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Calculus, 4th
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1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW

1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs

Preliminary Questions
1. Give an example of numbers a and b such that a < b and |a| > |b|.

SOLUTION Take a = −3 and b = 1. Then a < b but |a| = 3 > 1 = |b|.

2. Which numbers satisfy |a| = a? Which satisfy |a| = −a? What about |−a| = a?

SOLUTION The numbers a ≥ 0 satisfy |a| = a and | − a| = a. The numbers a ≤ 0 satisfy |a| = −a.
3. Give an example of numbers a and b such that |a + b| < |a| + |b|.

SOLUTION Take a = −3 and b = 1. Then

|a + b| = | − 3 + 1| = | − 2| = 2, but |a| + |b| = | − 3| + |1| = 3 + 1 = 4

Thus, |a + b| < |a| + |b|.

4. Are there numbers a and b such that |a + b| > |a| + |b|?

SOLUTION No. By the triangle inequality, |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| for all real numbers a and b.
5. What are the coordinates of the point lying at the intersection of the lines x = 9 and y = −4?

SOLUTION The point (9, −4) lies at the intersection of the lines x = 9 and y = −4.
6. In which quadrant do the following points lie?
(a) (1, 4) (b) (−3, 2) (c) (4, −3) (d) (−4, −1)

SO LUTIO N
(a) Because both the x- and y-coordinates of the point (1, 4) are positive, the point (1, 4) lies in the first quadrant.
(b) Because the x-coordinate of the point (−3, 2) is negative but the y-coordinate is positive, the point (−3, 2) lies in the
second quadrant.
(c) Because the x-coordinate of the point (4, −3) is positive but the y-coordinate is negative, the point (4, −3) lies in the
fourth quadrant.
(d) Because both the x- and y-coordinates of the point (−4, −1) are negative, the point (−4, −1) lies in the third quadrant.

7. What is the radius of the circle with equation (x − 7)2 + (y − 8)2 = 9?

SOLUTION The circle with equation (x − 7)2 + (y − 8)2 = 9 has radius 3.
8. The equation f (x) = 5 has a solution if (choose one):
(a) 5 belongs to the domain of f .
(b) 5 belongs to the range of f .
SOLUTION The correct response is (b): the equation f (x) = 5 has a solution if 5 belongs to the range of f .
9. What kind of symmetry does the graph have if f (−x) = − f (x)?
SOLUTION If f (−x) = − f (x), then the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the origin.
10. Is there a function that is both even and odd?
SOLUTION Yes. The constant function f (x) = 0 for all real numbers x is both even and odd because

f (−x) = 0 = f (x)

and
f (−x) = 0 = −0 = − f (x)

for all real numbers x.

1
2 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 2

Exercises
1. Which of the following equations is incorrect?
√
(a) 32 · 35 = 37 (b) ( 5)4/3 = 52/3

(c) 32 · 23 = 1 (d) (2−2 )−2 = 16

SO LUTIO N
(a) This equation is correct: 32 · 35 = 32+5 = 37 .
√
(b) This equation is correct: ( 5)4/3 = (51/2 )4/3 = 5(1/2)·(4/3) = 52/3 .
(c) This equation is incorrect: 32 · 23 = 9 · 8 = 72 1.
(d) This equation is correct: (2−2 )−2 = 2(−2)·(−2) = 24 = 16.
2. Rewrite as a whole number (without using a calculator):
(a) 70 (b) 102 (2−2 + 5−2 )
43 5
(c) (d) 274/3
45 3

(e) 8−1/3 · 85/3 (f) 3 · 41/4 − 12 · 2−3/2

SO LUTIO N
(a) 70 = 1
(b) 102 (2−2 + 5−2 ) = 100(1/4 + 1/25) = 25 + 4 = 29
(c) (43 )5 /(45 )3 = 415 /415 = 1
(d) (27)4/3 = (271/3 )4 = 34 = 81
(e) 8−1/3 · 85/3 = (81/3 )5 /81/3 = 25 /2 = 24 = 16
(f) 3 · 41/4 − 12 · 2−3/2 = 3 · 21/2 − 3 · 22 · 2−3/2 = 0
3. Use the binomial expansion formula to expand (2 − x)7 .
SOLUTION Using the binomial expansion formula,
7! 7 7! 6 7! 5 7! 4 7! 3
(2 − x)7 = 2 (−x)0 + 2 (−x) + 2 (−x)2 + 2 (−x)3 + 2 (−x)4
7!0! 6!1! 5!2! 4!3! 3!4!

7! 2 5 7! 6 7! 0 7
+ 2 (−x) + 2(−x) + 2 (−x)
2!5! 1!6! 0!7!

= 128 − 448x + 672x2 − 560x3 + 280x4 − 84x5 + 14x6 − x7

4. Use the binomial expansion formula to expand (x + 1)9 .

SOLUTION Using the binomial expansion formula,
9! 9 9! 8 9! 7 9! 6 9! 5 9! 4 9! 3 9! 2 9! 9!
(x + 1)9 = x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x + x+
9!0! 8!1! 7!2! 6!3! 5!4! 4!5! 3!6! 2!7! 1!8! 0!9!

= x9 + 9x8 + 36x7 + 84x6 + 126x5 + 126x4 + 84x3 + 36x2 + 9x + 1

5. Which of (a)–(d) are true for a = 4 and b = −5?

(a) −2a < −2b (b) |a| < −|b| (c) ab < 0
(d) 1a < 1b
SO LUTIO N
(a) True
(b) False; |a| = 4 > −5 = −|b|
(c) True
(d) False; 1a = 14 > − 15 = 1b
6. Which of (a)–(d) are true for a = −3 and b = 2?
(a) a < b (b) |a| < |b| (c) ab > 0
(d) 3a < 3b
SO LUTIO N
3 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 3

(a) True
(c) False; (−3)(2) = −6 < 0 (b) False; |a| = 3 > 2 = |b|
(d) True
In Exercises 7–12, express the interval in terms of an inequality involving absolute value.
7. [−2, 2]
SOLUTION |x| ≤ 2
4 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 4

8. (−4, 4)
SOLUTION |x| < 4
9. (0, 4)
SOLUTION The midpoint of the interval is c = (0 + 4)/2 = 2, and the radius is r = (4 − 0)/2 = 2; therefore, (0, 4) can
be expressed as |x − 2| < 2.
10. [−4, 0]
SOLUTION The midpoint of the interval is c = (−4 + 0)/2 = −2, and the radius is r = (0 − (−4))/2 = 2; therefore, the
interval [−4, 0] can be expressed as |x + 2| ≤ 2.
11. [−1, 8]
SOLUTION The midpoint of the interval is c = (−1 + 8)/2 = 72, and the radius is r = (8 − (−1))/2 = 92; therefore, the
interval [−1, 8] can be expressed as x − 72 ≤ 92.
12. (−2.4, 1.9)

SOLUTION The midpoint of the interval is c = (−2.4 + 1.9)/2 = −0.25, and the radius is r = (1.9 − (−2.4))/2 = 2.15;
therefore, the interval (−2.4, 1.9) can be expressed as |x + 0.25| < 2.15.

In Exercises 13–16, write the inequality in the form a < x < b.

13. |x| < 8

SOLUTION −8 < x < 8
14. |x − 12| < 8
SOLUTION −8 < x − 12 < 8 so 4 < x < 20
15. |2x + 1| < 5
SOLUTION −5 < 2x + 1 < 5 so −6 < 2x < 4 and −3 < x < 2
16. |3x − 4| < 2
SOLUTION −2 < 3x − 4 < 2 so 2 < 3x < 6 and 2
3
< x< 2

In Exercises 17–22, express the set of numbers x satisfying the given condition as an interval.

17. |x| < 4

SOLUTION (−4, 4)
18. |x| ≤ 9
SOLUTION [−9, 9]
19. |x − 4| < 2
SOLUTION The expression |x − 4| < 2 is equivalent to −2 < x − 4 < 2. Therefore, 2 < x < 6, which represents the
interval (2, 6).
20. |x + 7| < 2
SOLUTION The expression |x + 7| < 2 is equivalent to −2 < x + 7 < 2. Therefore, −9 < x < −5, which represents the
interval (−9, −5).
21. |4x − 1| ≤ 8
SOLUTION The expression |4x − 1| ≤ 8 is equivalent to −8 ≤ 4x − 1 ≤ 8 or −7 ≤ 4x ≤ 9. Therefore, − 74 ≤ x ≤
9
4,
which represents the interval [− 74 , 94 ].
22. |3x + 5| < 1
SOLUTION The expression |3x + 5| < 1 is equivalent to −1 < 3x + 5 < 1 or −6 < 3x < −4. Therefore, −2 < x < − 43,
which represents the interval (−2, − 43 ).

In Exercises 23–26, describe the set as a union of finite or infinite intervals.

23. {x : |x − 4| > 2}
SOLUTION x − 4 > 2 or x − 4 < −2 ⇒ x > 6 or x < 2 ⇒ (−∞, 2) ∪ (6, ∞)
24. {x : |2x + 4| > 3}
SOLUTION 2x + 4 > 3 or 2x + 4 < −3 ⇒ 2x > −1 or 2x < −7 ⇒ (−∞, − 72 ) ∪ (− 12, ∞)
5 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 5

25. {x : |x2 − 1| > 2}

√ √
SOLUTION x2 − 1 > 2 or x2 − 1 < −2 ⇒ x2 > 3 or x2 < −1 (this will never happen) ⇒ x > 3 or x < − 3 ⇒
√ √
(−∞, − 3) ∪ ( 3, ∞)

26. {x : |x2 + 2x| > 2}

SOLUTION x2 + 2x > 2 or x2 + 2x < −2 ⇒ x2 + 2x − 2 > 0 or x2 + 2x + 2 < 0. For the first case, the zeros are
√ √ √
x = −1 ± 3 ⇒ (−∞, −1 − 3) ∪ (−1 + 3, ∞).

For the second case, note there are no real zeros. Because the parabola opens upward and its vertex
√ is located√above the
x-axis, there are no values of x for which x2 + 2x + 2 < 0. Hence, the solution set is (−∞, −1 − 3) ∪ (−1 + 3, ∞).

27. Match (a)–(f) with (i)–(vi).

(a) a > 3 (b) |a − 5| < 1
3
(c) a − 13 < 5 (d) |a| > 5
(e) |a − 4| < 3 (f) 1 ≤ a ≤ 5

(i) a lies to the right of 3.

(ii) a lies between 1 and 7.
(iii) The distance from a to 5 is less than 13 .
(iv) The distance from a to 3 is at most 2.
(v) a is less than 5 units from 13.
(vi) a lies either to the left of −5 or to the right of 5.
SO LUTIO N
(a) On the number line, numbers greater than 3 appear to the right; hence, a > 3 is equivalent to the numbers to the right
of 3: (i).
(b) |a − 5| measures the distance from a to 5; hence, |a − 5| < 13 is satisfied by those numbers less than 13 of a unit from
5: (iii).
(c) |a − 13 | measures the distance from a to 13; hence, |a − 13| < 5 is satisfied by those numbers less than 5 units from 13:
(v).
(d) The inequality |a| > 5 is equivalent to a > 5 or a < −5; that is, either a lies to the right of 5 or to the left of −5: (vi).
(e) The interval described by the inequality |a − 4| < 3 has a center at 4 and a radius of 3; that is, the interval consists of
those numbers between 1 and 7: (ii).
(f) The interval described by the inequality 1 < x < 5 has a center at 3 and a radius of 2; that is, the interval consists of
those numbers less than 2 units from 3: (iv).
x
28. Describe x : x+ 1 < 0 as an interval. Hint: Consider the sign of x and x + 1 individually.

SOLUTION Case 1: x < 0 and x + 1 > 0. This implies that x < 0 and x > −1 ⇒ −1 < x < 0.
Case 2: x > 0 and x < −1 for which there is no such x. Thus, solution set is therefore (−1, 0).
29. Describe {x : x2 + 2x < 3} as an interval. Hint: Plot y = x2 + 2x − 3.
SOLUTION The inequality x2 + 2x < 3 is equivalent to x2 + 2x − 3 < 0. The graph of y = x2 + 2x − 3 is shown here.
From this graph, it follows that x2 + 2x − 3 < 0 for −3 < x < 1. Thus, the set {x : x2 + 2x < 3} is equivalent to the
interval (−3, 1).
y
y x 2 + 2x − 3
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −2 1 2 3
−4

30. Describe the set of real numbers satisfying |x − 3| = |x − 2| + 1 as a half-infinite interval.

SOLUTION Case 1: If x ≥ 3, then |x − 3| = x − 3, |x − 2| = x − 2, and the equation |x − 3| = |x − 2| + 1 reduces to
x − 3 = x − 2 + 1 or −3 = −1. As this is never true, the given equation has no solution for x ≥ 3.
Case 2: If 2 ≤ x < 3, then |x − 3| = −(x − 3) = 3 − x, |x − 2| = x − 2, and the equation |x − 3| = |x − 2| + 1 reduces to
3 − x = x − 2 + 1 or x = 2.
6 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 6

Case 3: If x < 2, then |x − 3| = −(x − 3) = 3 − x, |x − 2| = −(x − 2) = 2 − x, and the equation |x − 3| = |x − 2| + 1

reduces to 3 − x = 2 − x + 1 or 1 = 1. As this is always true, the given equation holds for all x < 2.
Combining the results from all three cases, it follows that the set of real numbers satisfying |x − 3| = |x − 2| + 1 is
equivalent to the half-infinite interval (−∞, 2].
7 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 7

31. Show that if a > b, and a, b 0, then b−1 > a−1 , provided that a and b have the same sign. What happens if a > 0
and b < 0?
SOLUTION Case 1a: If a and b are both positive, then a > b ⇒ 1 > ba ⇒ 1b > 1a.
Case 1b: If a and b are both negative, then a > b ⇒ 1 < ba (since a is negative) ⇒ 1b > 1a (again, since b is negative).
Case 2: If a > 0 and b < 0, then 1a > 0 and 1b < 0 so 1b < 1a . (See Exercise 6f for an example of this.)
32. Which x satisfies both |x − 3| < 2 and |x − 5| < 1?
SOLUTION |x − 3| < 2 ⇒ −2 < x − 3 < 2 ⇒ 1 < x < 5. Also |x − 5| < 1 ⇒ 4 < x < 6. Since we want an x that
satisfies both of these, we need the intersection of the two solution sets, that is, 4 < x < 5.
33. Show that if |a − 5| < 12 and |b − 8| < 12 , then
|(a + b) − 13| < 1. Hint: Use the triangle inequality (|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|).
SO LUTIO N

|a + b − 13| = |(a − 5) + (b − 8)|

≤ |a − 5| + |b − 8| (by the triangle inequality)
1 1
< + =1
2 2

34. Suppose that |x − 4| ≤ 1.

(a) What is the maximum possible value of |x + 4|?
(b) Show that |x2 − 16| ≤ 9.
SO LUTIO N
(a) |x − 4| ≤ 1 guarantees 3 ≤ x ≤ 5. Thus, 7 ≤ x + 4 ≤ 9, so |x + 4| ≤ 9.
(b) |x2 − 16| = |x − 4| · |x + 4| ≤ 1 · 9 = 9

35. Suppose that |a − 6| ≤ 2 and |b| ≤ 3.

(a) What is the largest possible value of |a + b|?
(b) What is the smallest possible value of |a + b|?
SOLUTION |a − 6| ≤ 2 guarantees 4 ≤ a ≤ 8, and |b| ≤ 3 guarantees −3 ≤ b ≤ 3, so 1 ≤ a + b ≤ 11. Based on this
information,
(a) the largest possible value of |a + b| is 11; and
(b) the smallest possible value of |a + b| is 1.

36. Prove that |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|. Hint: Apply the triangle inequality to y and x − y.
SOLUTION First note

|x| = |x − y + y| ≤ |x − y| + |y|

by the triangle inequality. Subtracting |y| from both sides of this inequality yields

|x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|

37. Express r1 = 0.27 as a fraction. Hint: 100r1 − r1 is an integer. Then express r2 = 0.2666 . . . as a fraction.
SOLUTION Let r1 = 0.27. We observe that 100r1 = 27.27. Therefore, 100r1 − r1 = 27.27 − 0.27 = 27 and

27 3
r1 = =
99 11

Now, let r2 = 0.2666. Then 10r2 = 2.666 and 100r2 = 26.666. Therefore, 100r2 − 10r2 = 26.666 − 2.666 = 24 and
24 4
r2 = =
90 15

38. Represent 1/7 and 4/27 as repeating decimals.

1 4
SOLUTION = 0.142857; = 0.148
7 27

39. Plot each pair of points and compute the distance between them:
(a) (1, 4) and (3, 2) (b) (2, 1) and (2, 4)
8 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 8

SO LUTIO N
(a) The points (1, 4) and (3, 2) are plotted in the figure. The distance between the points is
√ √
d = (3 − 1)2 + (2 − 4)2 = 22 + (−2)2 = 8 = 2 2
y

4
3
2
1

1 2 3

(b) The points (2, 1) and (2, 4) are plotted in the figure. The distance between the points is
√
d = (2 − 2)2 + (4 − 1)2 = 9 = 3
y

4
3
2
1

1 2 3

40. Plot each pair of points and compute the distance between them:
(a) (0, 0) and (−2, 3) (b) (−3, −3) and (−2, 3)
SO LUTIO N
(a) The points (0, 0) and (−2, 3) are plotted in the figure. The distance between the points is
√ √
d = (−2 − 0)2 + (3 − 0)2 = 4 + 9 = 13
y

4
3
2
1

−2 −1

(b) The points (−3, −3) and (−2, 3) are plotted in the figure. The distance between the points is
√ √
d = (−3 − (−2))2 + (−3 − 3)2 = 1 + 36 = 37
y

3
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1 −1
−2
−3

41. Find the equation of the circle with center (2, 4):
(a) With radius r = 3
(b) That passes through (1, −1)
SOLUTION (a) The equation of the indicated circle is (x − 2)2 + (y − 4)2 = 32 = 9.
(b) First, determine the radius as the distance from the center to the indicated point on the circle:
√
r = (2 − 1)2 + (4 − (−1))2 = 26

Thus, the equation of the circle is (x − 2)2 + (y − 4)2 = 26.

42. Find all points in the xy-plane with integer coordinates located at a distance 5 from the origin. Then find all points
with integer coordinates located at a distance 5 from (2, 3).
9 CHAPTER 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs 9

SO LUTIO N

• To be located a distance 5 from the origin, the points must lie on the circle x2 + y2 = 25. This leads to 12 points
with integer coordinates:
(5, 0) (−5, 0) (0, 5) (0, −5)
(3, 4) (−3, 4) (3, −4) (−3, −4)
(4, 3) (−4, 3) (4, −3) (−4, −3)
• To be located a distance 5 from the point (2, 3), the points must lie on the circle (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 25, which
implies that we must shift the points listed 2 units to the right and 3 units up. This gives the 12 points
(7, 3) (−3, 3) (2, 8) (2, −2)
(5, 7) (−1, 7) (5, −1) (−1, −1)
(6, 6) (−2, 6) (6, 0) (−2, 0)

43. Determine the domain and range of the function

f : {r, s, t, u} → {A, B, C, D, E}
defined by f (r) = A, f (s) = B, f (t) = B, f (u) = E.
SOLUTION The domain is the set D = {r, s, t, u}; the range is the set R = {A, B, E}.
44. Give an example of a function whose domain D has three elements and whose range R has two elements. Does a
function exist whose domain D has two elements and whose range R has three elements?
SOLUTION Define f by f : {a, b, c} → {1, 2}, where f (a) = 1, f (b) = 1, f (c) = 2.
There is no function whose domain has two elements and range has three elements. If that happened, one of the
domain elements would get assigned to more than one element of the range, which would contradict the definition of a
function.
In Exercises 45–52, find the domain and range of the function.
45. f (x) = −x
SOLUTION D: all reals; R: all reals
46. g(t) = t4
SOLUTION D: all reals; R: {y: y ≥ 0}
47. f (x) = x3
SOLUTION D: all reals; R: all reals
√
48. g(t) = 2 − t
SOLUTION D: {t: t ≤ 2}; R: {y: y ≥ 0}
49. f (x) = |x|
SOLUTION D: all reals; R: {y: y ≥ 0}
50. h(s) = 1s
SOLUTION D: {s: s 0}; R: {y: y 0}
1
51. f (x) = x2
SOLUTION D: {x: x 0}; R: {y: y > 0}
52. g(t) = √1
1− t
SOLUTION D: {t: t < 1}; R: {y: y > 0}
In Exercises 53–56, determine where f is increasing.
53. f (x) = |x + 1|
SOLUTION A graph of the function y = |x + 1| is shown. From the graph, we see that the function is increasing on the
interval (−1, ∞).
y

x
−3 −2 −1 1
10 C HA P TE R 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs
10

54. f (x) = x3

SOLUTION A graph of the function y = x3 is shown. From the graph, we see that the function is increasing for all real
numbers.
y

x
−2 −1 1 2
−5

55. f (x) = x4
4
SOLUTION A graph of the function y = x is shown. From the graph, we see that the function is increasing on the
interval (0, ∞).
y

12
8
4
x
−2 −1 1 2

1
56. f (x) = x4 + x2 + 1

1
SOLUTION A graph of the function y = x4 + x2 + 1
is shown. From the graph, we see that the function is increasing on

the interval (−∞, 0).

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
−2 −1 1 2

In Exercises 57–62, find the zeros of f and sketch its graph by plotting points. Use symmetry and increase/decrease
information where appropriate.

57. f (x) = x2 − 4

SOLUTION Zeros: ±2
Increasing: x > 0
Decreasing: x < 0
Symmetry: f (−x) = f (x) (even function); so, y-axis symmetry

4
2
x
−2 −1 1 2
−2
−4

58. f (x) = 2x2 − 4

√
SOLUTION Zeros: ± 2
Increasing: x > 0

Decreasing: x < 0
11 C HA P TE R 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs
11

Symmetry: f (−x) = f (x) (even function); so, y-axis symmetry

12 C HA P TE R 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs
12

10

5
−2 −1 1 2
x

59. f (x) = x3 − 4x

SOLUTION Zeros: 0, ±2; symmetry: f (−x) = − f (x) (odd function); so, origin symmetry

10
5
x
−2 −1 −5 1 2
−10

60. f (x) = x3

SOLUTION Zeros: 0; increasing for all x; symmetry: f (−x) = − f (x) (odd function); so, origin symmetry

y
20
10
x
−2 1 1 2 3
−3 −
−10
−20

61. f (x) = 2 − x3
√3
SOLUTION This is an x-axis reflection of x3 translated up 2 units. There is one zero at x = 2.

20
10
x
−2 −1−10 1 2
−20

1
62. f ( x) =
(x−1)2 + 1
1
SOLUTION This is the graph of x2 + 1 translated to the right 1 unit. The function has no zeros.

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
−4 −2 2 4
13 C HA P TE R 1 PRECALCULUS REVIEW S E C T I O N 1.1 Real Numbers, Functions, and Graphs
13

63. Which of the curves in Figure 27 is the graph of a function of x?

y y y

x x
x
(A) (B) (C)

y y y

x
x x
(D) (E) (F)
FIGURE 27

SOLUTION (B), (E), and (F) are graphs of functions. (A), (C), and (D) all fail the vertical line test.
64. Of the curves in Figure 27 that are graphs of functions, which is the graph of an odd function? Of an even function?
SOLUTION (B) is the graph of an odd function because the graph is symmetric about the origin; (E) is the graph of an
even function because the graph is symmetric about the y-axis.
65. Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.
(a) f (x) = x5 (b) g(t) = t3 − t2 (c) F(t) = t4 +1 t2
SO LUTIO N
(a) Because f (−x) = (−x)5 = −x5 = − f (x), f (x) = x5 is an odd function.
(b) Because g(−t) = (−t)3 − (−t)2 = −t3 − t2 equals neither g(t) nor −g(t), g(t) = t3 − t2 is neither an even function nor
an odd function.
(c) Because F(−t) = (−t)4 +1 (−t)2 = t4 +1 t2 = F(t), F(t) = t4 +1 t2 is an even function.

66. Determine whether the function is even, odd, or neither.

(a) f (x) = 2x − x2 (b) k(w) = (1 − w)3 + (1 + w)3
(c) f (t) = t4 + t + 1 − t4 − t + 1
1 1

SO LUTIO N

(a) Because f (−x) = 2(−x) − (−x)2 = −2x − x2 equals neither f (x) nor − f (x), f (x) = 2x − x2 is neither an even nor an
odd function.
(b) Because k(−w) = (1 − (−w))3 + (1 + (−w))3 = (1 + w)3 + (1 − w)3 = k(w), k(w) = (1 − w)3 + (1 + w)3 is an even
function.
(c) Because
1 1 1 1
f (−t) = − = −
(−t)4 + (−t) + 1 (−t)4 − (−t) + 1 t4 − t + 1 t4 + t + 1

1 1
(t)
=− − = −f
t4 + t + 1 t4 − t + 1

f (t) = 1
t4 + t + 1
− 1
t4 − t + 1
is an odd function.

67. Write f (x) = 2x4 − 5x3 + 12x2 − 3x + 4 as the sum of an even and an odd function.
SOLUTION Let g(x) = 2x4 + 12x2 + 4 and h(x) = −5x3 − 3x. Then

g(−x) = 2(−x)4 + 12(−x)2 + 4 = 2x4 + 12x2 + 4 = g(x)

so that g is an even function,
h(−x) = −5(−x)3 − 3(−x) = 5x3 + 3x = −h(x)
so that h is an odd function, and f (x) = g(x) + h(x).
68. Assume that p is a function that is defined for all x.
(a) Prove that if f is defined by f (x) = p(x) + p(−x) then f is even.
(b) Prove that if g is defined by g(x) = p(x) − p(−x) then g is odd.
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for the construction of good pavements of the several standard kinds,
and it is assumed that the engineer will be able to, and will enforce them.
It is, however, not infrequently the case that the engineer will be called
upon to prepare specifications for new, or patented, or proprietary
pavements advocated by their promoters, the value or usefulness of
which have not been sufficiently established by experience, and for
which the data for detailed, definite specifications are not yet available.
In such cases the wisest course to follow is to confine the precise
specifications to the general or standard parts of the work, while
stipulating only the results to be attained with regard to those features of
the work that are proprietary or questionable, thus placing upon the
promoter or his contractors full responsibility for such results as are
promised or guaranteed. This applies to new or comparatively untried
materials or processes, whether patented or not.
A proposed form of general specifications to cover such cases is
offered herein.
It is usually unwise to adopt or to incorporate in the municipal
specifications those prepared or offered by the promoter or patentee,
which are often brief, incomplete, and indefinite, and are sometimes
carefully, and even cunningly, drawn to evade final responsibility.
No attempt has been made to submit specifications for proprietary or
patented pavements, or those composed wholly or in part of materials
which are patented or protected by trade-marks. The owners or
contractors engaged in constructing these pavements, often, if not
usually, claim the right to dictate the material parts of the specifications
under which such work shall be done, and the municipal engineer who is
called upon to construct such pavements, must, in each case, determine
whether the specifications offered are adequate and satisfactory, and the
extent to which he feels justified in accepting responsibility for the
results. Naturally, the contractor or promoter, even if competent to
prepare specifications, cannot be expected to bind himself within closer
limits than he thinks necessary to secure the work. In many such cases
the form of general specifications for “untried or experimental
pavements” given herein might appropriately be used.
The engineer is, in common with all men, fallible, and he can hardly
hope, in the preparation of specifications, to make them perfect; to cover
every item and particular; or to escape some ambiguities of expression,
and some degree of indefiniteness. The writer can only claim that he has
aimed, in the light of a considerable experience, to set out as fully and
definitely as practicable the requirements for the proper construction of
high-class street pavements, and has endeavored to avoid loose or
obscure terms and expressions. The ideal specification is one that
furnishes a wholly sufficient guide to the accomplishment of the desired
purpose; that provides for every possible contingency which may arise,
and is couched in language which not only means exactly what it was
intended to mean, but is incapable of any other interpretation. It is
needless to say that no example of such a perfect specification can be
instanced as a model.
It has been the aim to make these specifications fair and just to the
contractor; that is, to require of him no impracticable or indefinite
service, or the assumption by him of risks other than those fairly
involved in the business conduct of the work.
If the plans and specifications for any work which a contractor bids
upon are so full, specific, and clear, that he may know exactly what he
will be expected to do, and if they do not require him to assume unusual
chances and risks, he may intelligently name prices which he believes
will compensate him for the service. Having done so, his proposal having
been accepted, and a contract entered into accordingly, the engineer and
the municipality have a right both in law and equity to demand that he
will do exactly and fully what he has contracted to do. No excuses on his
part can be valid and none should be accepted. He may in all fairness
and justness be required to “toe the mark” strictly. To the neglect to
recognize and enforce these principles is chargeable the greater part of
the poor and unsatisfactory work so common in street pavement work in
our cities. Unexpected contingencies may, of course, arise where some
changes and concessions may be proper and just, but these should be,
and usually are, very rare. On the other hand, sweeping general clauses
in contracts and specifications intended to catch the contractor “goin’ or
comin’,” unnecessarily stringent stipulations which were never intended
to be strictly enforced, but were put into the specifications with the idea
that they would help hold the contractor up to a high standard, and
“one-sided” contracts intended to give the municipality an unfair
advantage over the contractor, are as inadvisable in policy as they are
wrong in principle. Nothing should be put in a specification that is not
clearly essential to secure the results aimed at, and, this having been
done, every requirement should be enforced. The existence in
specifications of requirements that are not intended to be enforced, gives
the contractor a pretext for neglecting others that may be important.
 In these specifications will be found a number of details that are often
not regarded as important and which, when found in paving
specifications, the contractor is frequently allowed to ignore. In the
writer’s opinion, based upon his experience in street paving, every one of
these requirements is essential to the production of high-class work,
which, it is hardly necessary to argue, is, in the end, the most economical
work from the standpoint of the municipality.
It may be argued that the adoption and enforcement of these
specifications would have the effect of raising prices. In many cases this
would doubtless prove true. Contractors are entitled to a fair and
reasonable compensation for their services. It is admitted that in some
cities the prevailing prices for some kinds of pavements are below the
actual cost of the work if it were done in a proper manner, conforming
strictly to the specifications. Illogical as it undoubtedly is, the low price
at which work is taken is sometimes considered a sufficient reason for
accepting work below standard. The consequence is that bidders not
only count upon concessions and lax enforcement of the specifications,
but bid lower and lower, expecting that further concessions will enable
them to get out with an undeserved profit. This is one of the most serious
evils in the paving business to-day, and the highest public interests
demand a thorough reform. Low first cost, desirable as it may be, is the
poorest economy if it be secured at the sacrifice of the quality of the
work. If one pavement costs twenty per cent. more than another, but
renders forty per cent. more service, it is obviously the cheaper of the
two.
Contractors are prone to contend that this or that provision in a
specification is unusual, unnecessary or unfair. In dealing with them the
engineer should bear in mind that no requirement of a specification that
is clearly and definitely stated, so that the bidder may understand exactly
what it means and what he will be expected to do, and may frame his
prices accordingly, can be unreasonable or unfair to the contractor.
Unusual or unnecessary requirements may result in unwarrantably
increasing the cost of the work, and this may raise a question between
the engineer and the municipality employing him, but it can furnish no
occasion for questions of fairness or unfairness between the contractor
and the engineer.
The relations that should exist between the contractee and the
contractor, and the attitude of the engineer toward the contractor have
been widely discussed and are quite well understood from both the
ethical and legal standpoint.
 It is well to bear in mind that when a contract is duly entered into,
both the parties thereto are equal before the law. Neither can impose
upon the other terms or conditions that are not clearly included in or to
be fairly inferred from the contract itself. The assumption that either
party has superior or extra rights not expressed or to be fairly inferred
from the written agreement, or in accordance with the established
rulings of the courts, is wholly without warrant. The smallest contractor
is, in this respect, upon an equal footing with the largest city government
for which he may undertake to do contract work. It is not infrequently
the case that the city assumes a superior and dictatorial attitude not in
harmony with these principles, and it is too common for the contractor
to seek to evade or to escape from clear contractural obligations. In
neither case is the action warranted by fairness, justice, or law.
It should be needless to say that the attitude of the engineer toward
the contractor should be one of unyielding and uncompromising
requirement that the contract and specifications shall be fully and
faithfully complied with, but at the same time one of absolute fairness
and even helpfulness to the contractor. The ideal relation, which should
be more commonly attainable than it appears to be, is that of helpful
cooperation to bring about the results the contract and specifications
were intended to secure.
In line with the principles here outlined some observations upon the
preparation of contracts and specifications are appropriate.
It is the general practice to include in and make a part of “The
Contract” (herein for convenience called The General Contract) all the
various documents that are supposed to relate directly to the transaction
as a whole. The separate parts of such a general contract may vary in
number or character, but the principal ones are the following:
1. The advertisement for proposals.
2. Instructions to bidders.
3. The proposal submitted.
4. The contract proper.
5. The specifications.
Each of these should be drawn to cover fully and clearly its
appropriate purpose or function but nothing more. It is not unusual to
find, even in the instructions to bidders, stipulations that properly
belong in the contract or specifications, and it is quite common to find in
the contract proper a lot of matter that properly belongs in the
specifications only. In such cases there is liable to be more or less
confusion as to the actual meaning or requirements of the general
contract as a whole, which may lead to serious misunderstandings and
complications between the parties thereto. The several documents
composing the general contract are likely to be prepared by different
persons, looking at the transaction from different points of view, and
often not wholly familiar with the scope, intent and language of the other
documents. There is therefore a possibility, at least, of indefinite, if not
of conflicting expressions which are open to different interpretations,
particularly in the light of special or unexpected conditions that may
arise during the progress of the work or the settlement therefor. It would
tend to eliminate or avoid the possibility of such complications if each of
the several documents confined itself strictly to its appropriate function
in the general contract.
Advertisements for proposals may be divided into two general classes.
The one is brief in form and substance, simply stating that proposals for
a certain named work will be received at a stated place and time, and
referring those interested to documents on file at a stated place for all
further information. This is the general form adopted by the United
States War Department for the many projects carried out by contract
under its direction. A sample advertisement taken from a current
technical journal is as follows;
TREASURY DEPARTMENT, OFFICE OF the Supervising Architect,
Washington, D. C., October 10, 1912. Sealed Proposals will be received
at this office until 3 o’clock p. m. on the 1st day of November, 1912, and
then opened, for an electric passenger elevator in the United States
post office, Bellingham, Wash., in accordance with the drawing and
specification, copies of which may be had at this office at the discretion
of the Supervising Architect. OSCAR WENDEROTH, Supervising
Architect.
The other general class of advertisement, very commonly used by
municipal corporations, is much longer and more elaborate, giving a
condensed statement of the character of the work to be done, the
conditions under which proposals are invited and will be received, and a
schedule of the quantities of work involved, together with other
particulars. A typical example of such an advertisement, taken from the
same periodical, is here given:
PUMPING MACHINERY—ROSELAND PUMPING STATION

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS

 Chicago, Ill., October 2, 1912.

Sealed proposals will be received by the City of Chicago until 11 A.

M. Wednesday, October 30, 1912, at Room 406, City Hall, for
furnishing and erecting at Roseland Pumping Station one vertical
triple expansion crank and fly wheel pumping engine of a capacity of
twenty-five million (25,000,000) gallons per day against a normal
head of one hundred and forty feet (140′). This proposal also includes
the dismantling of a similar engine now at Lake View Pumping Station,
transporting and erecting it at Roseland Pumping Station, together
with the furnishing and erection of certain auxiliaries and
appurtenances, according to plans and specifications on file in the
office of the Department of Public Works of said city, Room 406, City
Hall.
Proposals must be made out upon blanks furnished at said office,
and be addressed to said Department, indorsed “Proposals for
Pumping Machinery, Roseland Pumping Station,” and be accompanied
with Five Thousand ($5,000) Dollars in money or a certified check for
the same amount on some responsible bank located and doing
business in the City of Chicago and made payable to the order of the
Commissioner of Public Works.
The Commissioner of Public Works reserves the right to reject any
or all bids. A deposit of One Hundred Dollars ($100) will be required
to insure safe return of the plans.
No proposal will be considered unless the party offering it shall
furnish evidence satisfactory to the Commissioner of Public Works of
his ability, and that he has the necessary facilities together with
sufficient pecuniary resources to fulfill the conditions of the Contract
and Specifications, provided such Contract should be awarded to him.
Companies or firms bidding will give the individual names as well as
the name of the firm with their address.

L. E. McGANN,
Commissioner of Public Works.

Such advertisements as this may be required by statutes or

ordinances, and in that case are, of course, proper and necessary. Even
where not so required they may be considered advantageous, because
they give prospective bidders more complete information as to the
character and magnitude of the work, and may enable them to decide at
once whether they care to pursue the matter further. But on the whole,
the shorter form of advertisement, if permissible, seems preferable,
because it refers the enquirer directly to the original and official sources
of information, the forms to be used, the contract, specifications and
estimated quantities of work, exactly as they will and must be presented
to all bidders, and as they will appear in the subsequent stages of the
transaction, and leaves, therefore, no room for possible confusion of
statements between the advertisement and the other documents.
Furthermore, the cost of the shorter form of advertisement is much less,
and this is often a matter of some importance.
Instructions to bidders should be confined strictly to such information
and directions as the bidder may need to properly and intelligently make
up and submit his proposal in accordance with the requirements relating
thereto. This should include primarily, a reference to the contract and
specifications for all general and detailed information about the work to
be done, but should carefully avoid any statements or language that
might be construed to add to, take from, limit or modify the contract or
specifications. Perhaps the briefest and best statement of what this
document should or should not contain is that it should be so framed
that, except as a matter of record, its office and usefulness should
absolutely end with the award and signing of the contract.
No one who is not a lawyer can presume to say just what the contract
proper should contain or cover, particularly as this may vary with the
requirements of statutes and ordinances in force in a given city. It would
seem logical and proper, however, to separate the special functions of
contracts and specifications in such a way that each should cover a
distinct field of its own, and be free from encroachment upon the proper
domain of the other. With such a conception of the proper domain of
each, one might safely say that the contract should undertake to set out
only the legal and contractural relations of the parties thereto, and
should refer to the plans and specifications for all detailed instructions
as to the actual performance of the work and the results to be secured.
In the preparation of specifications for any public work the main
points to be kept in mind are fulness, definiteness, and exact expression.
While brevity and conciseness are desirable qualities in any document,
they should not be secured at the expense of completeness and precision
of statement. Even the frequent repetition of words, phrases and
sentences throughout a document, where it is necessary to avoid the
possibility of misunderstanding or ambiguity, should be resorted to
freely. Exact description and definition are more important than literary
style, though they may often be successfully combined. Of course, it is
not possible or necessary to go into minute detail with regard to every
part of the work. Certain things may be safely assumed to be required by
established practice or trade usage. If, for instance, it is specified that
certain lumber shall be “dressed” this word has a well-understood
meaning in the trade and it is unnecessary to stipulate how the dressing
shall be done or its character or quality, though it may be necessary to
say whether it is to be dressed on one or more sides.
The proper preparation of specifications for any work involves a clear,
distinct and complete conception, determination and design of what is to
be done; of the conditions that are likely to be met with in carrying it
out; and of alternate plans that these conditions may necessitate. This
may not always be possible, for the engineer is not omniscient. But
careful study and maturity of design will enable him to avoid the great
majority of such indefinite expressions as “or in such other manner as
the engineer may direct,” “in accordance with the instructions of the
engineer,” etc. A great many of the items to which such expressions are
intended to and do apply in practice, could be definitely settled before
the specifications are prepared and thus all uncertainty on the part of
both engineer and contractor be avoided. To illustrate: specifications for
block pavement commonly stipulate that the blocks shall be set in rows
running at right angles to the axis of the street, except at street
intersections, where the engineer may direct them to be laid at a
different angle. There is usually no good reason why the engineer should
not determine beforehand at which, if any, street intersections the
general rule should be changed and so state in the specifications. These
may be and usually are unimportant matters which may not much affect
one way or the other the cost to the contractor. But they often prove
otherwise, and the contractor is entitled to know when he submits his
proposal just what he will be required to do. Of course it may develop
during the progress of the work that changes from the original plan will
become necessary, but these should be provided for in some such
definite and previously stipulated manner as outlined in Sect. 3 of the
following specifications.
The practice of inserting, either in the specifications or the contract, a
clause making the engineer judge and arbiter in any differences that may
arise between the city and the contractor, and providing that his decision
in all such cases shall be final, is as unwise as it is often illegal. Such
clauses are based on the assumption that the engineer is a competent as
well as a disinterested party in the transaction, an assumption that is
usually wholly wrong, though to their honor it may be said that the
confidence thus reposed in engineers is seldom abused. But the fact is
that the engineer is never actually a disinterested party. He is employed
and paid by the city to look after its interests, and is under no obligations
to the contractor other than those named in the contract and
specifications and his sense of justice, propriety and professional honor.
He would be recreant to his duty if in all nicely balanced matters of
doubt he did not espouse the side of his employer. Moreover, his
personal interests are often involved. Having prepared the plans,
specifications and estimates for the work, he is naturally and properly
anxious that it shall be successful and that the cost shall not exceed that
estimated. Under all these conditions it is hardly possible for any human
being to be a wholly disinterested and unprejudiced judge. No broad-
minded and conscientious engineer desires to be placed in such a
difficult position, and it is as unfair as it is unwise and improper to
require him to assume it.
There are, however, a number of matters of fact in reference to which
it is proper and necessary to make the judgment and decision of the
engineer controlling and final, unless it may be shown that his decision
is clearly erroneous or affected by improper motives, or by fraud. Some
one must necessarily be made the immediate and final judge as to
whether the quality of materials and workmanship is in accordance with
the requirements of the plans and specifications, and as to the quantity
of work actually performed, and these duties and responsibilities are
very properly placed upon the engineer.
It not infrequently occurs that specifications are not drawn as clearly
as they should be in the matters of methods of measuring the work and
of applying contract unit prices, and indefiniteness and carelessness in
this regard are often a source of misunderstanding and dispute between
the engineer and the contractor. It is a good practice, followed by many
able engineers, after specifying how a certain part of the work shall be
done, to state how it shall be measured and paid for at the contract unit
prices.
In many respects it is desirable that all the work to be done under
contract should be quite fully itemized, and a unit price named for each
kind of work. It is the custom in many cities to name only certain leading
items of the work to be done under a paving contract, as for the
pavement complete, furnishing and setting new curbing, redressing and
resetting old curbing, and possibly a few other leading items, and to
require that all necessary incidental work shall be done by the contractor
without cost to the city; or, in other words, he must take this possible
extra work into consideration in naming his unit prices for the leading
items of the work. As the quantity of this incidental work is often not
stated, and the contractor has no means of ascertaining it, he must
guess, as intelligently as he may be able, how much he should add to his
unit prices to cover its cost. If he is a prudent contractor he will be sure
to add enough to prevent any possible loss on this account. In most cases
the quantities of this incidental work can be determined and scheduled
by the engineer with the more important items, and the contractor may
be required to name unit prices for it. True, there are likely to develop
during the progress of the work some items that could not be foreseen or
that were overlooked. In some cities such contingencies are provided for
by a clause in the contract or specifications scheduling, by name, all the
incidental minor items of work that experience has shown are likely to be
met with in street paving contracts, and naming fair unit prices which
the contractor will be paid for each, should it occur. The contractor may
then feel assured that however much the quantity of such incidental
work may vary, he will receive compensation proportionate thereto, and
he may name his prices for the main items with more confidence. Under
such conditions it is reasonable to expect closer figures than he would be
willing to name if an unknown quantity of incidental work for which no
separate pay is provided had to be taken into consideration.
Sub-division of unit prices is also desirable in order that the engineer
may be able to analyze and record the elements that make up the
aggregate cost of the work. Thus, in the case of the construction of a new
sheet asphalt pavement it is common to ask for a single price for the
pavement complete, including a five year guarantee. Now the work will
consist of several distinct operations or kinds of work for each of which a
separate price might be named:
1. The grading of the street and preparation of the sub-grade. The
quantity of this work will vary on different streets and is best reckoned
by the cubic yard of material excavated.
2. A price, either per cubic yard or per square yard for the concrete
foundation.
3. A price per square yard for the asphalt pavement proper. This
might, if desired, be sub-divided into separate prices for the base-course
and the surface-course.
4. A price per square yard for guaranteeing the pavement for five
years.
 Such sub-division would, it is true, increase the work of final
computation but if of no other value, the detailed costs would be a great
aid to the engineer in estimating the reasonable cost of future work
where the relative quantity of these detailed parts varied.
 SPECIFICATIONS

For Grading and Paving, or Repaving

with.. ........ ........ .............. .... Pavement

on a... ......... .......... ...... Foundation, the Roadway
of..... ........ ........... ............ . ............
Street, from...... .......... ............. .............
to. ....... ....... ........... ............ ........
together with work incidental thereto.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK

The work embraced in and to be done under this contract consists of

grading the entire street from curb to curb between the limits named,
including the removal or readjustment of the pavement now on the
roadway, setting and resetting curbing, laying or relaying sidewalks
where required, furnishing all new material and performing all the labor
required for paving the roadway, together with all incidental work
necessary to complete the whole in a proper manner, in accordance with
the contract, the plans on file in the office of the City Engineer, these
Specifications and the instructions of the City Engineer, herein referred
to as the Engineer, or his authorized agents.

REFERENCES

The numbered divisions of these specifications are herein designated

as “sections,” each being referred to by the number standing at its
beginning. Where reference is herein made to any such section number
it shall be considered equivalent to a quotation of that section.
The plans and drawings relating to this work, on file in the office of the
City Engineer are designated as ...
 1. Authority.—Wherever, in these specifications, the words, the City,
are used, they shall be understood to refer to the duly constituted
municipal government of the city of ... or its authorized agents, acting
within the authority specifically conferred upon them by the said
municipal government.[1]
Wherever, in these specifications, the words, the Engineer, shall be
used, they shall be understood to refer to the City Engineer of said city,
or his deputies or assistants, acting within the authority conferred upon
them by the City Engineer.
But no agent of the city shall have power to revoke, alter, enlarge or
relax the stipulations or requirements of these specifications, except in
so far as such authority may be specifically conferred in or by the
specifications themselves, without the formal authorization so to do,
conferred by the contract of which these specifications are a part, or by
ordinance, resolution or other usual official action of the city.[2]
2. Interpretation.—In case of any actual or alleged disagreement or
discrepancy between the contract, these specifications, and the plans for
the work on file in the office of the Engineer, the language and
provisions of the contract shall take precedence and prevail; and the
Engineer shall determine in each case whether the specifications or the
plans shall be followed.
3. The Engineer shall have the right to make such changes in the plans
and specifications of the work as he may deem necessary or desirable or
to provide for unexpected conditions or contingencies that may develop
at any time after the signing of the contract, or during the progress, or
before the final acceptance of the work; provided that all such changes
do not involve an aggregate increase or decrease in the cost of the work,
as shown by his estimates, of more than ten (10) per cent. The contractor
shall accept such changes when made, as a part of the original contract
and specifications, subject to all the provisions and conditions thereof.
But before any such changes shall become valid and before the
contractor shall begin the particular work involved in such changes, the
increased or decreased cost of the work by reason of such changes, above
or below what it would have been under the original plans and
specifications, shall be agreed upon in writing between the engineer and
the contractor. And when the whole work, including such changes, shall
have been completed and accepted by the engineer, the sum or sums so
agreed upon shall be added to or deducted from the sum that would have
been due the contractor if no such changes had been made.
 4. Quality of Material and Work.—The judgment and decision of
the Engineer as to whether the materials supplied and the work done
under this contract comply with the requirements of these specifications,
shall be conclusive and final. No material shall be used in the work until
it has been examined and approved by the Engineer, or his authorized
agents. All rejected material must be promptly removed from the work
and replaced with that which is acceptable to the Engineer, and all
improper or defective work must be corrected, and, if necessary,
removed and reconstructed so as to comply with these specifications and
the instructions of the Engineer.
In all matters of detail not specifically covered by the specifications the
work shall be well and skillfully done in accordance with the best trade
or art customs and standards for work of like character and purpose.
5. Inspection.—The Engineer may provide for the inspection, by
assistants and inspectors under his direction, of all materials used and
all work done under this contract. Such inspection may extend to all or
any part of the work, and to the preparation or manufacture of materials
to be used, whether within the limits of the work on the street, or at any
other place. The Engineer and his inspectors shall have free access to all
parts of the work, including mines, quarries, manufactories, or other
places where any part of the materials to be used is procured,
manufactured or prepared. The Contractor shall furnish the Engineer all
information relating to the work and the material therefor which the
Engineer may deem necessary or pertinent, and with such samples of
materials as may be required. The Contractor shall, at his expense,
supply inspectors with such labor and assistance as may be necessary in
the handling of materials for proper inspection. Inspectors shall have
authority to reject defective material and to suspend any work that is
being improperly done, subject to the final decision of the Engineer.
Inspectors shall have no authority to permit deviations from, or to relax
any of the provisions of these specifications without the written
permission or instruction of the Engineer; nor to delay the Contractor by
failure to inspect materials and work with reasonable promptness.
The payment of any compensation, whatever may be its character or
form, or the giving of any gratuity, or the granting of any valuable favor,
by the Contractor to any inspector, directly or indirectly, is strictly
prohibited, and any such act on the part of the Contractor will constitute
a violation of these specifications.[3]
6. Injuries to Persons and Property.—The Contractor shall be
held alone responsible for all injuries to persons, and for all damages to
the property of the city or others, caused by or resulting from the
negligence of himself, his employees or agents, during the progress of, or
connected with the prosecution of the work, whether within the limits of
the work, or elsewhere. He must restore all injured property, including
sidewalks, curbing, sodding, pipes, conduits, sewers and other public or
private property to a condition as good as it was when he entered upon
the work.
7. Sanitary Conveniences; Nuisances.—The Contractor shall
provide all necessary privy accommodations for the use of his employees
on the street, and shall maintain the same in a clean and sanitary
condition. He shall not create nor permit any nuisance to the public or to
residents in the vicinity of the work.
8. Public Convenience.—No material, or other obstruction shall be
placed within five feet of fire hydrants, which must be at all times readily
accessible to the Fire Department.
During the progress of the work the convenience of the public and of
the residents along the street must be provided for as far as practicable.
Convenient access to driveways, houses and buildings along the street
must be maintained wherever possible. Temporary approaches to and
crossings of intersecting streets and sidewalks must be provided and
kept in good condition, wherever practicable.
9. Barriers, Lights, Watchmen.—The Contractor shall provide
and maintain such fences, barriers, “street closed” signs, red lights, and
watchmen as may be necessary to prevent avoidable accidents to
residents and to the public.
10. Disorderly Employees.—Disorderly, intemperate, or
incompetent persons must not be employed, retained, or allowed upon
the work. Foremen or workmen who neglect or refuse to comply with the
instructions of the Engineer, shall, at his request, be promptly
discharged, and shall not thereafter be re-employed without his consent.
11. Order and Progress of Doing Work.—The work under this
contract shall be prosecuted at as many different points, at such times,
and in such sections along the line of the work, and with such forces as
the Engineer may from time to time deem necessary, and direct, to
secure its completion within the contract time. Not more than one
thousand (1,000) linear feet of the street shall be torn up, obstructed or
closed to travel at any one time without the written permission of the
Engineer. Completed portions of the pavement shall be opened to travel
as directed by the Engineer, but such opening shall not be construed as
an acceptance by the City of the work done. Where thus opened to public
travel by the direction of the Engineer, the Contractor will not be held
responsible for injuries to the work caused by such travel or public use,
pending the final completion and acceptance of the whole work.
12. Grade and Contour of Pavement.—Roadway pavements shall
be laid to such grades, crown and contour of surface as the plans may
show or the Engineer may direct, and the surface of the completed
pavement shall conform accurately to such grades, crown and contour.
The designed surface of the completed pavement shall be considered as
the datum or plane of reference in fixing the location or level of the sub-
grade, of the pavement foundation, and of structures connected
therewith. It will be hereafter referred to in these specifications as “The
pavement datum.”
13. City Monuments or Stakes.—The Contractor must carefully
protect from disturbance or injury all city monuments, stakes and
benchmarks, and shall not excavate nearer than five feet to any of them
without the permission of the Engineer; or until they have been
removed, witnessed, or otherwise disposed of by the Engineer.
14. Old Material.—All material or structures removed from the
street and not required for the new construction, but which the city may
desire to reserve, shall be delivered and neatly piled up in a corporation
yard or elsewhere, by the Contractor, as the Engineer may direct. Such
reserved material shall be considered in the custody of the Contractor
until delivered at the place designated, and he will be held responsible
for its care and protection, and must make good any losses occasioned by
damage, theft, or misappropriation while it is on the street or en route to
the place of storage. If the Contractor shall be required to haul such
reserved material more than one-half mile, he shall be paid a reasonable
price, to be agreed upon in advance, for the haul exceeding that distance.
Material taken from the work which is to be used in the new
construction shall be compactly piled where it will least obstruct the
sidewalks or adjoining sections of the street, and properly protected by
the Contractor until it is required for use.
All old material removed from the work, including the material
excavated in preparing the sub-grade, not reserved by the City nor to be
used again in the work, shall belong to the Contractor and must be
removed by him from the street as promptly as possible. It must not be
placed on the sidewalks or adjacent streets, nor on any other street or
property belonging to the City, nor on the property of private owners,
without the written consent of the Engineer, or the owner of the
property.
15. Storage of New Material.—The material for construction when
brought upon the street shall be neatly piled so as to cause as little
obstruction to travel as possible, and so that it may be conveniently
inspected.
16. Rebuilding and Adjusting Street Structures.—Catch basins,
manhole, sewer and water frames and covers, sewer inlets, water pipes
and other conduits, belonging to the City and within the limits of the
work, shall, if necessary, be reset to the new lines and grades of the street
and for this purpose good brick masonry of the original thickness, laid in
Portland cement mortar shall be used. Great care must be taken to set all
such structures as project through the pavement exactly to the grade and
contour of the new street surface, and any defects in the conformity of
such structures to the pavement datum, discovered at the time, or during
the progress of the work, or during the guaranty period, stipulated in
Sec. 25 shall be promptly remedied by the Contractor.
17. Clean Sidewalks.—During the progress of the work, the
sidewalks and portions of the street adjoining the work, or in its vicinity,
must not be obstructed or littered more than may be absolutely
necessary, and the adjacent sidewalks must be kept clean.
18. Connection With Existing Pavements or Streets.—
Wherever a new pavement joins or abuts against an existing pavement of
a different kind, or an unpaved street, either at the end of the new
pavement or at cross or intersecting streets, a line of stone headers shall
be provided and set. The stone shall be of sound, hard limestone,
sandstone, granite or bluestone, free from injurious imperfections. The
separate stones shall be not less than three (3) feet long, at least eighteen
(18) inches deep, not less than four and one-half (4½) inches wide at the
top, nor less than three (3) inches wide at the bottom. The top shall be of
uniform width for each line of headers, and shall be dressed square and
even. The ends shall be dressed to secure a joint not wider than one-half
(½) inch for a depth of six inches from the top, and the sides dressed so
as to secure good contact and close jointing with the pavement. The
stones shall be set accurately with their tops at the pavement datum, on
a bed of concrete nine (9) inches wide and six (6) inches deep, and after
being set the trench shall be filled and rammed full of gravel or crushed
stone.
All existing pavements adjoining or abutting against the new
pavement, with their crosswalks, curbs, and gutters, shall be adjusted, or
taken up and relaid, to conform to and connect with the pavement
datum, to such an extent as the Engineer may direct.
Where the new and adjoining pavement are of the same kind, and
headers are not used, the new and the old pavement must be properly
joined and connected, as the Engineer may direct.
Stone headers will be paid for by the linear foot at the contract price
for that item, and the other work embraced in this section will be paid
for at the contract prices for the several items, where such contract
prices are provided; otherwise the work shall be considered as incidental
work and shall be done at the expense of the Contractor.
19. Curbing to be Completed in Advance.—The setting of all new
curbing and guttering and the redressing, resetting or readjustment of
all old curbing must be completed at least 100 feet in advance of the
construction of the street foundation.
20. Final Cleaning Up.—Immediately after the completion of the
work or any consecutive portion of it, the Contractor shall remove from
it all unused material, refuse and dirt placed by him on, or in the vicinity
of the work, or resulting from its prosecution, and restore the street to a
condition as clean as before the work was begun; and the new pavement
shall be properly cleaned.
21. Measurements and Computations.—Unless otherwise
distinctly provided in the contract and specifications, measurements,
computations and payments will be based upon the actual quantities of
completed work, customary or conventional methods of measurement
and computation to the contrary notwithstanding.
The area of street pavement shall be reckoned in square yards of
completed pavement surface, deducting manholes, inlets and other
openings in the surface of the pavement having an area of over three (3)
square feet. Unless separately paid for under the contract, stone headers
and crosswalks will be measured as a part of the pavement surface.
22. The price for the pavement per square yard shall, unless otherwise
stated herein, include the preparation of the sub-foundation, the
construction of the foundation, the cushion course, and the pavement
complete, including all the materials and labor required therefor.
23. Incidental Work at Contractor’s Expense.—All the work to
be done by the Contractor for which specific unit prices are not named in
the contract, specified and enumerated in Sections 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13,
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, as well as any minor details of work not
specifically mentioned in the specifications, but obviously necessary for
the proper completion of the work, shall be considered as incidental, and
as being a part of and included with the work for which prices are named
in the contract. The Contractor will not be entitled to any extra or
additional compensation therefor.
24. Extra Work.—The City may require the Contractor to furnish
such additional materials and to do such additional work, not provided
for in the contract and these specifications, but which may be found
necessary or pertinent to the proper prosecution and completion of the
work embraced in the contract, at prices to be agreed upon in writing, in
advance. But no work other than that included in the contract and these
specifications and which is covered by and to be paid for at the prices
named in the contract, shall be done by the Contractor except upon a
written order from the Engineer, which order shall describe the work to
be done and name the compensation agreed upon therefor. In the
absence of such written order from the Engineer the Contractor will not
be entitled to payment for any such additional or extra work.
In the same manner the city may omit or dispense with items or parts
of the work, by previous agreement with the contractor, and a like
written order by the engineer. But such additions, omissions or
alterations shall not together increase or decrease the aggregate cost of
the whole work more than fifteen per cent. (15%). Any changes in the
plans, specifications, character of material used or method of doing the
work that may increase or decrease the aggregate cost of the work more
than fifteen per cent. (15%) may be authorized and validated only by a
formal, supplemental contract, regularly executed by all the parties to
the original contract.[4]
25. Guaranty.[5]—The Contractor shall guarantee that all the
materials used and all the work done under this contract shall fully
comply with the requirements of these specifications, the plans herein
before referred to and the instructions of the Engineer. Any defects in
the completed work, or any part of it, or any failure of the work to fully
perform or endure the service for which it was intended, which, in the
opinion of the Engineer, are attributable to the use of materials, skill, or
workmanship not in compliance with the said specifications, plans and
instructions, within a period of ... years after the date of the certificate of
completion and acceptance, shall be regarded as prima facie and
conclusive evidence that the Contractor has failed to comply with the
said specifications, plans and instructions. And the Contractor shall, at
his own expense, at such time and in such manner as the Engineer may
direct, repair or take up and reconstruct any such defective work, in full
compliance with the original specifications, plans and instructions. And
as surety for the performance of this guaranty the Contractor’s bond,
required by the contract, shall remain in full force until the expiration of
the period of ... years above stipulated in this section.

PREPARING THE SUB-GRADE

26. Grading.—The whole area to be occupied by the pavement and

its foundation shall be excavated or filled up to a sub-grade at such an
elevation that after being compacted by the roller, the surface will be ...
inches below the pavement datum, and truly parallel thereto. In
excavating, the earth must not be disturbed below the sub-grade.
Plowing will not be permitted where the depth of earth to be removed is
less than five (5) inches, and in no case must the plow be allowed to
penetrate to within less than one inch of the sub-grade. Places that are
found to be loose, or soft, or composed of unsuitable material, below
sub-grade, must be dug out and refilled with sand, or other material as
good as the average of that found on the street.
Where the natural surface of the ground shall be below the sub-grade,
or shall become so by the removal of old pavement or other structures, it
must be filled to the sub-grade in layers not exceeding five inches in
depth, and each layer shall be thoroughly rolled or rammed before the
next layer is placed upon it, and when the filling is completed the filled
area must be properly trimmed and compacted by rolling or ramming to
the true sub-grade, as in excavation. The material excavated from the
street may be used for such filling, provided it be of suitable quality.
Where it cannot be thus procured from the street it must be obtained by
the Contractor elsewhere, in which case the actual quantity so obtained,
measured after it is compacted in the street, will be paid for at the
contract price for “earth filling.” The price bid for “earth excavation” will
be paid for all material excavated above the sub-grade, measured in
place on the street, which price includes the cost of disposing of the
excavated material, whether as waste or filling, and of trimming and
rolling or ramming the sub-grade, and of making it ready for the
pavement foundation.
After the excavation is completed and the surface neatly trimmed, the
whole area shall be well compacted by rolling with a roller weighing not
less than five tons. Areas inaccessible to the roller shall be rammed until
they are as well compacted as the rolled surface. When the rolling is