A Complete Course On Theoretical Physics From Classical Mechanics To Advanced Quantum Statistics 1st Edition Albrecht Lindner
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Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
Albrecht Lindner
Dieter Strauch
A Complete
Course on
Theoretical
Physics
From Classical Mechanics to Advanced
Quantum Statistics
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
Series editors
Neil Ashby, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
William Brantley, Department of Physics, Furman University, Greenville, SC, USA
Matthew Deady, Physics Program, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, NY, USA
Michael Fowler, Department of Physics, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
VA, USA
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (ULNP) publishes authoritative texts covering
topics throughout pure and applied physics. Each title in the series is suitable as a basis for
undergraduate instruction, typically containing practice problems, worked examples, chapter
summaries, and suggestions for further reading.
The purpose of ULNP is to provide intriguing, absorbing books that will continue to be the
reader’s preferred reference throughout their academic career.
A Complete Course
on Theoretical Physics
From Classical Mechanics to Advanced
Quantum Statistics
123
Albrecht Lindner Dieter Strauch
Pinneberg, Germany Theoretical Physics
University of Regensburg
Regensburg, Germany
The original, German edition was published in 2011 under the title “Grundkurs Theoretische Physik”.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of Albrecht Lindner (1935–2005),
scientist, teacher, friend
Preface
vii
Preface to the First German Edition
Like the standard course in theoretical physics, the present book introduces the
physics of particles under the heading Classical Mechanics, the physics of fields
under Electromagnetism, quantum physics under Quantum Mechanics I, and sta-
tistical physics under Thermodynamics and Statistics. Besides these branches,
which would form a curriculum for all students of physics, there is a complement
entitled Quantum Mechanics II, for those who wish to obtain a deeper under-
standing of the theory, which discusses scattering problems, quantization of fields,
and Dirac theory (as an example of relativistic quantum mechanics).
The goal here is to stress the interrelations between the individual subjects. In an
introductory chapter, there is a summary of the most important parts mathematical
tools repeatedly needed in the different branches of physics. These constitute the
mathematical foundation for rationalizing our practical experience, since we wish
to describe our observations as precisely as possible.
The selection of material was mainly inspired by our local physics diploma
curriculum. Only in a few places did I go beyond those limits, e.g., in Sect. 4.6
(quantum theory and dissipation), Sect. 5.2 (three-body scattering), and Sect. 5.4
(quasi-particles, quantum optics), since I have the impression that the essentials can
also be worked out rather easily in these areas.
Section 5.5 on the Dirac equation also differs from the standard presentation,
because I prefer the Weyl representation over the standard representation—despite
my intention to avoid any special representation as far as possible. In this respect, I
am grateful to my colleagues Till Anders (Munich), Dietmar Kolb (Kassel), und
Gernot Münster (Münster) for their valuable comments on my drafts.
Thanks go also to numerous students in Hamburg and especially to Dr. Heino
Freese and Dr. Adolf Kitz for many questions and suggestions, and various forms
of support. The general interest in my notes encourages me to present these now to
a larger community.
(Notes on figure production are left out here—D.S.)
ix
Preface to the Second German Edition
The text has been improved at many places, in particular in Sects. 3.5 and 5.4, and
all figures have been inserted with pstricks. In addition, three-dimensional objects
now appear in central instead of of parallel perspetive.
xi
Preface to the Third German Edition
xiii
Contents
1 Basics of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Vector Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Space and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.5 Gradient (Slope Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.6 Divergence (Source Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.7 Curl (Vortex Density) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.8 Rewriting Products. Laplace Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.9 Integral Theorems for Vector Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.10 Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.11 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.12 Calculation of a Vector Field from Its Sources
and Curls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1.13 Vector Fields at Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1 Orthogonal Transformations and Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.2 General Coordinates and Their Base Vectors . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.3 Coordinate Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.4 The Concept of a Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.2.5 Gradient, Divergence, and Rotation in General
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2.6 Tensor Extension, Christoffel Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.7 Reformulation of Partial Differential Quotients . . . . . . . . . 43
1.3 Measurements and Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.3.2 Mean Value and Average Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.3.3 Error Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
xv
xvi Contents
5.1.6
Representations of the Resolvents
and the Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.1.7 Lippmann–Schwinger Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
5.1.8 Möller’s Wave Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.1.9 Scattering and Transition Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
5.1.10 The Wave Function hr j k i þ for Large Distances r . . . . . 416
5.1.11 Scattering Cross-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
5.1.12 Summary: Scattering Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
5.2 Two- and Three-Body Scattering Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.2.1 Two-Potential Formula of Gell-Mann
and Goldberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.2.2 Scattering Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
5.2.3 Scattering of Charged Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
5.2.4 Effective Hamilton Operator in the Feshbach Theory . . . . 423
5.2.5 Separable Interactions and Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
5.2.6 Breit–Wigner Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
5.2.7 Averaging over the Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
5.2.8 Special Features of Three-Body Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
5.2.9 The Method of Kazaks and Greider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
5.2.10 Faddeev Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.2.11 Summary: Two- and Three-Body Scattering
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.3 Many-Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.3.1 One- and Many-Body States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.3.2 Exchange Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5.3.3 Symmetric and Antisymmetric States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
5.3.4 Creation and Annihilation Operators for Fermions . . . . . . 438
5.3.5 Creation and Annihilation Operators for Bosons . . . . . . . 440
5.3.6 General Properties of Creation and Annihilation
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
5.3.7 The Two-Body System as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
5.3.8 Representation of One-Particle Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
5.3.9 Representation of Two-Body Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
5.3.10 Time Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
5.3.11 Wave–Particle Dualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
5.3.12 Summary: Many-Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
5.4 Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
5.4.1 Fermi Gas in the Ground State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
5.4.2 Hartree–Fock Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
5.4.3 Rest Interaction and Pair Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
5.4.4 Quasi-Particles in the BCS Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
xxii Contents
Space and time are two basic concepts which, according to Kant, inherently or
innately determine the form of all experience in an a priori manner, thereby making
possible experience as such: only in space and time can we arrange our sensations.
[According to the doctrines of evolutionary cognition, what is innate to us has devel-
oped phylogenetically by adaption to our environment. This is why we only notice
the insufficiency of these “self-evident” concepts under extraordinary circumstances,
e.g., for velocities close to that of light (c0 ) or actions of the order of Planck’s quan-
tum h. We shall tackle such “weird” cases later—in electromagnetism and quantum
mechanics. For the time being, we want to make sure we can handle our familiar
environment.]
To do this, we introduce a continuous parameter t. Like every other physical
quantity it is composed of number and unit (for example, a second 1 s = 1 min/60
= 1 h/3600). The larger the unit, the smaller the number. Physical quantities do not
depend on the unit—likewise equations between physical quantities. Nevertheless,
the opposite is sometimes seen, as in: “We choose units such that the velocity of light
c assumes the value 1”. In fact, the concept of velocity is thereby changed, so that
instead of the velocity v, the ratio v/c is taken here as the velocity, and ct as time or
x/c as length.
The zero time (t = 0) can be chosen arbitrarily, since basically only the time
difference, i.e., the duration of a process, is important. A differentiation with respect to
time (d/dt) is often marked by a dot over the differentiated quantity, i.e., dx/dt ≡ ẋ.
In empty space every direction is equivalent. Here, too, we may choose the zero
point freely and, starting from this point, determine the position of other points in
a coordinate-free notation by the position vector r, which fixes the distance and
direction of the point under consideration. This coordinate-free type of notation is
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 1
A. Lindner and D. Strauch, A Complete Course
on Theoretical Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04360-5_1
2 1 Basics of Experience
From two vectors a and b, their sum a + b may be formed according to the con-
struction of parallelograms (as the diagonal), as shown in Fig. 1.1. From this follows
the commutative and associative law of vector addition:
a+b=b+a , (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) .
The product of the vectors a with a scalar (i.e., directionless) factor α is understood
as the vector α a = a α with the same (for α < 0 opposite) direction and with value
|α| a. In particular, a and −a have the same value, but opposite directions. For α = 0
the zero vector 0 results, with length 0 and undetermined direction.
Fig. 1.1 Sum and difference of vectors a and b. The vectors may be shifted in parallel, e.g., a−b
can also lie on the dashed straight line
1.1 Vector Analysis 3
Fig. 1.2 Scalar and vector products: e · a is the component of a in the direction of the unit vector
e, and | a × b | is the area shown
The scalar product (inner product) a · b of the two vectors a and b is the product
of their values times the cosine of the enclosed angle φab (see Fig. 1.2 left):
a · b ≡ a b cos φab .
The dot between the two factors is important for the scalar product—if it is missing,
then it is the tensor product of the two vectors, which will be explained in Sect. 1.2.4—
with a · b c = a b · c, if a and c have different directions, i.e., if a is not a multiple
of c . Consequently, one has
a·b=b·a
and
a·b=0 ⇐⇒ a ⊥ b or a = 0 or b = 0 .
If the two vectors are oriented perpendicularly to each other (a ⊥ b), then they are
also said to be orthogonal. Obviously, a · a = a 2 holds. Vectors with value 1 are
called unit vectors. Here they are denoted by e. Given three Cartesian, i.e., pairwise
perpendicular unit vectors ex , e y , ez , all vectors can be decomposed in terms of these:
a = e x a x + e y a y + e z az ,
a x ≡ e x · a , a y ≡ e y · a , az ≡ e z · a .
Here the components will usually be written after the unit vectors. This is particularly
useful in quantum mechanics, but also meaningful otherwise, since the coefficients
depend on the expansion basis. Since for a given basis a is fixed by its three compo-
nents (ax , a y , az ), a is thus often given as this row vector, or as a column vector, with
the components written one below the other. However, the coordinate-free notation
a is in most cases more appropriate to formal calculations, e.g., a + b combines the
three expressions ax + bx , a y + b y , and az + bz . Because e x · e x = 1, e x · e y = 0
(and cyclic permutations e y · e y = 1, e y · ez = 0 and so on), one clearly has
a · b = a x b x + a y b y + az bz .
The vector product (outer product) a × b of the two vectors a and b is another
vector which is oriented perpendicularly to both and which forms with them a right-
hand screw, like the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand. Its value
is equal to the area of the parallelogram spanned by a and b (see Fig. 1.2 right):
|a × b | = a b sin φab .
a × b = −b × a , a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c ,
and
a×b=0 ⇐⇒ a b or a = 0 or b = 0 .
a × b = e x (a y bz − az b y ) + e y (az bx − ax bz ) + ez (ax b y − a y bx ) .
This implies
a × (b × c) = (c × b) × a = b c · a − c a · b .
(This decomposition also follows without calculation because the product depends
linearly upon its three factors, lies in the plane spanned by b and c, vanishes for
b ∝ c, and points in the direction of b for c = a ⊥ b.) According to the last equation,
every vector a can be decomposed into its component along a unit vector e and its
component perpendicular to it:
a = e e · a − e × (e × a) .
a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0 .
a · (b × c) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b) ,
is called the (scalar) triple product of the three vectors. It is positive or negative, if
a, b, and c form a right- or left-handed triad, respectively. Its value gives the volume
of the parallelepiped with edges a, b, and c. In particular, ex · (e y × ez ) = 1.
1.1 Vector Analysis 5
N
C = AB with Cik = Ai j B jk ,
j=1
which is, of course, defined only if the number of columns of A is the same as the
number of rows of B. We have AB =
B A.
If we now combine the 3×3 Cartesian components of the vectors a, b, and c in
the form of a matrix, its determinant
a x a y az
bx b y bz ≡ ax (b y cz − bz c y ) + a y (bz cx − bx cz ) + az (bx c y − b y cx )
c x c y cz
= ax (b y cz − bz c y ) + bx (c y az − cz a y ) + cx (a y bz − az b y )
= det A
det A and det (AB) = det A × det B .
Therefore, also
a·f a·g a·h
a · (b × c) f · (g × h) = b · f b · g b · h .
c·f c·g c·h
a·c a·d
(a × b) · (c × d) = (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c) ≡ ,
b·c b·d
(a × b) · (a × b) = a 2 b2 − (a · b)2 ,
Ensi työkseen välittäjä siis selitti Dorothylle, että New York oli
kovin kovin jumalaton paikka. Mutta sensijaan että Dorothy olisi
kunnioittavasti kuunnellut, kysyi hän, voisiko herra pörssimies antaa
hänelle muutamia hyviä osoitteita. Ja se saattoi keskustelun
kokonaan pysähdyksiin. Mutta vihdoin välittäjä unohti hänen
erehdyksensä ja kävi myötävätuntoisemmaksi. Ja sitten hän sanoi
Dorothylle, että tämän tulisi olla kovin, kovin varuillaan, keitä
herrasmiehiä hän tapaisi, ja sitä ennen aina ensin kysyä häneltä.
Silloin Dorothy sanoi hänelle, että ainoa, joka oli häntä kiikutellut, oli
Algonquinin hissipoika, mutta että hän, jos välittäjällä oli jotakin tuota
hissipoikaa vastaan, alkaisi käyttää portaitakin. Nyt mies alkoi tuntea
olonsa perin tuskalliseksi tytön kanssa, joka ei mitään kunnioittanut.
Mutta vihdoin hän keskittyi ystävyyteensä Charlie Breeneä kohtaan
ja lupasi yrittää auttaa Dorothya.
Yhdeksäs luku
No, kun rouva Breene huomasi, että Dorothy oli niin nolostunut
kuin kirjastossa voi nolostua, kutsui hän hänet taidekokoelmaan
näyttääkseen hänelle taulun, jonka vastikään oli ostanut kuuluisalta
espanjalaiselta taiteilijalta nimeltä Zuluago. Ja rouva Breene pyysi
Dorothya silmäilemään sitä tarkasti ja sitten sanomaan hänelle, mitä
hän ajatteli sen "kierrekuurosta". No, Dorothy ei siitä asiasta
oikeastaan ymmärtänyt hölynpölyä, mutta sai äkkiä loistavan
päähänpiston ja kysyi Charlielta, mitä hän siitä ajatteli. Ja Charlie
avasi suunsa ja sanoi: "Minä en jukoliste tiedä, mitä se on." No,
tietenkin se sai rouva Breenen näyttämään varsin vähäpätöiseltä,
että joku, joka oli hänen poikansa, oli niin sivistymätön. Hänellä ei
siis tosiaan ollut muuta neuvoa kuin purra huultaan. Mutta Dorothya
kohtaan hän kävi entistä maireammaksi ja sanoi järjestäneensä
hänelle pienen yllätyksenkin. Ja se yllätys oli sellainen, että hän oli
kutsunut Jefferson Breenen, Charlien kuuluisan sedän, joka ei ole
ainoastaan koko Breenen suvun pää, vaan aikansa huomatuimpia
amerikkalaisia, tulemaan päivälliselle Dorothya katsastamaan.
No, kun Dorothy pääsi saliin, niin hän kuului ryhtyneen tanssimaan
joitakin uusia askeleita, joita oli teatterissa oppinut. Tarkoitan, ettei
kukaan ollut häntä ollenkaan pyytänyt, mutta ihmeellistä kyllä,
sensijaan että jokainen olisi närkästynyt, olivat kaikki mielissään. Ja
he alkoivat taputtaa käsiään. Ja sitten Dorothy päätti laulaa
muutamia koomillisia laulunpätkiä, jotka joku tytöistä oli sepittänyt
heidän oman pukuhuoneensa seinien sisälle ja jotka eivät olleet
aiotut laulettaviksi edes teatterissa, saatikka salongissa. Mutta ne
musiikinharrastajat eivät suinkaan suuttuneet, vaan ihastuivat yhä
enemmän ja alkoivat tunkeutua takaisin saliin niin lukuisasti, että
jousikvartetilta, joka ponnisteli päästäkseen sieltä ulos, melkein
murskattiin shello.
Kymmenes luku