was a t home s i t t i n g was f o r b id d e n to fig h t
b e fo r e he h a d demanded j u s t i c e . I f th e a c c u s e r b e s ie g e d h i s enemy,
he was t o g iv e h im se ve n days b e fo r e a t t a c k in g h im ; and s h o u ld th e
b e s ie g e d s u r r e n d e r and g iv e u p h i s w eapons a f t e r s e v e n d a y s ,h e wws
to h a ve th ir ty days r e s p it e . S h o u ld th e fo e ta k e t o a c h u rc h , he
was to h a ve s e v e n d a y s ,b u t i f th e a c c u s e r c o u ld n o t b e s ie g e th e fo e
th e r e in , he c o u ld r i d e to th e a a ld o rm a n and a s k a id o f h im . If th e
e a ld o rm a n r e fu s e d to a id h im th e n he was to a p p e a l to th e k in g
b e f o r e he fo u g h t.S o if a man came i t p i n h i s fo e by s u r p r i s e to fin d
h im a t home and w i l l i n g to g iv e up h i s w e a p o n s ,h e was to be k e p t
s a fe f o r t h i r t y d a y s ,b u t i f he r e fu s e d to g iv e u p h i s w e a p o n s, he
c o u ld be a tta c k e d .w h o e v e r a tt a c k e d th e fo e a f t e r he had d is a rm e d
h i m s e l f was to pay nw e rn and w w ite " b e s id e s f o r f e i t i n g h i s "m a e g -
s h ip ,T. ( I I ) Eadrmind e n a c te d t h a t " h e n c e fo tth . a n yone who s la y s an
o t h e r s h a l l b e a r th e fe u d h i m s e l f u n le s s he make f u l l T,w e r w i t h i n .
th e n e x t t w e lv e m o n t h " . I f th e k in d r e d w is h e d to fo r s a k e h im ,h e was
o u t o f fe u d as lo n g as no member o f th e k i n s h o u ld fe e d and h a r
b o r h im . ( 1 2 ) F e r , t h e p r ic e o f a man, was r e g u l a r l y s u b s titu te d

f o r "blood, i n a l l o f th e l a t e r la w s ." B u y o f f th e s p e a r o r "bear i t " ,
was a much u s e d maxim i n th e tim e o f Edw ard th e c o n f e s s o r .
in s p ite o f th e e ffo rts to p u t down th e f e u d , i t p e r
s is te d i n E n g la n d u n t i l a l a t e d a y „ n id ic a n , K in g o f M e n c ia ,m a rc h e d
in to th e p r o v in c e o f th e E a s t A n g le s to avenge th e death. o f - s e o r n -
w u lf.h is p r e d e c e s s o r . ( iS ) i u i l f , a n o b le th a n e ,w a s k i l l e d and he was
a v e n g e d by k in s m e n who k i l e d th e b is p o p and a l l o f h i s a s s o c ia te s
t h a t h a d encom passed k u i l f ' s d e a th .( i4 ) K in g w i l l i a m ave n g e d th e
a t r o c io u s m u rd e r o f th e s e men by r a v a g in g u o r th u m b r ia th e same y e a r .
(1 5 ) As l a t e as th e t e n t h c e n tu r y it to o k th r e e c o u n tie s to p u t
down a fe u d t h a t was b e in g p r o s e c u te d b y an a n g ry k i n d r e d . ( 1 6 '
2 . THE WERGILD.
The w e r g i l d , t h e p r ic e o f b lo o d , a n i n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h
a im e d to e s t a b l is h s o c ie t y a t th e l e a s t p o s s ib le s a c r i f i c e o f in d
i v i d u a l f r e e d o m ,is o l d in th e T e u to n ic r a c e . ("17} T h is i n s t i t u t i o n
s e r c e d to s e t t le d is p u te s when t h e p e rs o n s w e re d is p o s e d t o s e tt le
by t h e p a ym e n t o f c o m p o s itio n .B y i n i ' s t im e , t h e fe u d was n o t to be
p u rs u e d i f th e money w e re f o r t h c o m in g . The e a r ly la w shows a f i n e sea
le o f c o m p e n s a tio n f o r a l l c rim e s and t o r t s , f o r t h e n , i n l e g a l c o n
t e m p la t io n , c rim e s w e re c i v i l in ju r ie s and th e id e a was to make com
p e n s a t io n to th e i n j u r e d k i n . ( 1 8 Ê v e ry man w h e th e r o f h ig h o r lo w
d e g re e had h i s p r ic e w h ic h was p a y a b le to h i s p a r t e r n a l k in d r e d .B n ^
it seems t h a t th e w ro n g d o e r was fro m th e f i r s t a p u b lic enem y;w hen
he in ju r e d , th e k i n , h e i n j u r e d a p a r t o f th e p u b l i c * a f t e r th e r i s e of
t h e K in g 's p e a c e , th e o f f e n d e r i n j u r e d a l l fe e lu b iic ‘
The p r o c e d u re i n th e paym ent o f " w e r v a r ie d , i n th e d i f f e r e n t
k in g d o m s . K in g A l f r e d o r d a in e d t h a t th e s la y e r s h o u ld p a y p le d g e
and man money to th e p a t e r n a l k in d r e d i n e i g h t p a r t s and to th e
m a te r n a l k i n d r e d ' i n f o u r p a r t s . When t h i s was d o n e ,th e k i n g 's p ro
t e c t i o n was e s t a b lis h e d and a l l o f e i t h e r k i n d r e d 's re p re s e n t
a tiv e s , w ith t h e i r hands i n common on one w eapon engaged to th e

*
m e d ia to r t h a t th e p r o t e c t i o n s h o u ld s ta n d .T w e n ty one days l a t e r
70 s e i l l i p g s w e re due as p i l l o r y fin e ;in a n o th e r tw e n ty lo n e d a y s ,
" m a n -b o t" was due; tw e n ty one days l a t e r th e f i g h t " w i t e " was
p a id ,a n d i n tw e n ty one days more th e f i r s t paym ent o f th e " w e r "
Was m ade.T hen a f t e r a l l th e p a ym e n ts had b e e n m a d e ,e v e ry one was
to d e p a r t i n peace i f he d e s ir e d f u l l f r i e n d s h i p . f 1 9 }
D u r in g E adm und's r e ig n , th e paym ent o f " w e r " was made v o lu n t a r y
on th e p a r t d f th e k in d r e d i n o r d e r to a v o id " m a n if o ld f i g h t i n g s " .
The k in d r e d was p e r m it t e d to d is o w n th e o f f e n d e r and th u s f r e e
i t s e l f fro m th e fe u d .S o Eadmund o # d a i n e d , " i f an yone h e n o e f o t t h
s la y any m a n , le t h im b e a r th e fe u d u n le s s w i t h th e a id o f h i s
fr ie n d s ,h e c o m p e n s a te s 'w ith th e f u l l " w e r " , b e he b o rn as he may” .
" I f h i s m a e g th fo r s a k e h im and w i l l n o t p a y f o r h im , th e n I w i l l
t h a t a l l th e k in d r e d be f r e e fro m th e f e u d , i f a f t e r w a r d s th e y do n o t
g iv e th e c u l p r i t fo o d and p r o t e c t i o n . f 2 o ) i n W essex, th e p i l l o r y
f i n e was f i r s t to be p a id to th e f a t h e r o r s o n , o r b r o t h e r , or
w h o e v e r w as n e a r e s t o f k i n to th e f a t h e r . O n th e tw e n ty f i r s t day
a f t e r t h a t " m a n -b o t "w as p a id ; tw e n ty one days l a t e r , th e f i g h t w i t e
was p a id .T h e n came th e f i r s t pa ym en t o f th e " w e r " , w h ic h was p a id o u t
in r e g u l a r t h r e e w eek te r m s . F o llo w in g th e s e p a y m e n ts , th e k i n o f th e
dead man f i x e d a te rm f o t th e d e l i v e r y o f 4o s h e e p re c k o n e d a t 2 r
s c i l l i n g s . A t th e l a s t te rm a h o rs e was to be g i v e n . ( 2 o ) I n re s p e c t
t o w e r g i l d , th e w if e b e lo n g e d to h e r own k in d r e d , foi? h e r k in d r e d
p & id w e r f o r h e r h o m ic id e s , w h ile in case o f th e w i f e ' s m u rd e r,
h e r "w e r” w ent to h e r p a te rn a l k in d r e d * ( 2 2 ) .
The s t r e n g t h o f t h e w e r g i l d s y s te m i s see n i n its
in flu e n c e on th e c h u rc h .T h e e c c le s ia s t s s t r u g g le d a g a in s t s e c u la r
c u s to m f o r a t i m e , b u t a c c o r d in g to E g b e r t 's d ia lo g u e s it a d o p te d
th e S3'stem o f ra n k e d and g ra d e d c o m p e n s a tio n .B is h o p s w e re ra n k e d
w ith p r in c e s ;p r ie s ts w ith th a n e s *A s y s te m o f c o m p u rg a tio n and g r a d
a t i o n o f o a th e s was a d o p te d ,a n d even th o u g h op posed to th e s o l i d
a r it y and j o i n t r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f t h e k in d r e d , t h e c h u rc h s u b m itte d
to th e s y s te m o f p la c in g money v a lu e s on e c c l e s ia s t i c a l , , r a n k s .(2 3 ^ .
3 . HOMICIDE.
H o m ic id e ,th e p r im a l e ld e s t c rim e ,w a s l e g i s l a t e d
a g a in s t e a r ly , a n d th r o u g h o u t th e A n g lo -S a x o n p e r i o d , t h e la w shows
a d is tin c t d e v e lo p m e n t as th e " it e n a - g e m o t added p r o v i s i o n a f t e r
p r o v is io n t o t h e body o f la w i n its e f f o r t to c o n t r o l h o m ic id e .
B e fo r e th e e i g h t t h c e n tu r y th e o n ly p u n is h m e n ts
w e re d e a th in th e fe u d o r c o m p e n s a tio n to t h e i n j u r e d k in d r e d .
"W e r" was th e p r io e p a id f o r a ansm a c c o r d in g t o h is s o c i a l s ta n d
in g * i f any one w i t h a f o l l o w i n g s le w an u n o ffe n d in g m a n ,th e s la y e r
p a id " w e r " a s w e lla s " w it e " , a n d e v e ry man i n th e p a r t y p a i d ' t h i r t y
s c i l i i n g e . ( 2 4 h .s h o u ld t h e s l a i n be a s i x - hynde m a n ,e v e ry f o l l o w e r
p a id s i x t y s c illin g s and th e s la y e r p a id f u l l ,Tw e r'T. (25^ . i f th e
s l a i n w e re a tw e lv e - h y n d e m a n,ea ch f o l l o w e r p a id one h u n d re d and
tw e n ty s c i l l i n g s and th e s l a j 'e r p a id f u l l ftw er*T. ( 2 6 .

H o m ic id e was a g g ra v a te d when done i n th e k i n g 's p re s e n c e o r i n
b re a c h o f h is p e a c e .(2 7 ) The t a k i n g o f l i f e b y p o is o n o r w i t c h
c r a f t was p u n is h a b le by d e a t h . ( 2 8 )So hom i c id e w i t h i n th e c h u rc h
w a l l s was " b o t l e s s " u n le s s th e k in g g r a n te d l i f e in lie u o f fu ll
" w e r " .89)
^h e p u n is h m e n t v a r ie d w i t h r a n k n o f th e m u r d e r e r . The
ow ner o f th e s la v e who s le w a man o f an e a r l ' s d e g re e p a id 300
s c illin g s and g a ve u p th e s l a v e . ( 3 0 ) I f th e s l a i n was a fre e m a n
th e o w n e r p a id o n ly lo o s c i l l i n g s and gave u p th e s l a v e . (3 1 )
S h o u ld th e s l a y e r e s c a p e ,th e o w n e r was o b lig e d to pa y tw o w e r
g ild s f o r th e s la v e and p ro v e by c o m p u rg a to rs t h a t he c o u ld n o t
o b t a in th e s l a y e r . ¡3 2 ) The k i n l e s s man who m u rd e re d was p a id f o r
in one h a l f " w e r " b y h i s g u i l d b r o t h e r s , and foi? t h e o t h e r h a l f
he was to f l e e . (3 3 ) If t h e k i n l e s s man was, m u rd e re d ,o n e h a l f h i s
" w e r " w e n t t o h i s g u i l d b r o t h e r s and one h a l f to th e k i n g . (3 4 )
If a man s t r u c k h i s s la v e and th e s la v e l i v e d t h r e e n ig h t s s th e
o w n er was n o t g u i l t y o f m urd e r f o r th e s la v e was h i s own p r o p
e rty , b u t i f th e s la v e d ie d th e same d a y , th e ow n er was g u i l t y of
m u r d e r . ( 3 5 )W hoever o f fre e m e n t h a t k i l l e d a p r ie s t , d e a c o n , o r
mank d id p e n a n ce a c c o r d in g to a c o n s titu te d s c a le o f p e n i t e n t -
ia ls and p a id th e dead e c c l e s i a s t 's p r ic e to th e c h u r c h . (3 6 )
H o m ic id e was j u s t i f i a b l e when th e s l a i n man was an
o u tla w o r f l e e i n g t h i e f . I t was m e r i t o r i o u s to k ill a t h i e f in th e
a c t o f t h e f t . A d u lte r e r s in th e a c t o f a d u l t e r y c o u ld be k i l l e d
b y th e f a t h e r , b r o t h e r , h u s b a n d , o r s o n o f th e woman.So th e man c o u ld
f i g h t f o r h is l o r d and th e l o r d f o r h i s man. Aman c o u ld f i g h t f o r
h i s k in s m a n who had been w r o n g f u l ly a t t a c k e d . (3 7 )
The e le m e n t o f i n t e n t was f i r s t m e n tio n e d i n th e la w

o f K in g A l f r e d . He who s le w a n o th e r s h o u ld p e r is h , " b u t i f th e
k illin g w ashy n e c e s s it y o r u n w i l l i n g l y d o n e ,a s God may h a ve s e n t th e
s la in in to h i s h a n d s , th e s l a y e r was w o r th y o f l i f e and l a w f u l
" h o t" if he s o u g h t an a s y lu m .( 3 8 )
in ca se o f a c c id e n t a l d e a th , f i n e was t o "be p a id and th e
th in g t h a t s t r u c k th e s l a i n p e rs o n was handed o v e r to th e a v e n g e r
o f b lo o d as a g u i l t y t h in g . A l f r e d ' s la w c o n ta in s a p r o v i s i o n t o
th e e f f e c t t h a t when a tr e e f e l l u p o n and k i l l e d a m a n . i t s h o u ld
b e lo n g t o th e k in d r e d o f th e dead man i f th e y t o o k i t away w i t h i n
th ir ty d a y s .(3 9 )
A c c e s s o r ie s w e re p u n is h a b le as w e l l as th e p r i n c i p l e .
U n d e r E adw ard th e C o n fe s s o r ,a w i f e , i f a c c u s e d o f a b e t t i n g h e r hus
band in t h e p e r p e t r a t i o n o jf h is c r im e , had t o c l e a r h e r s e l f on
o a th o r a t th e f i r e . If she c o u ld n o t c l e a r h e r s e l f , she was made an
w x i l e and a l l o f h e r goods w e re f o r f e i t e d . ( 4 c )
4 . THE LAWS COICERHIIG THEFT.
T h e iv in g was th e c rim e m o st e x t e n s iv e ly le g is la t e d
a g a in s t i n t h e A n g lo - Saxon p e r io d . E v e ry w it a n in c r e a s e d th e body
o f la w a g a in s t t h i e v i n g and s o u g h t to p u t down t h e f t by th e in
flic tio n o f d r a s tic p u n is h m e n ts , u n d e r K in g A e t h e l b e r t , t h i e v i n g
was p u n is h a b le by t r i p l e d and q u a d r u p le d f in e s . T h e fre e m a n t h a t
s to le fro m th e K in g p a id n in e f o l d "b o t";th e fre e m a n t h a t s t o l e
fr o m a fre e m a n p a id t h r e e f o l d "b o t" and th e -^ in g t o o Lk a l l o f h i s
c h a t t e l s . ( 4 i ) E v e ry man was to be i n a t e r r i t o r ia l f is c a l u n it o r
s e c u r i t y , e v e ry k in d r e d was made r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e p u n is h m e n t o f
its th ie v e s ,w h ile e v e ry i n d i v i d u a l was a u t h o r iz e d to ta k e a t h i e f
dead o r a liv e . T h e man who s e iz e d a t h i e f i n th e w oods and s le w .
h im , d e c la r e d t h a t he s le w th e m a n fo r a t h i e f , a n d th e n no " w e r "
was p a y a b le . (4 2 ) S h o u ld I h e t h i e f he s e iz e d and h e ld , h e was
lia b le to d e a th x m le s s redeem ed f o r h i s f u l l p r i c e . ( 4 3 ) The p e r
s o n who s e iz e d th e t h i e f was bound to h o ld h i m , f o r i f a man a l l
owed a t h i e f to asca pe he was l i a b l e to a f i n e ; i f th e e a ld o rm a n
l e t a t h i e f e s c a p e ,h e l o s t h is w h o le ’ s c i r " . (4 4 )To e n c o u ra g e th e
c a p tu r e o f t h ie v e s a re w a rd o f te n s c i l l i n g s was o f f e r e d to th e
c a p t o r . ( 4 5 ) So th e f i n d e r o f s t o le n f l e s h was to have i n f o r m a t io n
m a n e y .( 4 6 ) ln th e h u n d r e d ,e v e r y h u n d re d man had t o jo in in th e hue
and c r y o r j o i n in p a y in g h e a v y f i n e s if th e t h i e f e s c a p e d .(4 ? )
The t h i e f who made th e paym ent o f "w erR had t o make
r e s titu tio n o f t h e goods o r be p u t i n s la v e r y to w o rk o u t h i s d e b t.
If th e o f f e n d e r s f a m ily h a rb o re d laim , i t lo s t i t s fr e e d o m .( 4 8 )
The w i f e c o u ld c l e a r h e r s e l f by s w e a rin g t h a t she ha d n o t h in g to . do
w ith th e s t e a l i n g . I f th e t h i e f s t o l e w i t h o u t th e k n o w le d g e o f h is
h o u s e h o ld ,h e p a id a f i n e o f s ix ty s c i l l i n g s ; i f th e t h e f t was w i t h
k n o w le d g e o f h i s h o u s e h o ld , a ll w e re l i a b l e to be s o ld in to s la v
e ry , f 49)
H a r b o r in g a t h i e f was a s e r io u s o ff e n s e a g a in s t th e
c u s to m a ty la w . th e l o r d who was p r i v y to h i s th e o w 's th e ft,fo r
fe ite d th e th e o w and was l i a b l e in h is "w e r" f o t th e f i r s t o ff
ense; if he r e le a t e d th e o f f e n s e he became l i a b l e in a ll o f th e
g o o d s t h a t he h a d .T h e K in g 's tre a s u re « * o r re e v e who c o n n iv e d w i t h
t h ie v e s was l i a b l e to re m o v a l fro m o f f i c e and f o r f e i t u r e o f a l l th a t
he p o s s e s s e d .(>550 ) The p e r s in who h a rb o re d th e l o r d l e s s man was
o b lig e d to pa y f o r h im a c c o r d in g t o h is "w e r". ( 5 j c e o ri i sc

man who h a r b o r e d a t h i e f had th e b u rd e n o f c l e a r i n g h im s e lf. )
H a r b o r in g s t o l e n goods made th e p e rs o n l i a b l e to a h e a v y f i n e . (5 3 )
The com pou ndin g o f t h e f t s by th e r e c e i p t o f s t o l e n g o ods o r
money so as to s u p p re s s a n o t h e r ’ s r i g h t made th e com pounder l i a b l e
in h is " w e r " . (5 4 )
C nu t r e q u ir e d e v e ry man a b ove th e age o f tw e lv e t o sw
e a r t h a t he w o u ld n o t be t h i e f o r be i n c o l l u s i o n w i t h t h i e v e s . (5 5 )
U nder i n i , a b o y o f te n c o u ld be p r i v y to a t h e f t . (5 6 ) ^h e man
a c c u s e d o f t h e f t was o b lig e d to come t o - c o u r t , f o r s e v e r a l f a i l
u r e s to a n s w e r made h im l i a b l e as an o u t la w . E v a s io n o f j u s t i c e
and e v i l r e p u te w e re c o n c lu s iv e p r o o f o f g u i l t . (5 7 ) C a p tu re
a f t e r e v a s io n o f th e la w le d to m u t i l a t i o n . ( 5 8 ) A l l e sm b la n ce s
o f t h e f t w e re t o be k e p t d o w n ,fo e e v e ry a c c u s a tio n h a d to be answ
e r e d . i n i e n a c te d t h a t i f a fa r - c o m in g man jo u r n e y e d th r o u g h th e
w oods a r o u t o f th e h ig h w a y ,h e was to s h o u t o r b lo w h i s h o r n
o r be ta k e n f o r a t h i e f . (5 9 )
Man s t e a l i n g made a man l i a b l e to fo r fe itu r e and
d e a th . The fre e m a n who s t o l e a man was o b lig e d u p o n a c c u s a t io n ,
to c l e a r h i m s e l f b y th e r e q u ir e d num ber o f f r e e c o m p u r g a to r s . ( 6 q )
T h ie v in g i n a c h u rc h made th e t h i e f l i a b l e to fin e
and th e l o s s o f th e hand t h a t d id it u n le s s he w o u ld redeem th e
hand b y th e paym ent o f f u l l " w e r n . ( 6 l ) S t e a lin g on S u n d a y ,d u r
in g l e n t , o r o n C h r is tm a s ,o n E a s t e r , o r A s c e n c io n pay was p u n is h a b le
b y d o u b le f i n e . (6 2 ) I f anyone i n o rd e rs s to le , he made " b o t " as
w e l l as " w e r " . ( 6 3 )
T h ie v in g by b r e a k in g in to a m a n 's house any tim e

th r o u g h th e n i g h t made th e t h i e f l i a b l e to d e a th as a n o u tla w
if he w e re k i l l e d anjr tim e th r o u g h t h e n i g h t . ( 6 4 )
The p u rc h a s e r o f c a t t l e ha d t o p ro v e a good
w a r r a n t y when h is title was a s s a ile d o r s ta n d g u i l t y as a
t h i e f . i f he f a l s e l y d e c la r e d t h a t he b o u g h t c a t t l e w i t h w a r r
a n t y , h e was a t h i e f and f o r f e i t e d a l l o f h i s g o o d s . (6 5 ) So
s t o l e n p r o p e r t y s e ia e d i n th e h a nds o f a chapman ha d to be p ro v e d
b y good w itn e s s e s o r th e chapman s to o d l i a b l e as a t h i e f . (6 6 )
The c h i e f o b s t a c le to th e e n fo rc e m e n t o f th e s e
la w s a g a in s t t h ie v e s was th e p o w e r f u l k i n d r e d . ( 6 7 ) To o ve rcom e
t h i s . i t was e n a c te d t h a t th e s c i r s h o u ld be i n a s ta te o f war
b e f o r e any k in d r e d s h o u ld s ta n d o u t i n d e fia n c e o f th e l a w . j n
L o n d o n ,th e J u d i c ia C i v i t a t i s lo n d o n a e .a g u i l d f o r m u tu a l p r o -
t e c t io n , o r d a in e d t h a t i f a h u n d re d p ro v e d to o s t r o n g and r e
fu s e d to g iv e u p a t h i e f t h a t a l l th e g u i l d s h o u ld r i d e a g a in s t
t h e k i n d r e d . (6 8 )
The la r g e num ber o f p u n is h m e n ts d e v is e d to put
down t h i e v i n g e v id e n c e s th e p r e v a le n c e o f th e c r im e .F in e s w e re
made n in e f o l d ; f u l l " w e r " was d e m a n d e d ;th e t h i e f was s o ld in to
s la v e r y . T h e s la v e who s t o l e was f lo g g e d to de ath ;w om e n t h ie v e s
w e re Im rn e d . (6 9 )The c a p tu r e d t h i e f c o u ld be s o ld in to s la v e r y
b e yo n d th e s e a s ; s l a i n as an enemy o f th e s t a t e ; o r redeem ed w i t h
J (7 0 )
th e " w e r " .D e a th was a p e n a lt y demanded o f t h ie v e s i n th e la w s o f
in i, A l f r e d , a n d A e t h e l s t a n . (7 1 (
5 . THE K IN G ’ S T~ACE.
The id e a t h a t c rim e s w e re o ff e n c e s a g a in s t s o c
ie ty and t h a t th e o f f e n d e r m ust pay th e p e n a lt y f o r h i s m is d e e d s
was f i r s t m e n tio n e d i n th e la w s o f K in g i n i . i t s d e v e lo p m e n t was

s lo w e r i n E n g la n d th a n on th e c o n t i n e n t , o w in g p e rh a p s to th e
s t r e n g t h o f th e k in d r e d and th e p e r s is t e n c y o f th e fe n d and th e
!,w e r " . ( 7 2 ) The K in g ’ s Peace to o k i t s fo rm i n th e s y s te m o f m u t
u a l g iia r a n t e e b e tw e e n th e s e v e r a l p a r t i e s t h a t made u p th e s t a t e .
(7 3 ) The f i r s t means d e v is e d to h o ld men i n c h e c k was t h e o r g a n
iz a tio n o f a r t i f i c i a l u n i t s u n d e r th e s a n c t io n o f th e a u t h o r i t
i e s by w h ic h men w e re p u t u n d e r th e d i r e c t and l o c a l o f f i c e r s .
G u ild s w e re made up o f f a m i ly heads and fo rm e d a r t i f i c i a l f i s
c a l u n i t s . ( 7 4 ) The " g e g y ld a ’1 w e re th o s e t h a t m u t u a lly v o itc h e d
a n d p a id f o r ane a n o th e r u n d e r a s y s te m o f p e c u n ia r y m u l c t s . (7 5 )
o
Thus e v e ry man had a s u r i t y t o p r o t e c t h im when a c c u s e d ,to p r e
s e n t h im to ju s t i c e , a n d to pa y f o r h im when he was fin e * fe .(7 6 )
The f r a n k p le d g e was a b in d in g i n g ro u p s o f te n s as m u tu a l a id s in
t h e k e e p in g o f p e a c e .^7 7 ) The r e s u l t was t h a t a l l fre e m e n w e re
bo und t o g e t h e r i n a s y s te m o f m u tu a l g u a r a n te e .
The p r a c t i c a l w o r k in g s o f th e s y s te m w e re g o o d .
If t h e o f f e n d in g p e rs o n e s c a p e d ,h is g u a r a n to r s w e re l i a b l e un
le s s th e y p u rg e d th e m s e lv e s on o a t h . (7 8 ) So i f one was a c c iis e d
and he a n sw e re d to tr ia l, h is g iiild b r o t h e r s w a re h i s body o f
c o m p u r g a to r s . (7 9 ) ‘‘‘he m o st n o t a b le o f a l l th e a n c ie n t g u i l d s
was th e J u d i c ia C iv ita tis L o n d o n e n s is ,w h ic h was an o r g a n iz a t io n
f o r m u tu a l p r o t e c t i o n and th e p r e v e n t io n o f t h e f t . I t was made u p
o f a r t i f i c i a l g ro u p s o f te n s c a l l e d " h y n d s '! , s u p p o r te d by m u tu a l
g u a ra n te e s and fin a n c e d by a common p u rs e .T h e s t r e n g t h o f th e
o r g a n iz a tio n is seen by i t s e ig h t h c la u s e , w h ic h d e c la r e s t h a t
th e members w i l l f o r c e t h e ir r ig h ts a g a in s t th e p o w e r f u l k i n d
re d l i v i n g o u t s id e th e c i t y . ( 8 0 ) S o if a b re a c h o f peace was comm-

it t e d w ith in a to w u th e in h a b it a n t s w e r e to go i n p e rs o n and ta k e t h
w ro n g d o e rs o f t h e i r n e a r e s t o f k i n head f o r h e a d . I f th e in h a b it
a n ts w o u ld n o t g p th e K in g w e n t ; i f th e K in g w o u ld n o t go th e
w h o le d i s t r i c t was to be i n a s t a t e o f w a r . ( 8 i )
In th e g e n e r a l la w , fig h tin g o r d ra w in g w eapons i n
th e p re s e n c e o f t h e K in g so as to d e s tro y h is peace p u t th e
w ro n g d o e r u n d e r th e K in g 's m e rc y .A ls o th e r e w e re p r o v is io n s
a g is n s t th e le n d in g o f weapons w i t h w h ic h some one c o u ld be
k i l l e d . I f a d e a th f o llo w e d th e le n d in g o f an in s t r u m e n t o f w a r
th e rwo p a r t i e s w e re to jo in to g e th e r in th e paym ent o f th e
" w e r T,; b u t i f th e y c o u ld n o t be jo in e d t o g e t h e r , t h e b u rde nw as p u t
u p n n th e le n d e r to pay o n e - t h i r d " w e r a n d o n e - t h i r d w ite " .
The in f lu e n c e o f th e c h u rc h i s seen i n th e e s t a b l i s h
m ent o f a s y lu m s f o r o f f e n d e r s . I f a n yone f o r w h a te v e r c rim e
s o x ig h t any one o f th e "m y n s te rh a m s '' to w h ic h th e K i n g 's fe o rm
was a n i n c i d e n t o r anj? o t h e r f r e e nh i r e d 'T t h a t was w o r t h y o f r e
v e r e n c e ,h e was to have th r e e days i n w h ic h to p r o t e n t h i m s e l f
u n le e s he was w i l l i n g to come to te r m s .W h ile so p r o t e c t e d no
one s h o u ld harm h im u n d e r p e n a ltj? o f m a kin g " h o t " w i t h " w i t e TT
as w e l l as "W s r” . ( 8 2 )W hoever b ro k e th e K i n g 's s e c u r i t y was to
pay f i n e f o r th e p l a i n t and f i v e p o u n d s o f p e n c e .A n a r c h b is h o p 's
p r o t e c t i o n was s e c u re d by th r e e pounds TTb o t " , w h i l e any o t h e r
b is h o p 's o r e a ld o rm a n ’ s " b o t" ’ was two p o u n d s . ( 8 3 )E v e ry c h u rc h
h a llo w e d b y a b is h o p was a s a n c t u a r y , a r e fu g e f o r f l e e i n g c r
i m i n a l s . I f an o f f e n d e r re a c h e d a c h u rc h no one was to d ra g h im
o u t f o r a p e r io d o f se ve n d a y s .E v e n th o u g h he c o m m itte d m ore
w ron g t h e r e , h e c o u ld l i v e u n le B S he fo u g h t h i s way o u t .A s lo n g
as he was s o jc r a r n in g th e r e he was s a f e . ^ h i l e he was t h e r e , th e
c h u rc h b r e th r e n , u p o n f i n d i n g t h a t the;? had need f o r th e c h u rc h
w e re a llo w e d to rem ove h im to a n o th e r h o u se t h a t had no more
d o o rs th a n th e c h u rc h .T h e c h u rc h e a ld o r to o k c a re t h a t th e f u g
itiv e had no fo o d f o r seven d a y s , s h o u ld he g iv e o v e r h i s weapons
th e y w e re to kee p h im f o r t h i r t y days and th e n g iv e n o t i c e to
h is k in s m e n .(8 4 )
These m e th o d s show th e p r a c t i c a l b e n t o f th e e a r ly
A n g lo - Saxon la w m a k e r s .T h e ir s y s te n e f f e c t e d th e d e s tr u d tio n
o f th e k in d r e d and p u t men on a m u tu a l g u a ra n te e to kee p th e p e a
c e .T h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s a n c t u a r ie s g a ve men tim e to r e c o n s id e r
t h e i r a c t io n s and a llo w e d an i n t e r v a l f o r th e a n g ry p a s s io n s
o f men to g ro w q u ie t . T h e a u t h o r i t i e s , b o t h s e c u la r and e c c l e s i a s t
i c a l , w o rk e d o u t th e id e a o f th e K i n g ’ s p e a c e .
6 . ASSATTLTS AKD IIJT T R IE S .
The o ld A n g lO -S a x o n was h e ld r e s p o n s ib le f o r h is
^ to rts and th e t o r t s o f h is c h a t t e ls . H e p a id f i n e s f o r h is own
tr e s p a s s e s and th e tr e s p a s s e s o f h i s c a t t le ; h e w a s lia b le fo e any
in ju r y t h a t he cau sed w h e th e r i t was w i l l f u l , a c c id e n t a l o r n e g
lig e n t.If he f o u g h t i n a n o t h e r ’ s h o u s e ,h e p a id a f i n e fo r tre s
pa ss . (8 5 )When he c a l le d amob he p a id a f i n e e q u a l to ’’w e r " . ( 8 6 )
He who f o u g h t a t th e f o l c - m o t , p a i d a h e a v y f i n e . ( 8 7 ) I t was t r e s
p a ss t o p a s s o v e r a n o t h e r 's b o u n d a ry o r th r o u g h a n o t h e r 's f e n c e . (884
B o t was made f o r in ju r y to a fie ld o r a v in e y a r d .(8 9 )
S t e a li n g o r b o rro w in g a n o t h e r 's weapons o r g e t t i n g them

by f r a u d o r f o r c e fro m an a rm o u re r,w a s o f t e n done t o make f a l s e
e v id e n c e a g a in s t th e o w n e r. (9 c )T h e a rm o u re r a n s w e re d t o th e own
e r f o r th e s a fe c u s to d y and r e t u r n o f w eapons a t a l l h a z a r d s . (9 1 )
If a man f u r n is h e d weapons to a n o th e r i n tim e s t r i f e th o u g h no
e v i l w as d o n e , t h e " b o t " was s i x s c i l l i n g s . i f " w e g r e o f" was done,
T'b o t 'T was tw e n ty s c i l l i n g s . S h o u l d a man be k i l l e d , rb o t " was o n e -
h a l f " w e r ” . ( 9 2 ) So i f a p e rs o n s e t h i s s p e a r a t a n o t h e r 's door
and l e f t ^ i t t h e r e and a n o th e r came Tip and t o o k i t to do h a rm ,h e
who t o o k th e weapon p a id a f i n e and th e ow ner had to c le a r h im s e lf.
(9 3 )
The ow ner o f c a t t l e and dogs was l i a b l e fo r th e ir
m i s c h i e f . I f A ' o x g o re d a man o r a woman to d e a t h , t h e o x was to be
s to n e d and i t s f l e s h was n o t to be e a t e n . S c ie n t e r on th e l o r d ' s
p a r t o f th e c r u e l n a tu r e o f th e ox,m ade h im l i a b l e in h is life or
to th e pa ym en t o f f u l l " w e r ” a c c o r d in g to t h e d e c re e o f th e " w i t a n ” .
( 9 4 ) I f A* o x wounded 331 ox so t h a t i t d ie d ,A an fi B w e re to s e ll
th e liv in g o x and h a ve th e w o rth in com m on,but i f A h a d s c i e n t e r
he was to g iv e B an ox f o r th e one t h a t he h a d l o s t . (9 5 ) I f a
n e a t w ounded a m a n ,th e ow n er g a ve u p th e a n im a l and compounded f o r
its da m ag es(9 6) l i a b i l i t y fo r th e damages done by dogs was s e t o u t
i n a s c a le o f c o n p e n s a tio n i n th e la w s o f K in g A l f r e d . Where
c e o r ls had a common p a s t u r e , t h e ow ner who d id n o t fe n c e was l i a b l e
f o r th e damages done by h i s t r e s p a s s in g c a t t le . T h e w w ner who
fo u n d t r e s p a s s in g c a tt le on h i s la n d was to n o tify th e o w n er o f th e
c a t t l e . (9 7 '
The l i a b i l i t y f o r a c c id e n t was m easured a c c o r d in g

to th e n a tu r e o f th e a c t . i f A had a s p e a r o v e r h i s s h o u ld e r and
any man: was to s p e a r h im s e lf u p o n i t , A was to pay " w e r " w it h o u t
" w i t e ” . S h o u ld th e in j u r e d p e rs o n s ta k e h i m s e l f b e f o r e A ' s f a c e , A
was to pay f u l l " w e r ". Wh e n a c c u s e d o f w i l l f u l n e s s , A had t o c le a r
h im s e lf i f th e p o i n t w e re t h r e e f i n g e r s h ig h e r th a n th e h in d m o s t
p a r t o f th e s h a f t . If b o th ends w e re on a l e v e l , Ad
i n o t have to
c le a r h im s e lf . ( 9 8 )
A e t h e l b e r t ' s la w c o n ta in s th ir ty n in e c l a u ses f i x
in g c o m p e n s a tio n f o r th e d i s f i gurem ent o f p e rs o n s i n g u a r r e ls and
fig h ts .T h e o ld M o s a ic la w o f eye f o r e y e , t o o t h f o r t o o t h , and hand
f o r hand a p p e a rs i n t h e la w o f K in g A l f r e d . ( 9 9 ) A r e c i t a l o f th e
p r o v is i o n s in th e la w o f K in g A e t h e ls t a n w i l l show th e p r i n c i p l e
much l i k e th a t in th e m odern la w o f m ayhem . T w e lve s c i l l i n g s w e re
p a id f o r th e lo s s o f an e a r ; tw e n ty f i v e s c illin g s w e r e p a id i f d e a f
ness f o l l o w e d ; and th r e e s cil l i n g s w e re p a id i f th e e a r w e re p ie r c e d ,
(1 0 0 ) I f t h e nose w e re p ie r c e d , t h e f i n e was n in e s c i l l i n g s . ( 1 0 1 )
So each o f th e f o u r f r o n t t e e t h c o s t s i x s c i l l i n g s ; th e t o o t h n e x t
to them f o u r s c i l l i n g s ; and th e n a l l o t h e r t e e t h one s c i l l i n g each.
( 1 0 2 ) In th e same m anner th e f i n g e r s and th e to e s w e re p r o t e c t e d .
C o m p e n s a tio n f o r th e thum b was tw e n ty s c i l l i n g s ; th e s h o o tin g fin g e r
e i g h t s c i l l i n g s ; th e m id d le f i n g e r f o u r s c i l l i n g s ; th e r i n g fin g e r
s ix s c i l l i n g s ; and th e l i t t l e f i n g e r e le v e n s c i l l i n g s . ( 103) Thus th e
s y s te m c o v e re d any s o r t o f p h y s ic a l i n j u r y . Wh e t h e r o r n o t th e f i n e
was p a id as f i x e d damages i s an open q u e s t io n , b u t s in c e th e sums
p a id w e n t to th e i n ju r e d p e rs o n ,i t is s a fe to presum e t h a t i n le g a l
c o n te m p la tio n th e y com pensated th e i n d i v i d u a l f o r h i s lo s s .

7 . THE LAW COHCERHIHG INCESTUOUS PERSONS.
The s e c tio n s c o n c e rn in g in c e s tu o u s a c ts a r e fo u n d i n
th e e c c le s ia s t ic a l d iv is io n s o f th e la w .A ]th o u g h T a c it u s p r a is e d
th e c h a s t i t y o f th e G erm ans, an d a lth o u g h pagan A n g lo -S a x o n p o e t
r y has no h i n t o f u n c h a s t i t y , i t is s a fe to say t h a t u n s h a s te a c ts
w e re c o m m itte d to some d e g re e b e f o r e th e com ing o f C h r is tia n ity .
The c h u rc h s t r u c k a t f o r n i c a t i o n and a d u l t e r y w h e re v e r i t fo u n d
V
i t a n d i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e s t r i n g e n t la w s e n a c te d i n E n g la n d
th r o u g h th e in f l u e n c e o f th e c h u rc h w e re made as p r e c a u t io n a r y
m e a s u re s .T h e c h u rc h on th e c o n t in e n t had no d o iib t l e g i s l a t e d
a g a in s t th e u n c h a s te a c ts t h a t w e re common among th e s o u th e r n
E u ro p e a n s a n d may have a n t i c i p a t e d thesam e te n d e n c y to w a rd u n c h a s t
ity among th e A n g lo -S a x o n s .
F o r n i c a t i o n r e s u lt e d in d ir e p u n is h m e n t f o r e c c le s ia s t s
aad la y m e n .T h e p r i e s t who c o n n iv e d a t f o r n i c a t i o n l o s t h i s m in is t r j?
and was p la c e d in th e m e rcy o f th e b i s h o p . (1 04 ) A l l i n h o ly o r d e r s
who d id n o t m a in t a in c h a s t i t y fo r fe ite d t h e i r w o r ld ly p o s s e s s io n s
and a c o n s e c ra te d b u r i a l p l a c e . ( io 5 )S o th e la y m a n who c o m m itte d
f o r n i c a t i o n w i t h anun was d e n ie d C h r i s t i a n b u r i a l . f 1 0 6 ) F o r c in g
a nun was p a id f o r by deep pe nance b e fo r e God and th e w o r l d . ( i o 7 )
Men l i v i n g in illic it in t e r c o u r s e w e re a d m o n ish e d to ta k e to a
r ig h t e o u s life o r be s e p a r a te d fro m com munion w i t h th e c h u r c h . (1 0 8 )
F o r e ig n e r s w e re to cease f o r n i c a t i o n o r q u i t th e la n d w i t h th e ir
goods and t h e i r s i n s . (1 0 9 )
Rape by a man u p o n a fe m a le s la v e was p u n is h e d b y a
fin e o f fiv e s c illin g s and s i x t y c s illin g s f o r " w its ” . ( n G )

The c rim e was p x in is h a b le i n th e same d e g re e w h e th e r th e woman was
u n d e r age o r an a d u l t , f i l l ) The d e f i l i n g o f a w id o w was a g r e a t
w ro n g p u n is h a b le b y h e a vy " b o t " .(1 1 2 )
A lfr e d and G u th ru m i n t h e i r peace o r d a in e d t h a t
if any a d u l t e r e r s w e re fo u n d i n th e l a n d , t h a t th e y w e re to be
d r iv e n o u t so t h a t th e p e o p le c o u ld be c le a n s e d , o r th e y w e re to
p e r is h in th e c o u n tr y u n le s s th e y d e s is te d and p a id " b o t r' . ( n 3 )
Tê fre e m a n g u i l t y o f a d u lt e r y o f a d u lt e r y w i t h a fr e e m a n 's w i f e
p a id f o r h i s c rim e w i t h " w e r " and p r o v id e d a n o th e r w i f e w i t h h i s
own m o ney. f 1 1 4 )The K in g was to la v e th e t r u n k and th e b is h o p th e
lim b s o f a d u lt e r o u s p e rs o n s i n case nb o t rT was n o t made b r f o r e
God and malr. f T I 5 ) A d u lt e r y in th e la w o f Eadmund was p u n is h a b le
in th e same d e g re e as m u r d e r . (1 1 6 )
8 . S LAJTDER AED PERJTTRT.
S la n d e r , f a l s e a c c u s a tio n , a n d p e r j u r y w e re c rim e s
p u n is h a b le by f i n e s and m u t i l a t i o n in th e A n g lo - S axon la w . w ho
e v e r s la n d e r e d a n o th e r i n a n o t h e r 's h o use and s h a m e fu lly b e spoke
h im t h e r e w i t h a b u s iv e w o rd s p a id one s c i l l i n g fin e to th e ow ner
o f th e h o u s e . f n 7 ) A l f r e d , th e t r u t h t e l l e r , p a i d it down t h a t i f any
one c o m m itte d p u b l i c s la n d e r ,h e was to s u f f e r no le s s a p e n a lt y
th a n th e lo s s o f h i s t o n g u e . (1 1 8 ) so u n d e r E a d g a r, th e f a l s e accuser
w i t h damage r e s u l t i n g to th e a c c u s e d , was p u n is h e d b y th e re m o v a l
o f h is to n g u e and th e paym ent o f nw e r f' . ( n 9 )
He wh0 g a ve f a l s e w it n e s s o r sw ore a f a l s e o a th ,w a s
n e v e r a w it n e s s a g a i n . f l2 o ^ The p e r j u r e r s h o u ld n e v e r be o a t h
w o r t h y a g a in and he was to lie u n h a llo w e d u n le s s th e b is h o p sw ore
t h a t th e w it n e s s f o llo w e d th e c o u n s e l o f h is c o n fe s s o r i n g i v i n g
t h e t e s t im o n y . (*^21 ) I n E adm und's t im e , th e p e r j u r e r was c a s t o xit o f
com munion w i t h God u n le s s he d id p e n a n c e .(1 2 2 ) F a ls e h o o d a c c o r d in g
to th e o l d p r a c t i c e le d to much p e r j u r y and c o n te m p t f o r th e c h u rc h .
(1 2 3 ) He who compounded f o r th e " c e a p g e ld " , com pounded f o r th e
o r d e a l as he c o iild and n o t f o r th e " w i t e " . (1 3 4 ) S o, th e o f f e r e r o f
f a l s e w itn e s s e s f o r f e i t e d h i s w itn e s s e s f o r e v e r b e s id e s m a kin g
(h i m s e l f l i a b l e to a fin e o f th ir ty s c i l l i n g s . ( 1 2 5 ) From th e e a r lie s t
d a y, th e A n g lo -S a x o n has i n s i s t e d u p on s u b s t a n t i a l j u s t i c e based
upon th e t r u t h o f an is s u e b e tw e e n man and man.
9 . .HTHISHMENTS.
It is in te r e s tin g to n o te th e many d i f f e r e n t fo rm s
o f p u n is h m e n t i n f l i c t e d by th e a u t h o r i t i e s in th e ir e ffo rts to
c o n t r o l th e e v i l p a s s io n s s>f men. The e a r l i e s t fo r m o f p u n is h m e n t
was th e b lo o d - f e u d . F o llo w in g c l o s e ly u p o n t h i s came an a u t h o r iz e d
s u s te m o f m u lc ts and f i n e s based u p on th e s o c i a l s t a n d in g o f th e
in d iv id u a l. The i n e f f i c i e n c y o f th e s e fo rm s o f p u n is h m e n t le d to
th e d e p r i v a t i o n o f p r p p e r t y , t h e t a k in g o f life and m u t i l a t i o n . F o r
fe itu r e .a common enough p u n is h m e n t i n l a t e r A n g lo - s a x o n t im e s ,
was a d i r e c t o u tg r o w th o f th e f a i l u r e o f fin e s to s to p c r im e .(1 2 6 '
So f o r f e i t u r e was a p u n is h m e n t f o r t r e a s o n , f i g h t i n g in th e K i n g 's
h o u s e , a b e t t in g a t h i e f , a n d a d u lt e r y . ( 1 2 7 - 8 ) D e a th b y A l f r e d ' s tim e
cwas th e p u n is h m e n t f o r t r e a s o n , w i l l f u l m u r d e r , f o r c u r s in g o n e 's
f a t h e r and m o th e r , s t e a l i n g a fr e e m a n ,o r h a r b o r in g e x ile s and t h ie v e s
(1 2 9 ) ^ i r a t e s t h a t w e re c a p tu re d and b r o u g h t to A l f r e d w e re h a n g
ed on th e g a llo w s t r e e , th e common mode o f e x e c iit io n . ( l 3 r ) © IT tla w -

ry f o llo w e d th e m u rd e r o f a k in s m a n , t h ie v in g , a n d f a i l u r e to answ
e r in th e m o o t.T h e e f f e c t s o t o u t la w r y w e re t h a t th e o u tla w was an
e x ile t h a t c o iild he k i l l e d w i t h im p u n ity . M u t i l a t i o n was p u n is h m e n t
in some o f th e le s s e r c rim e s .A e d g a r was b lin d e d by th e o r d e r o f a ® -
t h e l r e d . (13 l ) A e lp h e lm 's m u rd e re rs w e re b l i n d e d . (1 3 2 ' By th e la w o f
C n u t,h a n d s w e re c u t o f f , e a rs w e re s l i t , a n d u p p e r l i p s w e re c u t aw ay.
( i 3 3 ) The to n g u e t h a t u t t e r e d s la n d e r o u s w o rd s w as c u t o u t . ( i 3 4 ^
The m a le s la v e t h a t was fo u n d g u i l t y a t th e o rd e a l, s u d d e re d b r a n d
in g a n d s c o u r g in g ; th e fe m a le s la v e g u i l t y a t th e o r d e a l was b u rn e d
to d e a t h . ^135^ T h e re i s no d o u b t b u t t h a t m u t i la t i o n , w h i c h was o f
Hebrew o r ig in , w a s b r o u g h t i n t o th e A n g lo -S a x o n la w a f t e r th e i n t r o
d u c t io n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
E x c o m m u n ic a tio n was a fo rm o f p u n is h m e n t u s e d
in p e r ju r y and f o r n i c a t i o n . f 1 3 6 ' Im p ris o n m e n t i s n o t m e n tio n e d i n
t h e e a r ly la w s , b u t i n th e p e o p le ’ s P.ank and la w s , im p r is o n m e n t was
a mode o f p u n is h m e n t. f 1 3 7 '
The s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t i n th e A n g lo -S a x o n scheme
o f p o l ic e g o v e rn m e n t 7/as th e s m a ll nom ber o f c a p i t a l o ff e n c e s .T h e
A n g lo -S a x o n w o u ld s c o u r g e , m u t ila t e , a n d e x a c t h e a v y f i n e s even to th e
p o in t o f f o r f e i t u r e o f a l l g o o d s ,b u t th e t a k in g o f life seams to
h a ve been c o n t r a r y to h i s id e a o f j u s t i c e except in th e m ost e x tre m e
cases.
IQ' «PROCEDURE.
The p ro c e d u re by w h ic h s u i t s w e re p r o s e c tite d i n
t h e A n g lo -S a x o n c o u r ts was s t i f f and u n c o m p ro m is in g . c i v i l and c r im
i n a l as w e lla s s e c u la r and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c a s e s , w e re n o t
d i s t i n g u i s h e d ; b u t i n th e o ld p r o c e d u re t h e r e w e re p r i n c i p l e s th a t
h a ve p e r s is t e d i n th e la w to th is d a y . C h a r a c te r was a p p e a le d to
much as i t is to -d a y in th e common la w c o u r t s . (1 3 8 ) He who p ro v e d
to be d is h o n e s t was n o t o a th w o r th y .A llm e n w e re a d m o n is h e d t o kee p
t h e i r o a th s and t h e i r "w e d s " .0 *%Ly j u s t dooms w e re to be p ro n o u n c e d
as o f f o l c - r i g h t and e v e ry s u i t was t o h a ve a tB B m .( i3 9 ) The de n
i e r o f j u s t i c e was h e a v i l y f i n e d ; w h i l e he who e va ded j u s t i c e
c o u ld be p u rs u e d and t r e a t e d as an o u t l a w . ( I 4 c ) R e p e a te d a b sence s
a t "grem ot" made th e a b s e n te e l i a b l e in fo r fe itu r e .( I4 i) i f veng
eance w e re ta k e n b e fo r e demand f o r ju s tic e ,th e damage had to be
p a id f o r . (1 4 2 ) T h u s, th o u g h no p r e s c r ib e d m ethod f o r com ing to
o o u r t was made i n th e la w , t h e A n g lo -S a x o n was c o n s r t a in e d to come
w hen j u s t i c e had to be p a s s e d u p on u n d e r p e n a lt y o f o u t la w r y and
th e pa ym en t o f f i n e s .
The c o u r ts m e n tio n e d i n th e c o s tu m a ls a r e th e
c o u n ty o r " s c i r - m o t " , : th e h u n d r e d - m o t,a n d th e " t u n - m o t " . i n a d d it
io n , th e W ita n and th e K in g s a t as t h e c o u rt o f la s t r e s o r t,to be
a p p e a le d to o n lj? when th e ju s tic e o f th e lo w e r c o u r t s h a d "been
e x h a tis te d . The " s c i r - m o t " was th e c o u r t o f a p p e a l n e x t a b ove th e
h u n d re d c o u r t . (1 4 3 ) The r e g u l a r te r m f o r th e h u n d re d c o u r t was
on ce i n f o u r w e e k s ; f o r t h e - " t u n - m o t " , e v e ry f o u r m o n th s , and f o r
t h e " 8 i r - m o t ’ , t w ic e a y e a r . ( l 4 4 ) The h u n d re d s o f t e n u n it e d - u n d e r
th e e a ld o rm a n o f th e " s c i r " a n d form ed, a s u b s id ia r y c o u r t . (1 4 5 )
The p r i v a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n was i n th e l o r d b a ro n c o u n ts ,a l o r d ' s
c o u rt f o r te n a n ts ,th e ju r is d ic tio n o f w h ic h i s s p o k e n o f as
" s a c and s o c ” ; t h a t i s , it im p o rte d p r i v a t e ju r is d ic tio n and th e
r i g h t to ta k e and e n jo y th e p r o f i t s th e re o f.
The o f f i c e r s o f th e p u b l i c c o u r t s and t h e i r d u t
ie s h a ve b e e n e x p la in e d i n th e c h a p te r on a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
A s u i t was s t a r t e d by th B s w e a rin g o f th e f o r e o a t h and th e d e p o s it
in g o f a p le d g e . T h is was n o t n e c e s s a ry w h e re th e f a c t s w e re de
f i n i t e , as w h e re a p a r t y showed h i s wound i n c o u r t . ( i 4 6 ) Where th e
c la im was f a l s e , t h e p a rty c o m p la in in g was s u b je c t to a f i n e . ( 1 4 7 '
E adw ard demanded th e to n g u e o f th e f a l s e a c c u s e r . (14:8}
P le a d in g was done b y a s y s te m o f o a t h - h e l p e r s . A
K i n g 's or, a b is h o p 's w o rd was x m im p e a c h a h le . a m i n s t e r 's " e a ld o r ”
c le a r e d h i m s e l f i n th e same way as a p r i e s t , w h i c h was i n h o ly g a r
m e nts b e fo r e t h e a l t a r , w i t h th e w o r d s , ” I s p e a k th e t r u t h in C h r is t,
I do n o t l i e . A c le r ic c le a r e d h i m s e l f as one o f f o u r o f h i s lik e ,
w i t h one h a nd on th e a l t a r and th e o t h e r c l e r i c s s ta n d in g b y and
a c co m p a n in g th e o a th . A s t r a n g e r c le a r e d h i m s e l f a t th e a l t a r on
h is own o a t h . (1 4 9 ) The fre e m a n c le a r e d h i m s e l f by th e p r o p e r num
b e r o f c o m p u rg a to rs and h i m s e l f i n an o a th ,e a c h a t th e " t u n ” to
whffiBh he b e lo n g e d . (1 5 0 ) The o a th was t h e p r im a r y mode o f p r o o f
t h a t w e n t to th e ju s tic e o f a c la im . The num ber o f c o m p u rg a to rs
v a r ie d a c c o r d in g to th e n a t t ir e o f th e case and th e r a n k o f th e p a r
tie s c o n c e r n e d .( i 5 l ) The c e o r l i s c man c le a r e d h i m s e l f a t th e a l t a r
w ith fo u r o f h is k in d .( l5 2 ) The o a th to c l e a r a " g e s it h c u n d ” man
was g r e a t e r and re tp u ir e d m ore h e lp e r s . T h e te rm s " t w e lv e h y n d e "
and "tw o h y n d e ” a r e c o n n e c te d w i t h s y s te m o f o a th h e lp in g - . T h e ir e x
p la n a tio n can be s i f t e d o u t o f th e la w s th e m s e lv e s . I n s e c t i o n 54
o f th e la w s o f r i n g J n i, " h y n d e n ” r e f e r s to th e s e t o f o a th h e lp e r s
s u p p o r t in g a k in s m a n . The o a th o f t h i r t y h id e s is th e o a th o f th e
K in g 's th a n e . The s i n g le o a th o f th e tw e lv e hynde man was te n
h i d e s ; w h il e th e o a th o f h im s e lf and h e lp e r s was one h u n d re d and

tw e n ty h id e s . So tw e lv e m e n ,e le v e n b e s id e s th e tw e lv e h y n d e man,
made u p th e f u l l h y n d e . in o r d e r to h a ve a s ta n d in g in c o u rt,th e
tw e lv e h yn d e man was o b lig e d to h a ve a f u l l m h y n d e ,w h ic h , it can
be s e e n ,d e p e n d e d u p on th e c o m p le te n e s s o f th e tw e lv e h yn de m a n's
fa m ily , "’he tw o hynde man had to come i n t o c o u r t w i t h o n ly one
s ix th as many h e lp e r s and h i s o a th was o n ly one s i x t h a s v a ^ a b le
as th e o a th o f th e tw e lv e hynde man. ’ lo r e o f t h i s d is tin c tio n w i l l
be d is c u s s e d i n th e c h a p te r on s o c i a l A n g lo - Saxon E n g la n d .
mhe a c c u s e d who c le a r e d h i m s e l f th r o u g h c o m p u rg a to rs
who s w o re to h i s in n o c e n c d and g o od c h a r a c t e r , f i r s t w e n t to th e " m o t”
and t h e r e p le a d e d h is in n o c e n c e ,a n d th e n p ro v e d h i s case w i t h th e
a id o f h is o a t h - h e l p e r s . An exa m ple o f th e p r a c t i c e i n v o u c h in g to
c a tt le w a rra n ty is s e t o u t i n pun s e ta s .w h e r e if th e c a t t l e w e re
a tt a c h e d and th e p a r t y had vou ch e d to w a r r a n t y . h e macle a d e p o s it
to in s u r e an end to th e s u i t . Then he who c la im e d th e c a t t l e , h im
s e l f one o f s i x , sw ore t h a t th e y w e re s t o l e n fro m h im ,a n d he who
v o u ch e d w a r r a n t y made o a th a lo n e t h a t he vou ch e d t o w a ® ra n ty fro m
th e p e rs o n t h a t s o ld to h i m . ( l 5 5 ) If a p r i e s t w e re a c c u s e d o f e v i l
p r a c tic e ,h e c e le b r a t e d mass and c le a r e d h i m s e l f on th e h o x is e l w i t h
two o f h i s fe llo w e c c l e s i a s t s . (1 5 4 ) The deacon when a c c u s e d i n a
s im p le s u i t , c l e a r e d h im s e lf w i t h tw o d e a c o n s ; if th e s u i t w e re t h r e e
fo ld ,h e c le a r e d h i m s e l f w i t h s ix d e a c o n s .( 1 5 5 )
F a c ts w e re in q u ir e d in to t o s u p p o r t a c la im in ca se s
o f w a rra n ty in th e t i t l e to c a t t l e . (1 5 6 ) so each to w n s h ip h a d to
p r o v id e s i x s w o rn w itn e s s e B o f s a le s so t h a t th e h u n d re d e a ld o r
c o u ld a p p ly to them f o r t e s t im o n y . f i 5 7 ) So i f a K e n t is h man b o u g h t
a c h a t t e l i n lo n d o n w ic .h e had two o r t h r e e w o r th y men to w it n e s s ,

so t h a t i f it a ft e r w a r d s w e re c la im e d hy a n o th e r ,h e c o u ld vo u c h
w a r r a n t y b y p r o v in g a t th e a l t a r w i t h th e w it n e s s e s , t h a t he b o u g h t
th e c h a t t e l o p e n ly i n th e " w ic " w i t h h i s own p r o p e r t y . I f l a w f u l
a v e rm e n t f a i l e d , h e fo r fe ite d th e c a t t l e . (1 5 8 ) i n p r o v in g title ,
w itn e s s e s w e re n e c e s s a ry to a w a r r a n t y b a c k to rn th e f o u r t h rem ove
fro m th e im m e d ia te p u r c h a s e r . f 1 5 9 ) A p u rc h a s e r i n case o f th e s e l l e r '
d e a th ,p r o v e d h i s w a r r a n t y a t th e s e l l e r ' s g r a v e . ( I6 c )
A l l men w e re ad m on ished to sw e a r t r u t h f u l l y and to
g iv e h o n e s t t e s t im o n y , i f . a man w e re c o n s t r a in e d u p o n o a th e i t h e r
to tr e a s o n a g a in s t h is lo r d ,o r to any it n l a w f u l a i d , t h e n it was ju s t o -
e r to b e l i e th a n f u l f i l l ; b u t i f A p le d g e d h i m s e l f to do a l a w f u l
a c ta n d th e n b e l ie d h im s e lf , h e was to s u b m is s iv e ly d e l i v e r up h is
w eapons and h i s goods to th e k e e p in g o f h i s fr ie n d s and he i n p r is o n
fo rty days i n th e K in g 's "tu n ". T h e re th e b is h o p was to p r e s c r ib e
p u n is h m e n t f o r h im and h i s k in s m e n w e re to fe e d h im . i f he w e re
f o r c e d to come to c o u r t , h i s w eapons and p r o p e r t y w e re f o r f e i t e d .
If he b r o k e p r is o n and awas r e c a p t u r e d , h is p u n is h m e n t was f o r t y
days m ore i n p r i s o n ; b u t i f he w e re n o t r e t a k e n , h e s u ffe re d excomm
u n ic a tio n fro m a l l o f C h r i s t ' s c h u rc h e s . ( I 6 i )
The o r d e a ls o f f i r e and w a te r wejfee em ployed to
s e t t le d is p u t e s and a d m in is t e r ju s t ic e . T h e s e o r d e a ls came to be th e
o n ly m e th o d o f p ro c e d u re i n case s o f t h e f t . T h e y w e re u s e d i n th e v
c h u rc h u n d e r th e s u p e r v is io n o f th e e c c l e s ia s t s . E v e ry man a ccu se d
had th e c h o ic e o f w a te r o r f i r e . ( i 6 3 ^ in t r i a l by w a te r ,th e m in is te r
o f t h e b i§ h o p s a t to see t h a t j u s t i c e was d o n e .(1 6 3 ) i n fa c t,w h e n
ever a ju s tic ia r y h e ld c o u r t , a m i n i s t e r o f th e b is h o p , was p r e s e n t
to add th e d i g n i t y o f th e c h u rc h and th e id e » o f G o b .(1 6 4 ) The

p ro c e d u re in h o t ir o n and w a te r was as f o l l o w s . A f t e r t h e f i r e was
c a r r ie d in to th e c h u rc h ,n o one h u t th e mass p r i e s t e n te r e d and t h e r e
he m e asured o f f n in e f e e t fro m th e s ta k e t o th e m a rk . The w a te r was
h e a te d lo w to b o i l i n g in an i r o n , h r a s s , l e a d , o r c la y k e t t l e . T f i t
w e re a s i n g l e a c c u s a t io n , t h e hand o f t h a a c c u s e d man w e n t a f t e r th e
s to n e u p t o th e w r i s t ; i f i t w e re t h r e e fo ld ,u p to th e e lb o w .T h e
hand t h r u s t i n was w ra p p e d f o r th r e e days b e fo r e th e c o v e r in g was
re m o v e d .T h e f i n e f o r r e fu s in g to p ro c e e d was 12? s o i l l i n g s . f 165)
The i r o n f o r th e th r e e fo ld o r d e a l w e ig h e d t h r e e p o u n d s ;th e s i n g le
a c c u s a t io n i r o n one p o u n d .(1 6 6 ) "Wed” f o r th e o r d e a l was made as
fo d lo w s . The a ccu se d w e n t to th e mass p r i e s t th r e e days b e fo r e th e
o r d e a l,w h e r e he was fe d w i t h b r e a d , w a t e r , s a l t , a n d h e rb s .H e a tte n d e d
mass u p o n each o f th e th r e e days and w e n t to h o u s e l on th e t h i r d .
Then he sw o re n o t g u i l t y . I f th e o r d e a l was w a te r ,h e d iv e d an e l l and
one h a l f by th e ro p e ; i f it w e re h o t i r o n th e hand was h o t to be u n
done f o r th r e e d a y s . f 167) I f a man w e re u n t r u e to th e h u n d re d and
t h r e e men t o g e t h e r a c c u s e d h im , he w e n t to th e t h r e e f o l d o r d e a l.If
th e lo r d v o u ch e d t h a t n e i t h e r o a th n o r o r d e a l had e v e r f a i l e d th e
a c c u s e d ,th e l o r d to o k tw o t r u e men i n th e h u n d re d who w i t h h im sw ore
t h a t n e i t h e r o a th n o r o r d e a l had f a i l e d h im ,a n d t h a t he h a d n e v e r pa
i d money f o r t h i e v i n g . I f th e n th e o a th s u c c e e d e d ,th e a c c u s e d man cho
se e i t h e r th e o r d e a l o r t h e pound w o r t h a a t h . I f he re fu s -e d to ta k e
th e o a t h , he w e n t t o th e t r i p l e o r d e a l. T h eaccu sed had f i v e men
w i t h h im ,a n d i f in th e o a th he w e re fo u n d f o u l , he p a id d o u b le
fin e to th e a c c u s e r and Tw e r" to th e lo r d .( l6 8 ^

The la w e x e r c is e d was c u s to m a ry .T h e p e o p le p a s s -
u p o n cu sto m and t h e n c a lle d u p o n th e K in g to e x e c u te t h e i r ju d g m e n t.
(1 6 9 ) The " W it a n " , t h e a u th o r ita tiv e th a n e s o f th e " s e i r " , e x p re s s e d

t h e i r v ie w s . So th e custo m o f th e S o i r ,T was u s e d as a means o f
d e te r m in in g r i g h t s . ( I 7 c ) i n e v e ry " t u n ” w e re s ta n d in g c o m m itte e s
o f t r u t h f u l men who a c te d as j u r o r s o r c o u n s e l f o r th e p re s e n tm e n t
o f c u s t o m . ( I 7 l ) I n a p p e a le d c a s e s ,th e l o c a l c u s to m fo rm e d th e
b a s is o f th e lit ig a n t 's r ig h ts .
P e n a lt ie s a f t e r a d j u d i c a t i o n w e re p a y a b le i n
s e v e n d a y s . (1 7 2 ) F in e s f o r b re a c h e s o f peace w e re p a y a b le to th e
p e rs o n w hose peace had been b ro k e n .H o p r o c e d u re in th e c o u r ts was
p e r m it t e d on c h u rc h d a y s ; o r d e a ls , o a t h s , a n d e x e c u tio n s o f c r im in a ls
v /e re p r o h i b i t e d . (1 7 3 )
The above p r o c e d u re was c r u d e ,b u t,; d e s ig n e d as
it w a s ,to g iv e e f f e c t to th e l a w s , i t c o n ta in e d p r i n c i p l e s th a t
h a ve re m a in e d i n th e E n g lis h (yommon la w .
1 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2440 .
2 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2 4 4 5 .
3 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2 4 5 0 .
4 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2 4 6 4 .
5 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2 3 8 0 .
6 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2390 .
7 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2 6 12 .
8 . B e o w u lf. L in e 2 6 12 .
9 . H e n ry th e F i r s t . C la u s e LXXXV.
1 0 . K e m b le . Sa xo ns i n E n g la n d . V. I . pp 2 7 1 .
1 1 . A lf r e d . S e c t. 42.
1 2 . Eadm und. S e c t. I .
1 3 .F lo r e n c e o f W o r c e s te r . C h ro n . 825 A . D .
1 4 .A n g lo - Sa xo n Ch r o n i c l e . C h ro n . 1080 A . D .
1 5 .A n g lo - Sa x o n Ch r o n i c l e . C h ro n . 1080 A . D.
1 6 . P o llo c k and M a it la n d . H i s t o r y o f E n g lis h Law.
1 7 .H e m b le . Saxons i n E n g la n d . V. I . pp 1 2 8 .
1 8 .Ke m b le . Saxons i n E n g la n d . V. I. pp 2 1 7.
1 9 .A l f r e d a n d a u th ru m . S e c t. 3.
20.E adm und. S e c t. j.
2 1 . No rm an Vie w o f We s s e x Cu s to m . Se c t . 6.
2 2 . A e t h e lr e d . S e c t. I2 , i3 , j4 .
2 3 .D ia lo g u e s o f A rc h b is h o p E g b e r t. Seebohm.
2 4 .A l f r e d . S e c t. 29.
2 5 .A lfr e d . S e c t. 3c.
2 6 .A l f r e d . S e c t. 3 l.
2 7 . P o llo c k and M a it la n d , w is t o r y o f E n g lis h Law .

■ ° nr» 29*
C n u t. p a rt 2. S e c t. g f j.
2 9 . Cn u t .
30. H lo th h a e r e . S e c t. 1.
32. H lo t h h a e r e . Sec t . 4.
33. A lfr e d . S e c t. 27.
34. A lfr e d . S e c t. 28.
35. A lfr e d . S e c t. 27.
36. Dia lo g q u e o f A rc h b is h o p Eg b e r t . Seebohm.
37. A lfr e d . S e c t. 42.
38. A lfr e d . P a rt 2 . S e c t. 13.
39. A lfr e d . Pa r t 2 S e c t. 13.
40. Ed w a rd t h e C o n fe s s o r. S e c t. 1 9 .
41 . A e th e lb e r t. S e c t. 4 , 9 .
42. In i. S e c t. 20.
43. In i. S e c t. 12.
44. In i. S e c t. 28.
45. In i. S e c t. 28.
46. I n i. S e c t. 17.
47. Cn u t . P a rt 2 . S e c t. 21.
48. I n i. S e c t. 7 ,57.
49. In i. S e c t. 7.
50. A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 5.
51. A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 2.
52. In i. S e c t. 30.
53. In i. S e c t. 46.
54. A e t h e ls t a n . In i. S e c t. 8.
55. Cn u t . P a rt 2 . S e c t. 21.
56. In i. S e c t. 18.
5 7 . Ea d g a r . P a rt 3. S e c t. 7.
Cn u t . P a rt 2. S e c t. 3 3 .
58. In i. Sec t . 1 8 .
59. In i. S e c t. I.
61. A lfr e d . P a rt 2. S e c t. 6.
62. A lfr e d . P a rt 5. S e c t. 5.
C n u t. P a rt 2. S e c t. 3 8 .
A lfr e d and G u th ru m. S e c t. 3.
64. A lfr e d . S e c t. 25 .
65 . S u p p le m e n t to t h e L aw o f Eadg a r . S e c t. II.
66. I n i. S e c t. 2 5 .
67. A e t h e ls t a n . P a rt 5. S e c t. 6.
6 8 . Germs and D e v e lo p m e n ts o f th e Laws o f E n g la n d , p p . 1 3 2 -4 0 .
69. Ae t h e l s t a n . P a rt 3. Sec t . 6.
70. Wi h t r a e d . S e c t. 2 6 .
71. A lfr e d . S e c t. 1 5 .
In i. S e c t. 1 2 .
A e t h e ls t a n . P a rt 3. S e c t. 6.
7 2 . P o llo c k and M a it la n d . H is t o r y o f E n g lis h La w . p p . 2 2 ,2 3 V . I .
73. K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I. p . 265.
74. K e m b le . S axons I n E n g la n d . V o l. I . p. 239.
75. K e m b le . S axons i n En g la n d . V o l. I. p . 240 .
7 5 . E a d g a r. P a rt 2. S e c t. 6.
A e t h e lr e d . S e c t. I.
77. K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I. p. 250.
78. K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I. p . 252.

7 9 . K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 1 . p . 2 5 2 .
8 0 . Germs and D e v e lo p m e n ts o f th e Laws o f E n g la n d . p . 13 2 -4 0 .
8 1 . A e t h e lr e d . S ec t . 6.
82. A lfr e d . C h u rch S o cn s. Sec t . 2.
83. A lfr e d C hu rch S o cn s. S e c t. 3.
84. A lfr e d . C hurch S o c n s . S e c t. 5.
85. H lo t h h a e r e . S e c t. 1 4 .
86. In i. S e c t. 1 5 .
87. A lfr e d . S e c t. 3 8 .
88. A e t h e lb e r t . S e c t. 2 9 .
89. A lfr e d . S e c t. 2 6 .
9 0 . P o llo c k and M a it la n d . H i s t o r y o f E n g lis h L a w . p p . 31 , 3 2 .
91. A lfr e d . Sec t . 1 9 .
92. A e t h e lb e r t . S e c t. 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 .
93. C n u t. S e c t. 7 6 .
C n u t. P a rt 2 . S e c t. 7 5 .
94. A lfr e d . S e c t. 2 1 .
95. A lfr e d . S e c t. 2 3 .
96. A lfr e d . Sec t . 2 4 .
97. I n i. S e c t. 4 2 .
98. A lfr e d Pa r t 2 . S e c t. 3 6 .
99. A lfr e d . S e c t. 1 9 .
1 0 0 . A e t h e lb e r t . S e c t. 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 2 .
1 0 1 . A e t h e lb e r t . S e c t. 4 5 , 4 6 , 4 7 .
102. A e t h e lb e r t . S e c t . 51 .
1 0 3 . A e t h e lb e r t . Sect . 5 4 .
1 0 4 . Wih t r a e d . S e c t. 6.
1 0 5 . Eadm und. E c c le s ia s t ic a l. S e c t. 1.
1 0 6 .E adm und. E c c le s ia s t ic a l. S e c t. 4.
1 0 7 . A e t h e lr e d . P a rt 6. S e c t. 39.
1 0 8 . W ih tr a e d . S e c t. 3.
1 0 9 .W ih tr a e d . S e c t. 6.
1 1 0 .A l f r e d . S e c t. 25.
11 1 .A lfr e d . S e c t. 25.
1 1 2 .A e th e lr e d . Pa r t 6. S e c t. 39.
1 1 3 . A l f r e d and Gu th ru m . S e c t.
1 1 4 . A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 31.
1 1 5 .A l f r e d a n d Gu t h r um. S e c t. 4.
116.Eadm und. S e c t. 4.
117. H lo t h h a e r e . S e c t. 11.
1 1 8 .A l f r e d . P a rt 2. S e c t. 32.
1 1 9 .E a d g a r. S e c t. 4.
1 2 0 . A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 10.
1 2 1 . A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 25.
T 22.E adm und. S e c t. 6.
1 2 3 .A l f r e d . S e c t. 33.
1 2 4 . A e t h e ls t a n .
1 2 5 .A e t h e ls t a n .
1 2 6 .K e m b le . Saxons i n E n g la n d . v o l. 2. p. 50 .
12 7 . I n i . S e c t. 6.
128 . A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 3.
129.A lfr e d . S e c t . 13 ,1 4 , 15 .
1 3 0 .F lo r e n c e o f W o r c e s te r . Ch r o l . 897 A . D .
1 3 1 .A n g lo -S a x o n C h r o n ic le . C h ro n . 993 A .P .
132 .A n g lo -S a x o n C h r o n ic le . C h ro n . 1006 A .P .
1 3 3 . C n u t. S e c t. 30.
134.A lfr e d . Pa r t 2 . S e c t. 32.
1 3 5 . C n u t. S e c t. 54.
1 3 6 .E adm und. S e c t. 6.
1 3 7 .P e o p le ’ s Law and R a n k. S e c t. I.
1 3 8 .K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. II p .252.
1 3 9 .E d w a rd . Doom and S u i t .
140 . Ea d g a r . P a rt 3 . S e c t. 7.
C n u t. Pa r t 2 . S e c t. 33.
14 1 . A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 20.
1 4 2 .K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I p .2 7 1 .
In i. S e c t. 9.
1 4 3 .S tu b b s . S e le c t C h a r te r s . pp. 10.
1 4 4 .K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I . p. 255.
1 4 5 .K e m b le . Saxo ns i n E ng la n d . V o l. I . p. 256.
1 4 6 .P o llo c k an d M a it la n d . H i s t o r y o f E n g lis h Law . pp. 16 .
1 4 7 .E ad w a rd . S e c t. 2.
1 4 8 .E a d w a rd . S e c t. 4.
1 4 9 . A e t h e lr e d . S e c t. 12.
1 5 0 .Wi h t r a e d . S e c t. 1 6 -2 0 .
1 5 1 .H lo th h a e r e . S e c t. 5.
1 5 2 .Pol l o c k a n d M a it la n d . H i s t o r y o f E n g lis h L aw .
1 5 3 .W ih tr a e d . S e c t. 21.
1 5 4 .D u n -S e ta s . S e c t. 8.
1 5 5 . C n u t. S e c t. 5*
1 5 6 .c n u t. S e c t. 5.
1 5 7 . E a d g a r. S e c t. I.
1 5 8 . H lo t h h a e r e . S e c t. 16.
1 5 9 . A e t h e lr e d . Pa r t 2 . S e c t. 9.
16 0 . I n i . S e c t. 53.
16 1.A lfr e d . Pa r t 1 . S e c t. 1 -8 .
1 6 2 .E th e lr e d . Pa r t 3. S e c t. 6.
16 3 .E d w a rd th e c o n fe s s o r . S e c t. 9.
1 6 4 .E dw ard t h e Co n f e s s o r . S e c t. 3.
1 6 5 .E d w a rd .
1 6 6 .E a d g a r .
1 6 7 . A e t h e ls t a n . S e c t. 23.
1 6 8 .Cn u t . S e c t. 30.
1 6 9 .K e m b le . S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l. 2 .p . 45.
17 0 . V i n o g r a d o f f . The G ro w th o f t h e M a n o r. P. 193.
1 7 1 .Vi n o g r a d o f f . The G ro w th o f th e Man o r . P. 193.
1 7 2 . H lo t h h a e r e . S e c t. 10.
1 7 3 .E d w a rd and G u th ru m . S e c t. 9.
SOCIAL RANK IN ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND.
P e r s o n a l r a n k i n A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d was in s e p a r a b ly c o n
n e c te d w i t h la n d h o ld in g , f o r a p e r s o n ’ s s o c i a l s t a n d in g depend
ed u p o n th e am ount o f la n d he h e ld . A man c o u ld , a c c o r d in g t o
S ch m id , h a v e a l l th e m a rks o f a 12 h y n d e man, b u t i f he d id
n o t h a v e th e la n d , he was b u t a c e o r l . So th e s o c i a l c la s s
e s , an d th e h o ld in g o f la n d can b e t r e a t e d i n one c h a p t e r .
The e a r l y K e n t is h la w r e c o g n iz e d t h r e e m a in c la s s e s each
o f w h ic h was d iv id e d i n t o th r e e g r a d e s . The d i s t i n c t i o n
seems to h a v e b e e n made f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f e s t im a t in g p e r s o n a l
ra n k and t r i b a l q u a lif ic a t io n s w it h o u t m a k in g d i s t i n c t i o n of
w e a lt h o r c o n n e c tio n s w i t h r o y a l t y . S e c tio n 16 o f
A e t h e l b e r t ’ s la w names " b i r e l e s ” o r c u p b e a re r s o f th e fir s t,
s e c o n d , an d t h i r d c la s s ; w h i l e t s e c t i o n i l l m e n tio n s g r in d i n g
s la v e s o f th e f i r s t a n d t h i r d c la s s . So th e "rnund ” o f th e
b e s t e a r lc u n d w id o w was 50 s c i l l i n g s ; se c o n d r a n k 2 0 s c . ; an d
th ir d r a n k 12 s c i l l i n g s . (2 ). The m a in d i v i s i o n s i n W essex
w e re c e o r l , fre e m a n , and th a n e . (3 ). B e lo w th e s e c la s s e s w ere
th e u n f r e e an d th e theowmen o r s la v e s .
An e x p la n a t io n o f th e te rm s u s e d i n d e s c r ib in g th e d
c la s s e s w i l l do away w it h c o n fu s io n . The n a t u r a l d i v i s i o n
o f f r e e a n d u n f r e e w h ic h f i r s t e x is t e d i n th e s i n g le f a m i l y ,
p e r s i s t e d th r o u g h o u t th e w h o le A n g lo -S a x o n p e r io d , b u t w i t h i n
th e f r e e c la s s e s w ere 12 h y n d e , 6 h y n d e a n d 2 h y n d e men; t h e r e
w e re th a n e s , fre e m e n and c e o r l s . So i n A e l f r e d ’ s la w a man
was s a id t o b e ’’ g e s ith c u n d ” c la s s . Among th e u n f r e e w e re
th e g e b u r s , c o t t e r te n a n ts , and theowm en o r s la v e s .
C h ie f among a l l fre e m e n was th e h l a f o r d i n W essex and
th e e a r l i n K e n t. The h l a f o r d who h a d c e r t a i n ju r is d ic tio n a l
p o w e r o v e r h i s men c a r r i e d o v e r i n a la r g e s c a le th e p a t r i
a rc h a l ju r is d ic tio n o f th e p r i v a t e fa m ily . In I n i's la w , he
was th e p r o t e c t i o n o f th e fre e m e n o f th e lo w e r d e g re e who d i d
not own la n d s ? h e was p a tr o n to th e u n d e r l in g s . He s u p p le m e n t
ed th e k in d r e d f o r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f c r i m i n a l s a g a in s t v io le n c e
a n d c o l l e c t e d a s h a re o f th e f i n e s r a is e d f o r b re a c h e s o f
peace. (4 ). The h l a f o r d h a d p o l i c e p o w e rs , f o r h e was b o u n d
to s u p p o r t th e g o v e rn m e n t b y w a tc h in g th e c o n d u c t o f h i s
c lie n ts a n d p r o d u c in g them when t h e r e was n e e d o f i t b e fo re
th e c o u r t s . (5 ). The h l a f o r d e n jo y e d h ig h e r p r iv e l e g s th a n th e
fre e m e n , f o r h e to o k p a r t i n th e W ita n w h ile h i s c la s s e x e c u te d
th e g e n e r a l w i l l . (6 ). Prom h i s c la s s was ch o se n ju d g e , p r ie s t
and K in g , and th e te n d e n c y fro m th e e a r l i e s t p e r io d was f o r th e
n o t ile man t o r i s e and th e fre e m a n to d im in is h i n th e same p r o
p o r tio n . (7 ). The f o r c e s th a T le a d to le a d e r s h ip in th e n o b le
c la s s w e re th e n a t u r a l d e s ir e f o r l e a d e r s h ip , d e s t r u c t io n o f
th e t i e s o f k in d r e d r e s u l t i n g in th e r i s e o f in d iv id u a l lo r d s ,
a n d th e g o v e rn m e n ta l p o l i c y in p o l i c e and l o c a l m a t t e r s . (8 ).
T h is c la s s was r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e p e r s is t e n c e o f Roman e s ta te s
in E n g lis h c u s to m . The lo r d s w ere th e h o ld e r s o f v a s t t r a c t s
o f la n d ;(9 ) th e y s y s te m a tiz e d th e n a t u r a l d i v i s i o n s o f f r e e and
th e u n f r e e so t h a t b y th e D a n is h p e r io d t h e r e w e re t r a c e s of
" n u lle te rre sa n s s e ig n e u r ” . (1 0 ). The la w s a s s is s t e d th e
lo r d s b y e s ta b lis h in g a ” la n d r ic a ” o v e r fr e e and s e r v ile
p o p u la t io n . (1 1 ). B y th e 1 1 th c e n t u r y th e a v e ra g e E n g lis h m a n
h a d a j u r i s d i c t i o n a l l o r d o v e r h im . (1 2 ). The a r i s t o c r a t i c
s u p e rs tru c tu re s la id as e a r l y as A e t h e l b e r t 's r e ig n w e re f a v o r
ed b y la w s and cu sto m s as w e l l as th e n a t u r a l a p t i t u d e fo r
le a d e r s h ip .
The h ig h e s t c la s s o f fre e m e n n e x t t o th e l o r d s was th e
th e g n o r W i g h t . T h is c la s s i s know n i n th e W essex la w s as
g e s ith c u n d and 12 h y n d e . The a v e ra g e g e s ith c u n d man o r t h e g n •
h e ld 1 0 .h id e s o f la n d , th o u g h n o t a l l g e s ith c u n d ra e n w e re la n d
h o ld e r s , f o r b y s e c t io n 51 o f I n i ' s la w s a g e s ith c u n d man not
h o ld in g la n d was b o u n d t o a t t e n d th e ” f y r d . ” Some o f th e
q u a lific a tio n s f o r th e s t a t u s o f th e g n w e re a c o a t o f m a il, a
h e m le t, a n d o v e r g e ld e d s w o rd . The s e r v ic e s o f th e th e g n ,
a c c o r d in g to th e R e c t it u d in e s S in g u la ru m P e rs o n a ru m w e re to
a c c o m p a n y th e K in g on h i s m i l i t a r y e x p e d it io n s , to a i d i n th e
b u ild in g o f c a s t le s and " b r i g b o t e ” . Thé th a n e was a s o l d i e r
f i r s t and a l a n d l o r d s e c o n d , f o r i f he f a i l e d to a tte n d th e
” f y r d ” he l o s t h i s la n d . (1 5 ). As l a n d l o r d , he h a d to make
p r o v is io n s f o r th e c u l t i v a t i o n o f th e la n d . I f he h a d 20
h id e s o f la n d , 12 w ere to b e ” g e s e t t e s M; i f he h a d 10 h id e s ,
6 w e re t o b e ” g e s e t t e s ” . He f u r n is h e d t h e t e n a n t and u p o n th e
t e n a n t 's d e a th a l l r e v e r t e d to th e th a n e . (1 4 ). A ls o th e t \ i
th e g n was a c o u r t i e r and h a d d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h th e K in g
b y d o in g s e r v ic e f o r h im i n th e h a l l . (1 5 ). As a g e n t f o r th e
g o v e rn m e n t, h e was a s o r t o f p o t e n t a t e i n l o c a l a f f a i r s w h e re
♦
he r u le d h i s d e p e n d e n ts and p e a s a n t n e ig h b o r s i n m a tte r s of
ju s tic e and p o lic e . (1 6 ).

The s i x h y n d e man a p p e a rs i n A e l f r e d 's la w as a la n d
h o ld e r . (1 7 ). He was a s t r o n g e r i n b lo o d a n d was d e s c r ib e d
as ww e a lt h " ; E . , one o f th o s e n o t r e c o g n iz e d as o f A n g lo -S a x o n
b lo o d . The " w e a lh " b e s e c t io n 24 o f I n i ' s la w became s i x
h y n d e when a c q u ir e d 5 h id e s o f la n d ; t h a t i s , b y a c q u ir in g
th e la n d , h e moved h a l f way u p th e s o c i a l s c a le w ith a w e r
g ild one h a l f t h a t o f th e th e g n . The e x p la n a t io n o f one
h a l f w e r g i l d s a n d 6 h y n d e , a c c o r d in g t o S eeb olm , is fo u n d on
t h e c o n t in e n t . U n d e r th e L e x S a l i c a , th e G a llo Roman, a s t r q n g -
e r i n b lo o d , h a d a " w e r " one h a l f t h a t o f th e I n g e n iu s . It is
c l e a r t h a t h a l f w e r g ild s w e re e x t a n t u p o n th e c o n tin e tu T a n d i t
is v e r y p r o b a b le t h a t th e A n g lo -S a x o n c u s to m h a d i t s o r ig in in
th e e a r l i e r c o n t i n e n t a l s y s te m .
0 The c e o r l an d th e 2 h y n d e man w e re th e same. A lf r e d 's
la w o f s e c t io n 10 and 18 d e s c r ib e th e c e o r l as th e s m a lle s t o f
th e la n d h o ld e r s ; in s e c t io n s 2 9 , 3 0 , a n d 31 th e s m a lle s t la n d
h o ld e r i s sp o ke n o f as tw o h y n d e , So a c c o r d in g t o th e la w
th e c e o r l a n d th e two h yn d e man w e re th e same i n re g a rd to
la n d h o ld in g , and s in c e th e tw o h y n d e man was a g a f o l p a y in g
te n a n t, it fo llo w s t h a t th e c e o r l was g a f o l p a y in g . T h is
c la s s w i l l b e f u l l y d is c u s s e d i n th e s y s te m o f la n d h o ld in g .
% D if f e r e n c e s i n la n d h o ld in g made r e a l d i s t i n c t i o n s in th e
m ilita r y o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n . The h o ld e r s o ff 5 h id e s made u p
th e s ta n d in g a rm y . ( 1 7 ) . The v i r g a t e r s o £ b o v a te r s made u p th e
"fy rd ", a cum bro us and s lo w b o d y u s e d f o r l o c a l s e r v ic e . (1 8 ).
And r i g h t h e re i n th e r i s e o f th e la n d e d m i l i t a r y , th e s e p a ra
tio n o f th e m i l i t a r y and l a b o r in g c la s s e s to o k p la c e . (1 9 ).
The w a r r i o r c la s s ro s e w h ile th e v i r g a t e r s became m ore and

m ore l i k e la b o u r e r s ; th e y l o s t t h e i r c h a r a c t e r as s o l d i e r s an d
became i d e n t i f i e d w i t h th e la n d . (2 0 ).
The "co m e s” o r " g e s id " , d e s c r ib e d as th e m i l i t a r y by
K e m b le , was a b o d y o f th e y o u n g e r sons o f n o b le s who w e re g iv e n
fo o d and r a im e n t b y th e K in g who became to them "b e a g a b r y t t a " ,
o r "beah. g i f a " (2 1 ). The r e l a t i o n o f t h is body to th e K in g
was f e a l t y ; th e id e a o f fre e d o m g a ve way to th e id e a o f h o n o u r.
(2 2 ). The p r o p e r t y h e ld b y th e "c o m e s " c o n s is t e d o f h o r s e s
an d weapons w h ic h w ere " h e r e g e a t w e " , - th e m odern h e r i o t . ( 2 3 ) .
The f r e e c la s s e s i n A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d w e re n o t i n f l e x
ib le f o r e v e r y a c q u i s i t i o n o f la n d a f f e c t e d a c o r r e s p o n d in g
r is e in s c c ia l p o s itio n . (2 4 ). The h o ld in g o f one h id e moved
th e " w e a lh " u p t o th e c e o r l i s c c la s s ; fiv e h id e s r a is e d th e
E n g lis h m a n t o 12 h yn d e and th e W e lis c man t o s i x h y n d e , w h ile
b o t h w e re re n d e r e d f o l l o w e r s o f th e K in g b y d i r e c t s e r v i c e . (2 5 )
The th e g n who t h r o v e so t h a t he s e r v e d th e K in g a n d ro d e w i t h
th e K i n g 's h o u s e h o ld , if he th e n h a d a th e g n who f o llo w e d
h im to th e K i n g 's " h u t " and h a d f i v e h id e s o f la n d an d
who s e r v e d th e K in g i n th e h a ll^ a n d w e n t t h r e e tim e s v / it h h i s
e rra n d * t o th e K in g m ig h t t h e r e a f t e r r e p r e s e n t th e K in g b y h is
f o r e o a t h o r v a r io u s n e eds and h i s p l a i n t l a w f u l l y conduct
w h e re v e r h e a u g h t . (2 6 ). The th e g n who t h r o v e so t h a t he
became an e a r l was w o r th y o f e a r l r i g h t s . (2 7 ). A lfr e d in
c re a s e d th e num ber o f th e g n s b y c o n f e r r i n g th e g n p r i v i l e g s and
e n f o r c in g th e o b l ig a t i o n s o f th e g n h o o d u p o n a l l ow n e rs o f f i v e
h id e s o f la n d . (2 8 ). The c e o r l'w h o p r o s p e r e d so t h a t he
had f u l l y fiv e h id e s o f la n d , a c h u r c h , o r K i n g 's h a l l , b e l l

h o u s e and wb u r h g e a t" was w o r th y o f th e g n r i g h t . ( 2 9 ) .
B u t e ve n th o u g h a c e o r l th r o v e so t h a t he h a d a h e m le t,
a c o a t o f m a il, and a sw o rd o rn a m e n te d w i t h g o ld , if h e d id
n o t h a ve th e la n d he was n e v e r t h e le s s a c e o r l . So i f th e
sons o r g ra n d s o n s o f a c e o r l p ro p s p e re d so t h a t th e y h a d th e
la n d , th e y w e re to b e g e s ith c u n d . (5 0 ).
B e fo r e p a s s in g to th e u n f r e e c la s s e s we w i l l n o te th e
p r o v is i o n s made f o r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man an d w i f e . A lth o u g h
th e s p e a r a n d s p in d le d i s t i n c t i o n was made e a r l y i n A n g lo -
’............
Saxon h i s t o r y , and a lth o u g h s o c i e t y f o r a woman as f a r as
she Ar e p r e s e n *te d b y a man, y e t th e r e i s a b o d y o f la w r e c o g -

O '
n i z i n g c e r t a i n r i g h t s i n th e d o m e s tic r e l a t i o n s . M a r r ia g e
i n K e n t was a f a i r b o n a f i d e c o n t r a c t b e tw e e n th e k in d r e d . The
la w o r d a in e d t h a t i f a man b o u g h t a m a id , th e p u rc h a s e was to
s ta n d i f he m a d e ^ w ith b o na f i d e s , b u t i f t h e r e was g u i l e , he
was t o b r i n g h e r home a g a in and g e t h i s money b a c k . (3 1 ). So
if a man c a r r i e d o f f a m a id b y f o r c e h e was t o pay a h e a v y f i n e
a n d a f t e r w a r d s b u y th e woman fro m h e r o w n e r. (3 2 ). If she was
b e t r o t h e d t o a n o th e r i n money he made ” h o t ” in 20 s c . (3 3 ).
I n i o r d a in e d t h a t i f a man b o u g h t a w i f e and th e m a r r ia g e d i d
n o t ta k e p la c e t h a t he was to make wb o t * '. (3 4 ). He who b e t r o t h
ed a woman g a ve s e c u r i t y f o r k e e p in g h e r a c c o r d in g t o G o d 's la w
as a h u s b a n d s h o u ld h i s w i f e . (3 5 ). The b rid e g ro o m d e c la r e d
w h a t he w o u ld g r a n t th e w if e if she ch o se h i s w i l l and w h a t
h e w o u ld g r a n t h e r i f she l i v e d lo n g e r th a n he l i v e d . (3 6 ).
T h is a g re e d , she was p r e s e n t ly e n t i t l e d t o one h a l f th e p r o p
e r t y and to a l l if th e y ha d c h ild r e n ^ p r o v i d i n g she d id not

m a rry a g a in . (3 7 ). It was a ls o to be lo o k e d i n t o b e fo re
m a r r ia g e t h a t th e c o n t r a c t in g p a r t i e s , th r o u g h k in s h ip , w e r e h o t
to o n e a r l y a l l i e d . (3 8 ). A t th e n u p t i a l c e re m o n ie s t h e r e was
b y la w , in th e 1 1 th c e n t u r y , a m a s s - p r ie s t who w i t h G o d 's b le s s
in g b o u n d th e u n io n to a l l p r o p s p e r i t y . (3 9 ).
The w id o w had h e r p e rm a n e n t d o w er i n g o o d s , and h e r
m a r ita g iu m g iv e n t o h e r b y w r i t t e n ddeds o r p ro v e d b y th e
p r o d u c t io n o f w itn e s s e s . She h a d h e r " m o r g e n g y f t” and a t h i r d
p a rt o f a ll j o i n t a c q u i s i t i o n s b e s id e s h e r c lo t h e s and h e r b e d ,
b u t she r e c e iv e d n o t h in g f o r w h a t h a d b e e n consum ed i n c h a r i t y
? ‘ " .
o r common n e c e s s it y . ( 4 0 ) . I n K e n t is h ’ la w , th e w id o w i n case
o f is s u e , r e c e iv e d one h a l f o f th e p r o p e r t y . (4 1 ). C n u t made
a la w r e q u i r i n g e v e ry w idow to re m a in u n m a r r ie d f o r a tw e lv e
m o n th of\. p a in o f f o r f e i t i n g h e r "m o rg e n g y fu " a n d a l l h e r p r o p
e r t y b y h e r f i r s t husband. And e ve n i f she w e re ta k e n b y f o r c e
y e t u n le s s she was w i l l i n g t o go home a g a in fro m th e man, she
was t o f o r f e i t . (4 2 ). In case th e m a r r ie d woman d ie d b e f o r e
h e r husband, th e p r o p e r t y t h a t she b r o u g h t and t h a t g iv e n h e r
b y h e r husband w ent b a ck to h e r p a te r n a l r e la t iv e s . (4 3 ).
The c h i l d i n A n g lo -S a x o n la w was g iv e n i n t o th e c u s to d y
o f th e m o th e r a n d th e g u a r d ia n s h ip o f th e p a t e r n a l k i n . If
a h u s b a n d d ie d , w it h ; w if e and c h i l d liv in g , th e c h i l d f o llo w e d
th e m o th e r a n d s u f f i c i e n t g u a rd t o k e e p h i s p r o p e r t y u n t i l he
was 10 y e a r s o f age was k e p t b y th e p a t e r n a l k in d r e d . (4 4 ).
I n i g a ve th e c h i l d to th e m o th e r who was t o r e c e iv e 6 s . fo r
fo s t e r in g i t , a n d a cow i n sum m erând an o x i n w i n t e r . (4 5 ).
Widows w e re n o t t o b e i n j u r e d on p a in o f d e a th . ( 4 6 ) . T h eyha d
a r e a s o n a b le tim e i n w h ic h to pa y h e r i o t s and i f th e h e a d o f
th e f a m i l y f e l l on th e f i e l d o f b a ttle in th e p re s e n c e o f h i s
l o r d , h e r i o t s w e re e n t i r e l y excused. (4 7 ).
The f a t h e r ha d a b s o lu te c o n t r o l o f th e c h i l d even to its
life . So i t f o l l o w s he c o u ld s e l l i t in to s la v e r y . (4 8 ). L a te
in th e A n g lo -S a x o n p e r io d , th e s e l l i n g o f c h ild r e n in to bond
age was so p r e v a le n t t h a t i t was l e g i s l a t e d a g a in s t . (4 9 ). In
la w th e c h i l d f o llo w e d th e f a t h e r j u s t as i t does i n common
la w t o - d a y . So i f a w if e r e t u r n e d t o h e r k in d r e d she c o u ld
n o t ta k e th e c h i l d r e n if th e h u s b a n d w a n te d the m . (5 0 ). S te p
c h i l d r e n , w e re p r o t e c t e d fro m i n j u r y b u t i l l e g i m a t e c h ild r e n
c o u ld b e s o ld i n t o b o n d a g e . (5 1 ). The w e r f o r an i l l e g i m a t e
c h i l d was p a id t o th e l o r d s a n d th e K in g , fo r th e i l l e g i m a t e
<\ ..
c h i l d was n f c l l i u s f i l i u s . (5 2 ).
The c la s s e s o f th e u n f r e e c o n s is t e d i n th e g a f o l p a y in g
t e n a n t s , w h ic h w i l l b e d e s c r ib e d i n th e c h a p te r on la n d h o ld in g s
a n d th e th e o w o r s la v e . The s la v e s w e re b y f o r t u n e o f w a r;
m
s la v e s b e c a u s e o f b a n k r u p tc y ,a n d s la v e s e x n a t u r a . (5 3 ).
L i b e r t y was f o r f e i t e d f o r c r im e s , and i n w a r, th e v i c t o r h a d
th e r i g h t t o th e l i f e o f th e v a n q u is h e d . So he h a d a r i g h t t o
th e p e rs o n o f th e v a n q u is h e d . ( 5 4 ) . The w i t e th e o w was a p e r * :
s o n ' who h a d once b e en f r e e , b u t who fro m d e b t and c a la m it y
h a d su n k i n t o th r a ld o m . So f o r f e i t u r e o f a l l p o s s e s s io n s
l e d to s e r v it u d e . (5 5 ).
In c o n te m p la tio n o f la w th e s la v e was much l i k e a c h a t
te l. The l o r d c o l l e c t e d damages i f h is s la v e w e re i n j u r e d o r
s la in . If th e l o r d s le w h i s s la v e , it was h i s own l o s s . ( 5 6 ) .
The s la v e s w e re c u l t i v a t o r s , s h e p h e rd s , plo u g h m e n a n d g o a t -
h e rd e rs . T hese do n o t seem to bu rd e n so m e o c c u p a t io n s but
A e lfr ic in h is
d ia lo g u e s h a s th e th e o w s a y , in r e g a r d to h i s
vJ
w o rk , MM ic e l g e d e o r f h i t y s M.
The common mode o f d e a lin g w ith th e c r i m i n a l s la v e s was
to t u r n h im o v e r to th e o ffe n d e d k i n . The ow ner o f th e s la v e
t h a t h a d m u rd e re d was d u ty bound to s e t h im f r e e a n d h a n d h im
o v e r to th e o ffe n d e d k in d r e d . (5 7 ). If a " w ite th e o w * s le w
an E n g lis h m a n th e ow ner d e l iv e r e d h im u p a n d g a ve 60 s c . f o r
h is life . If th e ow ner w o u ld n o t g iv e t h a t sum f o r th e s la v e ,
he was o b lig e d t o e n fr a n c h is e h im . (5 8 ). In I n i , , th e ” w i t e
the ow ” who s t o l e h i m s l e f away was to b e h a n g e d and n o t h in g was
to b e p a id to th e l o r d . If a n yone s le w th e " w i t e theow ” n o th
in g was done t o th e k in d r e d u n le s s th e y redeem ed h im w i t h i n
12 ^m onths. (5 9 ). S in c e th e s la v e c o u ld n o t pa y money f o r
h is p e t t y c r im e s , he p a id i n h i s h id e w i t h th e l a s h . (6 0 ).
For th e ft, men s la v e s m ig h t be f lo g g e d to d e a th ; th e women
m ig h t b e b u r n e d . (6 1 ). Where a g ro u p o f s la v e s h a d c o m m itt
ed a c r im e , one o f th e f r o u p , ch o s e n b y l o t , s u f f e r e d f o r th e
s in s o f a l l . (6 2 ).
The s la v e h a d no p a r t i n th e s e lf- g o v e r n m e n t o f th e
p e o p le . He c o u ld n o t own p r o p e r t y , e it h e r b y a c q u is itio n o r
b y in h e r ita n c e . (6 3 ).
The l a t e r la w c o n c e r n in g th e d la v e was d e c id e d ly h u m a n i
ta r ia n . In I n i, a l l men o f W essex w e re o r d e r e d n o t to s e l l a
c o u n try m a n b e y o n d th e seas even th o u g h he be a s la v e o r j u s t l y
condemned t o s la v e r y . C h r i s t i a n men b y A e t h e l r e d 's and C n u t's

la w w e re n o t to be s o ld to th e h e a th e n . (6 4 ). A lfr e d set out
a t s e c t io n 11 t h a t i f a n yone b o u g h t a C h r i s t i a n s la v e , th e
s la v e was t o s e rv e 6 y e a rs and th e n be f o l k fre e , b u t i f he
w is h e d t o s ta y w ith h is lo r d , th e th e o w 's e a r was t o b o re d
th r o u g h an d th r o u g h i n ta k e n o f h i s s la v e r y . The c h u rc h g o t
a r e s p ite fo r th e s la v e on th e S a b b a th a n d on h ig h c h u rc h
f e s t iv it ie s . (6 5 ). The l o r d who c o m p e lle d h i s s la v e t o w o rk
b e tw e e n s u n s e t on S a tu rd a y and s u n s e t on S unday f o r f e i t e d th e
s la v e , ( 6 6 ) , who became f o l k fre e . (6 7 )« A l f r e d g a ve th e S la v e
th e p o w e r to b e q u e a th w h a te v e r p r o p e r t y h a d b e e n g iv e n h im f o r
G od*s sake o r t h a t he may h a ve e a rn e d i n h i s m o m e n ta ry l e i s u r e .
(6 8 ). I n th e l a t e Saxon p e r io d th e s la v e c o u ld b u y h i s own
%
fre e d o m . (6 9 ). A t h i r d p a r t y c o u ld b u y h im f o r m a n u m is s io n .
(7 0 ).
W hoever gave fre e d o m to h i s man a t th e a l t a r made h i s
man f o l k f r e e , b u t th e fre e d o m g i v e r k e p t th e w e r g i l d and th e
mund o f th e s la v e . (7 1 ). The a c t o f e m a n c ip a tio n was a t f i r s t
c o m p le te d i n th e p re s e n c e o f th e c o m m u n ity so th a t a l l
c la im s to th e fre e d m a n w ere e s to p p e d . (7 2 ). L a t e r th e a c t o f
e m a n c ip a tio n was done a t th e a l t a r . (7 3 ). A llo c iv il r ig h ts
d id n o t f o l l o w e m a n c ip a tio n , f o r th e l o r d k e p t th e in h e r it a n c e ^
th e w e r g i l d , a n d th e “ mundM o f th e e m a n c ip a te d s la v e . (7 4 ). As
la te a s th e tim e o f th e Norman c o n q u e s t, a la d y ( ie a t f la e d a
d ir e c te d th e m a n u m is s io n o f th o s e o f h e r s la v e s who h a d b e n t
th e fc r h e a d s i n th e e v i l d a y . (7 5 ).
2 . LAND HOLDINGS IN ANGLO SAXON ENGLAND.
The e a r l i e s t la n d h o ld in g s i n A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d was i n
common u n d e r th e A n g lo -S a x o n c o m m u n ity , h u t i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c
te n d e n c ie s and th e l a x s o c ia l o r g a n iz a t io n s in o l d E n g lis h
s o c ie ty le d to in e q u a lit ie s in th e h o ld in g o f th e la n d . (1 ).
The la w t r i e d to p r e v e n t th e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c te n d e n c ie s b y h o ld
in g th e t r i b e t o g e t h e r and b y th e f o r m a t io n o f g u i l d s as s u b
s titu te s f o r k in d r e d s , (2 ), b u t th e s y s te m o f p a tro n a g e w h ic h
had s ta r t e d e a r ly p e r s is te d and f lo u r is h e d . (3 ). The h l a f o r d
as e a r l y as I n i was g iv e n man m oney. (4 ). So th e h l a f o r d was
d u ty b o u n d t o a c t f o r h i s man. T h is showed a r e l a t i o n s h i p of
l o r d and man. (5 ). T h is r e l a t i o n r e q u ir e d a f i x e d s y s te m on
account o f a ll s o r ts o f m a te r ia l o b lig a t io n ^ W ith th e s t a r t
o f 4th e s y s te m , p a tro n a g e s t r u c k r o o t and d e v e lo p e d i n t o a la s t
in g l o r d s h i p o v e r fre e m e n and t h e i r la n d s . (6 ). O th e r te n d
e n c ie s to w a rd p a tro n a g e and th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f i n e q u a l i t i e s
w e re th e c h u rc h , (7 ), and th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a r is t o c r a c t ic
s o e ie t y ona t e r r i t o r i a l b a s i s . (8 ). P a t r im o n ia l j u s t i c e
was fo u n d e d e a r l y , th e h o u s e h o ld e r w i t h i n h i s own c lo s e had;
c o - e r c iv e p o w e rs o v e r a l l who d w e lt t h e r e i n ; th e l o r d w i t h i n
h®$ own do m a in s h a d c o - e r c iv e and j u d i c i a l pow er over who
d w e lt th e r e o n . (9 ). So w ib h th e in c r e a s e o f th e p e a s a n t c la s s
on th e l o r d s e s t a t e s c a u e ^ f.a n in c r e a s e o f l e g a l b u s in e s s ' f o r
m a n o r ia l c o u r t^ a n d th e d i r e c t p r e fe r m e n t o f th e p r e s c r i p t i v e
u s e o f sac and so c in c r e a s e d th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p a tr ia c h a l
ju r is d ic tio n . (1 0 ).
B e fo r e p r o c e e d in g w i t h th e wham" o r m anor we w i l l set
ou t b r ie fly th e common fo rm o f la n d h o ld in g . The o ld e s t fo r m

was th e m a rk , th e co m m u n ity o f h o u s e h o ld e r s in a v o lu n ta r y
a s s o c i a t io n f o r th e p u rp o s e o f c u l t i v a t i n g th e l a n d . ( 1 1 ) .
The e a r l i e s t A n g lo -S a x o n co m m u n ity was bound t o th e s o i l as a
c o n d it i o n in d e s p e n s ib le to th e e n jo y m e n t o f fre e m e n p r i v i l e g e s .
(1 2 ). T h is m a rk was f o llo w e d b y th e wt u n s h ip M, a m ore co m p a ct
fis c a l u n it, made u p f a m ilie s . The t u n s h ip was a f i s c a l p o - '
lic e u n it th a t in l a t e r A n g lo -S a x o n tim e s became th e u n i t f o r
th e p a ym e n t o f re v e n u e and th e m a in te n a n c e o f th e p e a c e . It
wasJ lo o k e d u p o n as a t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t made u p o f Mh i e v i s c s M
o r h id e s . (IS ). So t r i b u t e was im p o se d u p o n th e s h ir e s fro m
above; th e n p a r t i t i o n e d among th e h u n d r e d s ,a n d f i n a l l y a p p o rt
io n e d ‘ among th e s h i r e s . (1 4 ). H id a g e and D a n e g e ld w e re c r u s h
in g b u rd e n s t h a t f i n a l l y r e s t e d u p o n th e to w n s h ip among th e
s h a re h o ld e r s i n t h e ! s c o t and l o t . (1 5 ). The p r o p r i e t a r y and
e c o n o m ic h o ld in g s in th e to w n s h ip was s h a re h o l d i n g . The
s h a re s w ere o r g a n ic p a rfe t h a t s to o d in : o r g a n ic r e l a t i o n s h i p
to th e c o m p o s ite u n i t y o f th e “ tu n ” . (1 6 ). The * 'tu n H was i n
f a c t a num ber o f e q u a l s h a re s c a l l e d h id e s a r r a n g e d i n h id e s ,
h a l f h id e s a n d v i r g a t e s and q u a te r h id e s o r b o v a te s . (1 7 ).
The e a r l y h id e was n o t a m easure o f la n d f o r i t was to

cu
v a r ia b le . I t was A f i s c a l u n i t and was c a l l e d Mw e r h id e ” an d
Mg e ld hide** as d is t i n g u is h e d fro m th e r e a l h id e . (1 8 ). So
an e s t a t e m ig h t h a ve p a id g e ld enough f o r o n ly one t h i r d of a
h id e and n o t h a ve b e en com posed o f la n d enough f o r f i v e p lo u g h s .
(1 9 ). The g o v e rn m e n t p la c e d so many h id e s u p o n a d i s t r i c t and
le n g th e n e d o r in c re a s e d - th e b u rd e n o f t a x a t i o n w i t h th e h id e as
th e o f f i c i a l f i s c a l u n i t . (2 0 ). The f i e l d h id e was th e o r i g
i n a l f a m i ly h o l d in g . The u n i t f o r th e s i n g le h o u s e h o ld i n th e
Domeday b o o k , th e n o rm a l h id e , was 120 a c r e s . The o c c a s io n a l
m e n tio n o f h id e s among th e h u n d re d b y Bede p r e s e n ts s i n g le
in s t a n c e s . (2 1 ). The a p p o r tio n m e n t was made a c c o r d in g t o th e
a c t u a l a g r a r ia n f a c t s and th e h id e , h a l f h id e , v ir g a te an d
b o v a te w e re a c t u a l t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s . (2 2 ). An a c r e was th e
s q u a re m e asure o f th e f i e l d ; th e b o v a te was th e s h a re e q u a l to
th e w o rk o f one o x i n th e team o f a p lo u g h , th e tty o k e M p o in t e d
t o th e w o rk o f f o u r o x a b r e a s t and th e a c r e s t i l l e d b y th e m .
j>
The b o v a te an d y a r d la n d d e s ig n a te d th e h o ld in g o f th e p e a s a n t.
The h id e was th e u n i t o f o w n e r s h ip . (2 3 ). R eckoned I n
th e w o rk o f o x te a m s, th e h id e was o n ly s l i g h t l y v a r i a b l e w h ile
if sp o ke n o f i n te rm s o f a h o u s e h o ld i t v a r ie d much i n s i z e . (24
Bede, in MT r i b a l H id a g e ” a do cum e nt much o f th e same n a tu re
as th e Domesday B o o k , spoke o f a g r e a t e r num ber o f h id e s th a n
th e r e w e re i n th e tim e o f Domesday. These tw o o f f i c i a l te s ts
show t h a t th e h id e te n d e d t o be come s m a lle r as th e p o p u la t io n
in c r e a s e d , a lt h o u g h i n l e g a l c o n te m p la tio n 120 a c r e s c o m p ris e d
th is f a m ily s h a re . Land was f o l k l a n d , b o c la n d , and la e n la n d .
F o lc la n d was th e g e n e r a l name f o r a l l e s t a t e s save th e a l o i d of
th e f i r s t m arkm en. It was la n d h e ld i n common an d was s u b je c t
to r e n t s and r e v e r s io n s . (2 5 ). The b u rd e n o f f o l c l a n d w e re
m ilita r y s e r v ic e , r e p a i r o f ro a d s , w a tc h an d w o rd , and i n ’ r o y a l
h u n t in g , c o n ro y o f m e s s e n g e rs , h a r b o r in g o f th e K in g and p r o
v is io n s f o r h o r s e s , haw ks and h o u n d s . (2 6 ).
The p o w e r o f d is p o s a l o f f o l c l a n d was i n th e K in g an d
th e w it a n a n d th e p a s s in g o f t i t l e was b y some fo rm o f l i v e r y
o f s e is in . The common g r a n t was to th e p e rs o n who ha^L done

g r e a t p u b lic s e r v ic e , (2 7 ), and i t was so g r a n t e d a s e a r l y as
th e w r i t i n g o f js e o w u lf. (2 8 ). L a t e r h e r e d i t a r y e s t a t e s w e re
c r e a te d o u t o f i t w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t th e s t a t e lo s t its
r e v e r s io n . B y th e cu sto m o f th e f o l c th e r e c o u ld b e no a l i e n
a tio n fro m th e co m m u n ity b y th e k in d r e d a n d when th e i n d i v i d a l -
is tic te n d e n c y i n la n d h o ld in g a ro s e i n fo lc la n d , th e c o n s e n t
o f th e i n t e r e s t e d r e l a t i v e s o f th e a c t u a l h o ld e r was n e c e s s a r y
if it w e re g iv e n , o r s o ld , s till m ore d e v is e d o u t o f th e
n a t u r a l o r d e r o f s u c c e s s io n . (2 9 ).
The common p r e t e x t u p on w h ic h f o l k l a n d was c o n v e r te d
in t o " f o e la n d " was th e e r e c t io n and endowm ent o f a r e l i g i o u s
house. The r e s u l t o f such c o n v e r s io n was th e d e s t r u c t io n o f
th e r e v e r s i o n , w i t h e s c h e a t o n ly u p o n th e d e s t r u c t io n o f th e
p a r tic u la r house. (3 0 ). Thus s a ys B e d e , th e la n d was f r e e d
fr o m e a r t h l y w a r f a r e an d e a r t h l y s e r v ic e t o be e m p lo y e d in
h e a v e n ly w a r f a r e . ” Boc l a n d , r e l i e v e d fro m b u r d e n s , was a
s p e c ie s o f la n d h o ld in g g u a ra n te e d b y deed o r b o o k ; p r o t e c t e d by
e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a n a th e m a s, r o y a l a u t h o r i t y , th e so le m n p re s e n c e
o f w itn e s s e s an d t h e c o n s e n t o f th e f a m i l y . ” T h is was th e
te rra t e s t e m e n t t a le s o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n . (3 1 ). The ow n e r
c o u ld a l i e n a t e it og*yhis w i l l and he c o u ld d e fe a t ^ fe e h e ir . ( 3 2 ) .
When f o l c l a n d was changed to b o c la n d a r e c o r d was made b y th e
w it a n . (3 3 ). T h is fo rm o f la n d h o ld in g in c r e a s e d w i t h th e r i s e
o f th e l o r d a n d th e r e l i g i o u s h o u s e . G ra n ts w e re made i n
g ro u p s o f T e n . s h a re s o r m u l t i p l e s o f te n as e v id e n c e ib y I n i ’ s
g r a n t to A ld h e lm and I n i to G la s to n b u r y , B o c la n d was s u b je c t
to r e c a l l an d c o u ld b e r e c o n v e r te d i n t o fo lc la n d . It was
b u rd e n e d w i t h m i l i t a r y s e r v ic e and was i n in s ta n c e s made

s u b je c t t o c o n d it io n s o f re m a in d e r and r e v e r s i o n . (3 3 ).
L a e n la n d was a m odern le a s e h o ld r e l a t i o n s h i p . The la n d
was r e n t e d f o r ;:a p e r io d w i t h la b o u r r e n t as th e o r d i n a r y co n
s id e r a tio n . The p e r io d was f o r y e a rs and a t w i l l . The r i g h t s
o f th e r e v e r s io n e r s w ere i n t a c t and c o u ld n o t b e f o r f e i t e d b y
th e a c t o f th e t e n a n t . ( 3 4 ) . B y th e 1 0 th c e n t u r y i t was common
to e x te n d la e n la n d t o e s t a t e s f o r l i f e o r liv e s . (3 5 ). R ent
was r e t u r n e d y e a r l y k i n d and c o n s is t e d o f a l e , oxen, fis h e s ,
cheeses, c o r n and m e a l. (3 6 ).
B u t in a l l te n u r e s th e id e a was to h o ld th e u n i t i n t a c t .
In s e r v ile o r c o lo n a r y te n e m e n ts th e l o r d s p o w e r r e g u la t e d s
s u c c e s s io n a n d r e s t r i c t e d th e h o ld in g i n t o a s i n g le h e i r . (3 7 )
W henever t h e r e was p a r t i t i o n it was a lw a y s r e g u l a r so t h e r e
w e re e i g h t h e i r s to a h id e ; f o u r t o a h a l f h id e ; tw o to a
y ir g a te and one to ^ b o v a te . B eyond t h i s num ber, w he re th e la n d e d
e s t a t e was one h i d ^ none o f th e h e i r s to o k . (3 8 ). The system
c a l l e d ” g a b e rn s c h a fe n M on th e c o n t in e n t an d g a v e l- k in d in Kent
was th e b e s t s y s te m f o r th e tim e ^ , f o r i t le g a liz e d th e u n io n s
o f c o h e ir s f o r th e c a r r y in g on o f h u s b a n d ry a rra n g e m e n ts on
s h a re la n d . (3 9 ). So th e a l i e n a t i o n o f la n d was r e s t r i c t e d è
to th e p a r t i c u l a r h o ld in g . T h e re was to b e no b r e a k in g up of
s h a re s b y g i v i n g , s e llin g , o r d e v is in g th e la n d s , fo r r e s tr ic
t i o n o f f a m i ly r i g h t s fo r b a d e i t . (4 0 ). The c Ê ie f f o r c e s mak
in g f o r p r i v a t e d is p o s itio n o f la n d s w e re th e c h u rc h and th e
K in g who u s e d th e la n d l a r g e l y i n th e r e - n u m e r a tio n o f th e s e r
v ic e s . (4 1 ) .
The e x is t e n c e o f e a r l s , a n d k in g s a n d m en’ s ’’ hams’’ an d
" tu n s ” in 602 A .D . shows th e e a r l y e s t a b lis h m e n t o f m a n o r ia l.

e s ta te s . (4 2 ). "Hams” and " t u n s ” i n A e t h e l b e r t ’ s tim e w e re i n
th e c o n t r o l o f i n d i v i d u a l s . (4 3 ). What was c a l l e d a "ha m " o r
"tu n " in th e la w , was i n r e a lity a m anor i n th e Norman sen se o f
th e w o rd ; an e s t a t e w it h a v i l l a g e c o m m u n ity on i t u n d e ra lo r d b
ju r is d ic tio n . (4 4 ). The l o r d h e ld a c e r t a i n num ber o f h id e s
p a r t o f w h ic h w e re " g e s e t t e s " la n d , c u l t i v a t e d b y th e " g e b u r "
and c o t t e r te n a n t. The t h e o r y was t h a t th e l o r d p u t a g e b u r
in as te n a n t; t h a t when th e g e b u r d ie d th e l o r d p u t i n h i s
s u c c e s s o r. The son o f th e g e b u r was g e n e r a l l y p u t i n b y th e
l o r d , a n d so g re w up a c ru d e s y s te m o f p rim o g e n i t u r e among th e
r e n t p a y in g te n a n ts an th e e a r l y A n g lo -S a x o n m a n o rs . (4 5 ).
The open f i e l d s y ste m was a p e c u l i a r u n io n o f i n d i v i d
u a l, and co m m u n ity p r i v i l e g e s w i t h i n th e m a n o r. The h o ld in g o f
each v i r g a t e r w e re l i t t l e d iv is io n s o f a c re s , h a l f a c re s and
fu r lo n g s th e open f i e l d s w ere num bers o f s t r i p s o f a r a b le la n d
s e p a r a te d b y t i S r f b a lk s s c a t t e r e d o v e r u n fe n c e d f i e l d s , copy
h o ld and f r e e h o l d s id e b y s id e and h u s b a n d ry was c o n t r o l l e d b y
r u le s c o n c e r n in g th e r o t a t i o n o f c ro p s . (4 6 ). Each v i r g a t e r
had t h i r t y s m a ll s t r i p s s c a t t e r e d th r o u g h o u t th e a r a b le la n d
o f th e m a n o r, w h ile th e p o s s e s s io n s h i f t e d fro m ow ner to o w n e r.
( 4 7 ) . As soon a s th e c ro p s w ere ta k e n th e a r a b le la n d r e v e r t e d
in to common p a s t u r e . T h is l i m i t e d th e i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s to th e
s i n g le y e a r a n d one c r o p , a f t e r w h ic h th e c o m m u n ity a s s e r te d
its r i g h t s u n t i l a n o th e r g ro w in g s e a s o n . (4 8 ). So th e p a s tu r e
k e p t b a la n c e b e tw e e h a g r i c u l t u r e and c a t t l e r a is in g . T h e re
was a d u ty t o m a in t a in a f a i r l y e q u a l d r iv in g o f c a tt le on th e
fa llo w . (4 9 ).
T h e re w e re tw o s y ste m s f o r th e r o t a t i o n o f c ro p s , th e
th r e e f i e l d and th e two f i e l d . The t h r e e fie ld s y s te m was a
r o ta tio n fro m w i n t e r s e e d , w h e a t, s p r in d s e e d , b a r e l y o r o a ts ,
and f a l l o w . By th e tw o f i e l d s y s te m t h e r e was a l t e r n a t e c ro p
and f a llo w . T h e re was a s m a ll b o d y o f c u s to m c o n c e r n in g woods,
e n c lo s u r e s and meadows. T 'rse s i n p r iv a t e woods wehe s p e c i a l l y
p r o t e c t e d , b u t h o u s e h o ld e rs h a d th e r i g h t to c u t f o r h e y b o te
and h o u s e b o te . (5 0 ). The t r e e was a p p r a is e d a c c o r d in g to its
v a lu e i n th e fe e d in g o f th e s w in e and each t e n a n t was a llo w e d
a c e r t a i n num ber o f s w in e in th e m a s t b e a r in g woods ( 5 1 ) . The

-
e n c lo s in g o f la n d s came i n t o d i r e c t o p p o s it io n w i t h th e p a s to r s
a l in te r e s ts o f co m m u n ity h o ld e r s . (5 2 ). B u t h e d g e s and fe n c e s
w e re k e p t , f o r b y th e K e n t is h la w , p a r c e n e r s w e re e n jo in e d to
ke e p u p h e d g e s f o r th e p r o j e c t i o n o f meadows. (5 3 ).
We now come to th e r e n t p a y in g te n a n ts u p o n th e m anors
a n d w i l l n o te t h e i r d u t ie s and mode o f s e t t le m e n t ^ th e common
t h i n g was f o r th e l o r d to p u t th e Mg e b u rw u p on a y a r d la n d co n
s is tin g o f 30 s c a t t e r e d s t r i p s . The t e n a t was f u r n is h e d w ith
o xe n a n d s e e d . (5 4 ). So th e Mg e b u rw g o t tw o o x e n , one cow,
s ix s h e e p , a n d se ve n a c r e s sown i n h i s y a r d la n d o r v i r g a t e . ( 5 5 )
If a man a g re e d f o r a y a r d la n d a t a f i x e d g a f a l , he d id n o t
need to ta k e i t u p o n h im i f th e l o r d w o u ld n o t g iv e h im a
d w e lli n g . (5 6 ). The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n l o r d and t e n a n t was
one o f l o r d and man. If th e t e n a t w e n t away fro m h i s l o r d and
s t o l e h im s fe lf away i n t o a n o th e r s h i r e , he was t o go b a c k t o h is
l o r d an d pay a f i n e o f 60 s c . (5 7 ). The s e r v ic e s o f th e g e b u r
w e re tw o f o l d . He p a id Mg a f a l w o r t r i b u t e i n money o r k i n d
an d a ls o in w o rk a t p lo w in g , s o w in g and r e a p in g . (5 8 ).
G a f o ly t h " was a s f o l l o w s ; m ic h a e lm a s he p a id g q .fo lp e n c e ;

m a rtin m a s , 23 s e s t e r s o f b a r l e y and tw o h e n s ; E a s te r on s h e e p ;
3 a c r e s sow n; h e a r t h p e n n y ; s i x lo a v e s t o th e s w in e h e rd . (5 9 ).
E x t r a s p e c ia l s e r v ic e s w ere i n th e fo rm o f week w o rk . The g e b u r
was to w o rk f o r a week w o rk ,tw o d a ys a t s u c h w o rk as he was b i d
th r o u g h o u t th e y e a r, and fro m C andlem as t o E a s te r , th r e e d a y s . (60
So e v e ry week th e g e b u r was t o w o rk as b i d e x c e p t t h r e e w ee ks,
one a t m id w in t e r , E a s te r , and a t Gang d a y . (6 1 ).
S i m i l a r to th e g e b u r , b u t h u m b le r i n s t a t i o n , was th e
¿ o tte r te n a n t. The n a tu r e o f h i s w o rk was o r d i n a r y la b o r f o r
th e l o r d , f o j^ h a ^ á a ^ no o x e n . The c o t t e r t e n a n t c o u ld n o t
p lo u g h . He p a id week w o rk , h e a rth p e n n y a n d c h u rc h s c o t at
M a rtin m a s . (6 2 ). The s e r v ic e s w e re g a th e r e d b y th e K in g 's
tu n g e r e f a whose d u ty it was to c a re f o r th e la n d . ( 6 3 ) .
S h o u ld a s e r v ic e p a y e r p e r s i s t i n n e g l e c t i n g t o pay h is lo r d 's
" g a fa l" h e was l i a b l e to f o r f e i t u r e o f g o o d s a n d to d e a t h . ( 6 4 ) .
S p e c ia l w o rk e rs i n th e v i l l a g e w e re s h e p h e rd s and s w in e h e rd
who a tt e n d e d f lo c k ^ a n d d ro v e s , and c o l l e c t e d g r a s s - g a f a l .
G re e ve s h a d c h a rg e o f th e f i e l d s , Im p oun de d t r e s p a s s in g * c a t t l e
a n d managed d r a in a g e . uWoodweardJ? lo o k e d a f t e r th e w oods, c u t
t i n g o f t im b e r , th e u se o f u n d e rw o o d a n d th e g a t h e r in g o f b r u s h
C ■
w ood. The h e d g e g u a rd ha d c h a rg e o f th e h e d g e s and b a lk s i n
th e open f i e l d p r a c tic e . (6 5 ).
The id e a o f th e o l d A n g lo -S a x o n m anor ca n b e h a d b y a
ro u g h d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e w o rk done and th e s e r v ic e s p e r fo r m e d .
The m anor a t Tydenham was Saxon s in c e 577 A . D . , and was g iv e n
b y th e K in g Edwy t o th e abbey o f B a th i n 956 A .D . So th e
s e r v ic e s a ro s e w h ile th e m anor was r o y a l . The r e c o r d show s,
at Dydenhamme 30 h id e s , 9 o f " i n l a n d and 21 o f " g e s e t t e s " .

The g e n e a t a t Dydehhamme w o rk e d a s w e l l o f f l a n d a s on la n d ,
w h ic h e v e r h e was o r d e r e d to d o ,a n d he r o d e ,a n d c a r r i e d lo a d s ,
an d d ro v e d r o v e s . (6 6 ). The wg e b u ru p lo u g h e d l / 2 a c r e as week
w o rk a n d , h im s e lf p re p a re d th e see d i n th e l o r d ' s h a m f o r w e ir
b u ild in g ^ h e made 40 l a r g e r o d s , o r one lo a d o f s m a ll ro d s , o r he
b u i l t 8 y o k e s and w a t t le d th r e e ebbs o f a c r e f e n c in g , ' he d id
fifte e n y a rd s o ^ d itc h in g f i f t e e n y a rd s . He made one r o d o f
b u r h fe n c e , re a p e d 1 /2 a c r e ; m o w e d f^ o n e -h a lf a s e s t e r o f honey
a t hammas; 6 s e s t e r s o f m a lt a t M a rtin m a s ^ and one c le w o f good
net yam . (6 7 ).
S e r v ic e s on a m anor o f K in g A l f r e d w ere p e rfo r m e d . E v e iy
h id e p a id 40 s c . a t th e h a r v e s t e q u in o x , and s i x c h u rc h m it t a n s
o f a le / ^ lt h r e e s e s te rs o f b re a d . T h re e a c r e s w e re to b e p lo u g h
ed i n t h e i r p r o p e r tim e s ; th r e e pounds o f b a r l e y ; one h a l f an

'Co
a c r e o f m ow ing an d th e r i c k i n g o f hay. The h o ld e r was s p l i t
f o u r lo a d s o f g o f a l w o o d la n d do s ix t e e n y a r d s o f fe n c in g ¿ a n d
^ t E a s te r p a y tw o ewes w i t h tw o la m b s ,w h ile sheep w e re t o b e
w o rk e d a n d s h e a re d i n th e r i g h t s e a s o n . (6 8 ).
2 . A e t h e lb e r t 7 5 .
5. In i, 45, 3 0 , 6 3 . A e lf r e d , 18, 10, 29, 39.
4. In i, 63.
5. P o l lo c k and M a it la n d . H i s t o r y E ng. Law . p 1 -6 .
6. K em ble S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l. p 135.
7. K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . V o l.l, p 135.
8. V in o g r a d o f f , The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r. p 217.
9j* V in o g r a d o f f , *» « m m m p 221.
1 0 .V in o g r a d o f f M « « H ” p 216.
1 1 .A e t h e lr e d I I I , 3 , C nu t 1 - 8 .
1 2 . V in o g r a d o f f , The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r. 216.
13. I n i 5 1 .
1 4 .S e e b o h n n . E ng. V i l l a g e C om m unity, p 1 3 9 .
1 5 . N o r th P e o p le * s Law s.
1^,. V in o g r a d o f f , The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r, p 2 2 1 .
17. V in o g r a d o f f , » « « " « p 2.1®.
18. V in o g r a d o f f , M " •* ” ** p 218.
19. V in o g r a d o f f , ** m « m m p 220.
20. V in o g ra d o ff, * » *♦ ” *» p 219.
21. K e m b le , S axons in E n g la n d . p 169.
22. K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . p 175.
23. K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d . p 178.
24. N o r t h P e o p le ’ s Law s. 9 .
2 5 . V in o g r a d o f f , The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r, p 1 2 8 .
26. N o r th P e o p le ’ s Law s.
27. N o r th P e o p le ’ s Law s. 5 .
2 8 . S tu b b s , C o n s titu tio n a l H is to r y V o l . l . p 191.
2 9 . N o r th P e o p le ’ s Law s.
30. N o r t h P e o p lê s Law . 1 0 .
31. A e th e lb e r t 77
32. A e th e lb e r t 82
33. A e th e lb e r t 83.
34. In i 27.
35. Eadmund 11, 1.
36. Eadmund 11, 3.
3 7 . Eadmund 11£.
3 8 . Eadmund 9 , E t h e i r ed V I . 12.
3 9 . Eadmund 8 .
4 0 . E t h e lr e d ’ s Compact w i t h O l a f . 22 an d 2 3 .
41. A e t h e lb e r t 78.
42. C nut 74 - 7 5 .
43. E t h e lr e d 87
4 4 . H lo th h a e r e 6 , K em ble V o l. I. p 259.
45. In i 38.
46. In i 34.
47. C nut 103.
48. K em ble V o l. I , p 198.
49. K em ble V o l. I , p 200.
50. A e th e lb e r t 80.
51. K em ble V o l. I , p 198.
52.
53. K em ble V o l. I , p 194.
64. K em ble V o l. I , p 186.
55. K em ble V o l. I , p 202.
56. K em ble V o l. I , p 209.
57. L e g is H e n r i 7 0 -5 .
H lo th h a e r e 1 , 3 .
58. I n i 74.
59. I n i 24..
6 0 . K em ble V o l. I , p 210.
6 1 . A e t h e ls t a n 111, 6.
6 2 . L e g is H e n ry 59 - 2 5 .
6 3 . K em ble V o l. I , p 191.
O • -
6 4 . A e t h e lr e d V o l. I I , p 119, Cnut 11, 3.
6 5 . K em ble V o l. I , p 212 - S axons i n E n g la n d .
66. I n i 3
67. C nut 45
68. A lfr e d 43.
6 9 . K em ble V o l. I , p 212. S axons i n E n g la n d .
7 0 . K em ble V o l. I , p 213.
7 1 . H lo th h a e r e 8.
7 2 . K em ble V o l. I , p 219. Saxons i n E n g la n d .
7 3 . K em ble V o l. I , p 224 n u n
7 4 . W ib t r a r d 8.
7 5 . K em ble V o l. I, p 196.
1. V in o g r a d o f f p 212
2. A e t h e ls t a n 1 1 , 2, 8 .
3. V in o g r a d o f f p 212 - 2 1 3 .
4. In i 70
o5 . A e t h e ls t a n 111, 4 ; IV . 5; V. 1.
6 . Domesday an d B eyond p 6 9 .
7 . V in o g r a d o f f p 217.
8 . V in o g r a d o f f p 214.
9 . E t h e lr e d 1, 10. I n i 22.
1 0 . Domesday an d B eyond p 2 6 6 .
1 1 . K e m b le , S axons i n E n g la n d Vo l . I, p 53.
1 2 . K e m b le , " " " V o l. I, p 88.
1 3 . A e t h e ls t a n V o l. I. Cnut 20, A lf r e d 27.
1 4 . V in o g r a d o f f p 1 9 6 . - The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r.
15. C nut 11, 49.
1 6 . V in d g r a d o f f p 1 5 0 . The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r.
1 7 . V in o g r a d o f f p 151. w *» " « .«
1 8 . V in o g r a d o f f p 153. M M w • *
1 9 . V in o g r a d o f f p 153. w *i « w it
2 0 . V in o g r a d o f f p 153. ” M M w w
2 1 . Domesday a n d B e yo n d , pp 507 - 08.
2 2 . V in o g r a d o f f p 1 5 9 . The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r,
2 3 . V in o g r a d o f f p 160. w « * « w
2 4 . V in o g r a d o f f p 162. M n u n n
2 5 . K e m b le , V o l. I, p 2 8 9 . S axons i n E n g la n d .
2 6 . K e m b le , v o l. I ? p 294. M M *
2 7 . K e m b le , V o l. I, p 289. ” ® w
28 . Beow nuf L . 59 7 7 .
29. V in o g r a d o f f p 14 3 . The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r,
30. K e m b le , V o l. I, p 3 0 2 . S axons i n E n g la n d .
31. V in o g r a d o f f p 2 0 9 . The G rw o th o f th e M a n o r.
32. H is to r y o f E ng. Law 1 1 , 2 5 2 .
3 3 . K e m b le , * V o l. I, p 3 0 5 -0 8 , S axons i n E n g la n d .
34. K e m b le , V o l. I , p 311. M • M
35. K e m b le , V o l. I , p 312. « " "
36. K e m b le , F o l. I , p 315. * ■ u ”
3 7 . S eebolnm p 5 1 2 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity.
3 8 . V in o g r a d o f f p 2 0 5 . The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r.
3 9 . V in o g ra d o ff p 206. ” " n u n
4 0 . V in o g ra d o ff p 208. « * » M "
4 1 . V in o g ra d o ff p 209. " " " w M
4 2 . S eebolnm p 1 7 9 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity.
43. A e th e lb e r t S e c t. 3 , 5, 13, 17.
4 4 . S eebolnm p 1 4 7 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e c o m m u n ity .
4 5 . S eebolnm p 177. w M *
46. S eebolnm p 13. m w «
47. S eebolnm p 206. M " n
4 8 . V in o g r a d o f f p 178 - 80.
4 9 . V in o g r a d o f f p 182.
5 0 . V ill e n a g e i n E n g la n d , p 2 7 6 .
5 1 . V in o g r a d o f f p 1 6 9 . The G ro w th o f th e M a nor.
5 2 . V in o g r a d o f f p 173. ” « m ii w
53. I n i 42
54. S eebolnm p 1 3 8 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity.
5 5 . S eebolnm p 138. w M **
5 6 . S eebolnm p 144. n n «
57. I n i 39.
5 8 . S eebolnm 140. E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity.
5 9 . S eebolnm 140. " " "
6 0 . S eebolnm p 141 m i * »
6 1 . S eebolnm p 163. « « »
6 2 . S eebolnm p 141. M w M
6 3 . S eebolnm p 143. » w «
6 4 . S upp. t o E a d g a r’ s Law.
65. V in o g r a d o ff p 1 9 0 . The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r.
66. S eebolnm p 1 5 4 . E n g lis h V i l l a g e C om m unity.
67. S eebolnm p 157. n u n
6 8 . S eebolnm p 162. M H w
COHCLTTSIOHS.
The s tu d e n t o f A n g lo -S a x o n la w and l e g a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
is im p re s s e d w i t h th e c o n t i n u i t y o f th e s y s te m .T h e w h o le scheme
moved on a n d d e v e lo p e d w it h , id e a o f u n i t y . The f e u d a l s u s te m has
its c ru d e b e g in n in g s i n th e tim e o f i n i . A l r e a d y t h e r e l a t i o n of
lo r d and man was b e in g fo rm e d .B y th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y m anors and
v a s t e s t a t e s w e re h e ld i n m o rtm a in .T h e b e g in n in g s w e re s m a ll , b u t '
by th e e le v e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e f e u d a l s y s te m w as^ w e l l on i t s w a y;
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f lo r d and man was e s t a b l i s h e d ; t h e in d iv id u a l
had been e m a n c ip a te d and lo o k e d to t h e l o r d o r th e c e n t r a l g o v e rn
m ent to kee p th e p e a c e .
The e a r l y A n g lo - Saxon k in g had l i t t l e r e a l p o w e r , f o r th e
e x e c u tiv e a u t h o r i t y was w id e s p re a d among th e e a ld o rm e n and th e
r e e v e s .B y th e e le v e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e K in g was t r e a t e d as th e head o f
th e n a t io n . S u c h p o w e r fu l r e g a l i a as th e o w n e rs h ip o f a l l p u b l i c
la n d s , t h e r ig h t to ta k e cases o u t o f th e la w c o u r t s , a n d th e r i g h t
to s e tt le lo r d s on e s ta te s w e re i n t h e cro w n i n th e tim e o f c n u t .
The e a r ly d is tin c tio n s b e tw e e n s o c i a l B la s s e s w e re de
te r m in e d b y th e h o ld in g o f th e la n d r a t h e r th a n b y b lo o d r e l a t i o n
s h ip .T h e r e s u l t was t h a t s o c i a l c la s s e s w e re n o t fix e d ;m e n c o u ld
r is e or fa ll in s o c i a l s ta n d in g w i t h th e in c r e a s e o r d e c re a s e o f
t h e i r a l o d i a l h o ld in g s .A c e o r l o f one g e n e r a t io n m ig h 4', have c h i l d
r e n a fid g r a n d c h ild r e n t h a t w e re " g e s it h c u n d " i n t h e s e c o n d o r t h i r d
g e n e r a t io n ; a tw e lv e hynde man m ig h t th r o u g h th e lo s s o f h i s p r o p
e rty by w h a te v e r m eans,becom e a 'Tw it e - t h e o w ,f, and a l l o f h i s sons
and d a u g h te r » b o rn w h ile he was i n bondage w o u ld be s la v e s ex- B a t
u r a . They i n t \ i r n m ig h t be m a n u m itte d and a f t e r a g e n e r a t io n o r tw o

th e TTw it e - t h e o w ' s " o f f s p r i n g m ig h t r i s e a g a in t o he " g e s it h e u n d " .
As lo n g as p r o p e r t y was th e t e s t f o r s o c i a l s ta n d in g ,m e n d id n o t
re m a in f i x e d i n one c la s s u n le s s th e y r e t a in e d t h e i r h o ld on th e
la n d .
The f i r s t in tim a tio n t h a t b lo o d w o u ld come to be th e t e s t
f o r s o c i a l s ta n d in g is fo u n d i n th e c ru d e p r im o - g e n it u r e t h a t grew
u p aiftong th e te n a n ts on th e A n g lo -S a x o n m a n o rs .T h e re th e son f o l l o w
ed th e f a t h e r so o f t e n t h a t a cu s to m g re w up on some m anors t h a t
th e o f f s p r in g s h o u ld f o l l o w th e a n c e s to r - T h e n e x t d e v e lo p m e n t t h a t
t h a t te n d e d to fix th e t e s t o f b lo o d f o r s o c i a l s ta n d in g to o k p la c e
in th e tim e o f C nut when th e fe w la n d e d l o r d s handed t h e i r e s ta te s
down t o th e ir e ld e s t s o n -T h e ohangB i n la n d h o ld in g by w h ic h th e
la n d was ta k e n o u t o f th e hands o f t h e f o l k and p la c e d i n th e hands
o f la n d e d p r o p r ie t o r s w i t h th e s u b s e q u e n t r i s e o f p r im o g e n it u r e
h a s te n e d th e f e u d a l s y s te m m ore th a n any o t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t f o r i t
te n d e d to fix th e s o c i a l e la s s e w so t h a t th e r e l a t i o n o f lo r d and
man c o u ld n o t be a lt e r e d *
The m o st s i g n f i c a n t d e v e lo p m e n t i n th e la n d h o ld in g was
th e b r e a k in g d o w n o f f o l k h o ld i n g s by th e c o n v e r s io n o f f o l c l a n d in to
b o e la n d w h ic h r e s u lt e d in t a k in g th e la n d o u t o f th e f o l k and p l a c
in g it u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f th e c h u rc h and th e p r i v a t e lo r d . T h u s
th e r e v e r s io n was e s t a b lis h e d in th e p r i v a t e lo r d and v a s t e s ta t e s
w e re h e ld i n m o rtm a in by th e c h u r c h .T h is d e v e lo p m e n t a id e d thse r i s e
o f th e i n d i v i d u a l f o r men no lo n g e r had th e f a m i ly o r f o l k r e la tio n
to r e l y u p o n b u t w e re o b lig e d to tu r n to th e c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t
f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l and p r o p e r t y r i g h t s - a s th e
k in d r e d w e a k e n e d ,th e s t a t e in c r e a s e d i n power**
The d is c u s s io n o f t h e la w s o f c rim e » and t o r t s and th e
p a r t t h a t t h e c h u rc h i n m a kin g and e x e c u tin g th e la w s p la y e d seems
to le a d to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e c h u rc h was n o t o n ly r e s p o n s ib le
f o r th e in c r e a s e in c r im e , b u t t h a t th e c h u rc h was h a rs h and b r u t & l
in its p x m is h m e n ts -B u t t h e r e a re more c o g e n t re a s o n s f o r th e i n
c re a s e o f c rim e i n A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d .T h e in c r e a s e in p o p u la t io n ,
in p ro p e rty r ig h t s and p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s in new and v a r ie d p u r
s u its a re a l l n a tte r s t h a t te n d to a c c o u n t f o r th e r i s e o f to rts
t o t h e p e rs o n and to p r o p e r ty * T h e b r e a k in g down o f t h e k in d r e d
and th e c o n s e q u e n t fre e d o m o f t h e in d iv id u a l, t h e r is e o f th e c e n tr a l
po w er and i t s e ffo rts to e s ta b lis h th e K in g ’ s peace a r e e le m e n ts
to be c o n s id e r e d i n th e s tu d y o f th e fo rm s o f p iin is h m e n t em ploye d
b y th e a u t h o r it ie s . T h e s e p u n is h m e n ts w e re im posed b y th e V it e n a -
ge m ot w h ic h was made up o f th e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l and t h e s e c u la r
a u t h o r i t i e s who g a ve t h e i r s a n c t io n to th e l a w s . I t i s h a rd to say
t h a t th e c h u rc h was r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e many p u n is h m e n ts im po sed
u p o n c r im in a ls * T he b e t t e r c o n B lu s io n i s t h a t t h e c h u rc h and th e
s t a t e w o rk e d t o g e t h e r to e s t a b l i s h th e K i n g 's peace i n A n g lo - s a x -
on E n g la n d *
The e s s e n t i a l p a r t t h a t th e c h u rc h to o k i n th e s e c u la r
g o v e rn m e n t was to add d i g n i t y to th e la w c o u r ts and see t h a t ju s tio e e
was p e rfo rm e d t h e r e «The c h u rc h was th e f i r s t s a n c tu a r y to. w h ic h th e
c r i m i n a l c o u ld f l e e ; t h e a l t a r wa» th e p la c e w h e re th e s la v e was man
u m it t e d . T h e m a r r ia g e cerem ony was s a n c t i f i e d by th e c h u rc h w h ic h
s o u g h t to add d i g n i t y and s t a b i l i t y to th e d o m e s tic r e la t i o n s . T h e
c h u rc h m ust be c o n s id e r e d i n th e s tu d y o f a l l b ra n c h e s o f th e A n g lo -
Saxon l a w , f o r as shown i n th e b o dy o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e c h u rc h men
to o k an a c t i v e p a r t i n th e le g is la tiv e ,e x e c u tiv e ,a d m in is tr a tiv e ,

a n d j u d i c i a l b ra n c h e s o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t-
some o f th e m o st n o ta b le s u r v i v a l s i n th e common la w
fro m t h e e a r ly A n g lo -^ a x o n la w w e re th e r e l a t i o n o f l o r d and man,
v ille n a g E on m a n o rs » m o rtm a in la n d s i n t h e c h u r c h , p r im o g e n it u r e in
r e m x r e . h e r io t s , m a r r ia g e u n d e r th e s a n c tity o f th e c h u rc h ,a n d th e
p re s e n c e o f t h e lo r d s e c c l e s i a s t i c a l i n th e m a in l e g i s l a t i v e body
in th e g o v e rn m e n t.
The e s s e n t ia l f a c t i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e A n g lo -
S axon la w is t h a t t h e r e was a s te a d y and u n in t e r u p t e d g r o w th ba sed
on c tis to m .^ h e r e w e re no sudden changes i n p o l i c y o r 4n th e fo rm
o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t.S u e h g r o w th a c c o u n ts f o r th e s t a b i l i t y o f th e la w s
and t h e i r p e r s is t e n c e i n t h e A n g lo -s a x o n scheme o f g o v e rn m e n t.
Bi b l i o g r a p h y .
Seebohm
The E n g lis h Vi l l a g e Co m m u n ity .
K e m b le .
Saxons i n E n g la n d . V o l. I I .
B ro o k e .
The H i s t o r y o f E a r ly E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e .
V in o g r a d o ff.
The G ro w th o f th e M a n o r.
S tu b b s .
S e le c t Char t e r s I llu s tr a tiv e o f E n g lis h Co n s t i t u t i o n a l
H is to r y .
M a it la n d .
Domesday and B e yo n d .
P o lla c k and M a it la n d .
H is to r y o f E n g lis h Law .
S te a r n .
Germs and D e v e lo p m e n ts o f th e Law o f E n g la n d .
T u rk .
The Law o f A l f r e d .
S tu b b s .
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y . V o l. I .
F lo r e n c e o f W o r c e s te r .
C h r o n ic le .
The I deas t h a t have I n flu e n c e d Ci v i l i z a t i o n . V.IV.
B e o w u lf.
THE COSTUMALS.
Laws o f K in g A e t h e lb a e r t .
K e n t . 560- 6 16 A . D .
Laws o f z in g s H lo th h a e r e and Ea d r i c .
K e n t. 6 7 3 -6 8 6 A .D .
Laws o f K in g W ih t r a e d .
K e n t. 6 9 0 -7 2 5 A .D .
Laws o f K in g A l f r e d .
We s s e x . 871- 9 01 A .D .
Laws o f Kin g E d w a rd .
9 0 1 -9 2 4 A .D .
Laws o f Kin g E dw ard and Cu th ru m .
9 0 1 -9 2 4 A .D .
Laws o f K in g A l f r e d and Go th ru m .
878 A .D .
Laws o f K in g A e t h e ls t a n .
We s s e x . 924 A .D .
Laws o f K in g Edmund.
We s s e x . 9 4 0 -9 4 6 A .D .
Laws o f Kin g E d g a r.
M e r c ia and No r t h u m b r ia . We s s e x . 9 5 9 -9 7 5 A .D .
la w s o f w in g c n u t .
1 0 1 7 -1 0 3 5 A .D .
Laws o f Kin g A e t h e lr e d ,
9 7 8 -1 0 1 6 A .D .
la w s o f z in g E dw ard th e c o n fe s s o r .
10 4 2 -1 0 6 6 A .D .
Laws: Ju d i c i a C iv iv ita tis Londonae.
A e t h e ls t a n . 924A .D .
SOURCES OF THE COSTUMALS.
T u rk .
The L aws o f K in g A l f r e d .
S te a r n s .
Germs and D e v e lo p m e n ts o f th e Laws o f E n g la n d .
Seebohm.
The E n g lis h Vi l l a g e Co m m u n ity .
S tu b b s .
S e le c t c h a r t e r s illu s tr a tiv e o f th e E n g lis h
C o n s titu tio n a l H is to r y .
The id e a s t h a t have in f lu e n c e d c iv iliz a tio n , y. IV .
T h o rp .
A n g lo - Sa xo n L aws .

The Development of Anglo-Saxon Juris-Prudence

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opm ent o f A n g lo -S a x o n ju r is p r u d e n c e fro m th e m ig r a t i o n o f th e

A n g le s a n d S axons down t o 1066. The la w as s e t o u t h e r e ha s

The T e u to n ic o c c u p a tio n o f B r i t a i n was a m ig r a t i o n of

fo lk t h a t came fro m a s e t t l e d c o u n tr y , w he re men l i v e d in com­

w ith th e same am ount o f o r g a n iz a t io n t h a t he p o s s e s s e d on th e

to ra l l if e fo r lif e in fix e d s e a ts o r c o m m u n itie s o r g a n iz e d

a c o n tin u o u s and p e rm a n e n t f a s h io n so as t o fu lfil th e n e e d s o f

ju s tic e . N a t u r a l d i v i s i o n s o f f a m i l y and k i n made way f o r

a r t i f i c i a l u n its known as th e " t u n " , Ms c i r " , " h u n d r e d " , a n d

2 . THE FAM ILY.

f a m ily , w h ic h i n o r g a n iz a t io n was fo rm e d o f a num ber o f i n d i v -

b o d y d i s t i n c t fro m th e i n d i v i d u a l m em bers. (5 ). The c o r p o r a t e

e n tity and re n d e r e d i t lia b le to th e i n j u r e d f a m i l y . {8 ).

tio n o f fin e s , th e s w e a rin g o f o a th s , p r o v is io n s in case o f

d e s titu tio n , w a tc h in g o v e r h i s o ffs p r in g a f t e r I t s d e a th , was

c o n tr o lle d d e f in it e t r a c t s known as "m e a rc " la n d , w h ile p la c e

came th e b a s is o f th e k in d r e d . (1 8 ). The son w e n t f o r t h and

s e t up h is own i n d i v i d u a l h o u s e h o ld and th u s th e f a m i l y became

t i o n made u p o f one h u n d r e d , o r one h u n d re d and e le v e n f a m i l i e s

a d m in is t e r in g ju s tic e . (2 0 ). The id e a was t o c e n t r a l i z e so­

r e g u l a t i o n s and th e k e e p in g o f th e K i n g 's peace. (2 4 ). A

d o m ic ile was th u s p r o v id e d f o r e v e r y man i n th e h u n d re d so t h a t

an d th e K i n g 's peace m a in ta in e d , E a d g a r m a d fth e h u n d re d r e s ­

p o n s ib le f o r c rim e s and b re a c h e s o f peace b y r e q u i r i n g th e

h u n d re d man t o r a i s e th e hue and c r y a g a in s t w ro n g d o e rs . (2 6 ).

o f f e n d e r was a t h i e f , th e “ c e a p g e ld " was p a id t o th e o w n e r of

p eace was f i n e d 30 pence f o r th e f i r s t o ffe n c e ; 60 p e nce f o r

fo r fe ite d a ll t h a t he h a d and became an o u t la w . (2 7 ).

The p r e s i d in g o f f i c e r was th e h u n d re d man whose d u ty i t

was t o summon th e h u n d re d 11m o t " , hue and c r y , a n d th e " s c l r mot*.'

The e a r l y h u n d re d man was e le c t e d , b u t in th e l a t e r p e r io d th e

m ore "m e a rc s " f o r r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l p u rp o s e s , ( 2 9 ) , w h ile

h a m le ts , l i b e r t i e s , w h e r e i n " b o r h " a tid “ f r i t h " w e re e s t a b lis h e d

b ilitie s t h a t h a d ISSshd^ them t o th e n a t u r a l f a m i l y u n i t . (3 1 ).

s y s te m o f w h ic h th e "m e a rc m o t" was th e f o u n d a t io n . (3 3 ). In

The ju d g e s w e re th e f o l k a s s e m b le d i n th e " m o t " .

The u n io n o f s c i r s was th e n a t i o n . A t its h e ad was th e

ra c e . The c h i e f e x e c u tiv e pow er was th e n a t i o n a l c o u n c i l , th e

" w it e n a g e m o t" , a b o d y made u p o f l o r d s e c c le s ia s t ic a l and

s e c u la r . Each o f th e seve n e a r l y k in g d o m s h a d i t s " w it e n a

g e m o t" . The n a t i o n a l c o u n c il d id n o t h a v e i t s r is e u n til

n a t i o n a l u n i t y was s e t b y th e c h u rc h i n its e c c l e s i a s t i c a l coun­

6 . THE WITENA - GEMOT OH NATIONAL COUNCIL.

The w ite n a g e m o t, w h ic h a p p e a rs as " m i c e l g e m o t " " l i c gem­

o t" , Was a d e v e lo p m e n t o f the C o u n c il o f th e N a t io n as d e s c r ib ­

ed i n T a c itu s . A t an e a r l y p e r io d i t was made u p o f t h e » f r e e ­

men o f th e N a t io n , b u t i n K in g I n i ' s tim e i t h a d become r e p r e ­

s e n t a t iv e a n d was made up o f a r c h - b is h o p s , b is h o p s and a b b o ts ,

p r ie s t s an d d e a c o n s , s h e r iffs and e a ld o rm e n . In tru th it was

The p o w e rs o f th e w ite n a gem ot w e re num erous a c c o r d in g

596 » 605 t o E a d w a rd . (4 4 ). The w isem en c o n s id e r e d e v e ry

a te d u p o n new la w s to be ad ded to th e " f e l c r i h t " . ( 4 5 ) . D u r in g

The c h i e f po w ers r e t a i n e d w e re l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l ,

w h ile a l l e x e c u t iv e pow er c e n tr e d i n th e K in g and th e f i s c a l

fo lk t h a t came fro m a s e t t l e d c o u n tr y , w he re men l i v e d in com

a d m in is t e r in g ju s tic e . (2 0 ). The id e a was t o c e n t r a l i z e so

an d th e K i n g 's peace m a in ta in e d , E a d g a r m a d fth e h u n d re d r e s

n a t i o n a l u n i t y was s e t b y th e c h u rc h i n its e c c l e s i a s t i c a l coun

The w ite n a g e m o t, w h ic h a p p e a rs as " m i c e l g e m o t " " l i c gem

o t" , Was a d e v e lo p m e n t o f the C o u n c il o f th e N a t io n as d e s c r ib

ed i n T a c itu s . A t an e a r l y p e r io d i t was made u p o f t h e » f r e e

men o f th e N a t io n , b u t i n K in g I n i ' s tim e i t h a d become r e p r e

f o r p u b lic expenses. L a t e r th e w ite n a p o s s e s s e d e x tra

Such a s s u m p tio n s o f p o w er show a te n d e n c y to w a fd o v e r c e n

S axon a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was th e e a ld o rm a n who a c te d as th e p r i n

The e a ld o rm a n *s d u t ie s w e re to h o l d " s c i r m o t" s e m i

o f God a n d o f man. (8 4 ). I n t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n s and th e f u n

p e n a lt y f o r r e f u s a l to p a y . (1 1 2 ). The “ s c i r g e r e f a " as summon

b o o ty o b t a in e d w h ile le a d in g th e s c i r men i n th e " f j r r d “ s u p p o r t