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Wiesław Ostachowicz
Malcolm McGugan
Jens-Uwe Schröder-Hinrichs
Marcin Luczak
Editors

MARE-WINT
New Materials and Reliability in
Offshore Wind Turbine Technology
MARE-WINT
Wiesław Ostachowicz • Malcolm McGugan •
Jens-Uwe SchrRoder-Hinrichs • Marcin Luczak
Editors

MARE-WINT
New Materials and Reliability in Offshore
Wind Turbine Technology
Editors
Wiesław Ostachowicz Malcolm McGugan
Mechanics of Intelligent Structures Department of Wind Energy
Polish Academy of Sciences (IFFM) Technical University of Denmark
Gdansk, Poland Roskilde, Denmark

Jens-Uwe SchrRoder-Hinrichs Marcin Luczak

Maritime Risk and System Safety Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery
(MaRiSa) Polish Academy of Sciences (IFFM)
World Maritime University Gdansk, Poland
MalmRo, Sweden

ISBN 978-3-319-39094-9 ISBN 978-3-319-39095-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016950528

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Acknowledgements

The European Commission

The editors would like to start by thanking the European Commission for their Marie
Skłodowska-Curie actions (MSCA). The current research and publication was
primarily made possible through funding under the MSCA project FP7-PEOPLE-
20120 ITN 309395 “MARE-WINT” (new MAterials and REliablity in offshore
WINd Turbines technology).

About MSCA

The Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (MSCA) provide grants at all stages of

researchers’ careers, from doctoral candidates to highly experienced researchers,
and encourage transnational, intersectoral and interdisciplinary mobility. For
research institutions (universities, research centres and companies), MSCA offer
the possibility to host talented foreign researchers and create strategic partnerships
with leading institutions. The idea is to equip researchers with the necessary skills
for a successful career, be it in the public or the private sector.
The MSCA are open to all domains of research and innovation, from basic
research up to market take-up and innovation services. Research and innovation
fields are chosen freely by the applicants (individuals and/or organisations) in
a fully bottom-up manner. International mobility is prerequisite under all Marie
Skłodowska-Curie actions. There are no restrictions in terms of research field,
nationality or age.
Endowing researchers with new skills and a wider range of competencies, while
offering them attractive working conditions, is a crucial aspect of the MSCA. In
addition to mobility between countries, the MSCA also seek to break the real and
perceived barriers between academic and other sectors, especially business.

v
vi Acknowledgements

About ITN

The doctoral training is covered under the action Innovative Training Networks
(ITN). This high-quality joint research and doctoral training is delivered by interna-
tional networks that bring together universities, research centres and non-academic
organisations (companies, NGOs, charities, etc.) across Europe and beyond.
ITN can take one of three forms:
• European Training Networks (ETN): Joint research training, involving a mini-
mum of three partners from in and outside academia (business, museum, NGO,
etc.).
• European Industrial Doctorates (EID): Joint doctoral training delivered by at least
one academic partner entitled to award doctoral degrees and at least one partner
from outside academia, primarily enterprise. Each participating researcher is
enrolled in a doctoral programme and is jointly supervised by supervisors from
the academic and non-academic sector, where they spend at least 50 % of their
time. The aim is to broaden the career perspective of the PhD candidate upon
completion of the training.
• European Joint Doctorates (EJD): A minimum of three academic organisations
form a network with the aim of delivering joint, double or multiple degrees.
Joint supervision of the research fellow and a joint governance structure are
mandatory. The participation of additional organisations from anywhere in the
world, including from the non-academic sector, is encouraged.
During their ITN training, researchers will develop key transferable skills
common to all fields, such as entrepreneurship, management and financing of
research activities and programmes, management of intellectual property rights,
ethical aspects and communication.
In all cases, the recruited researchers are fully funded by the Marie Skłodowska-
Curie actions, with an attractive living and mobility allowance. The host organ-
isations receive a contribution to the research and training costs of the recruited
researcher and apply good employment practices in line with the European Charter
for Researchers and the European Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of
Researchers (European Commission 2016a).
The Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions support PhD candidates by financing
organisations which subsequently recruit candidates to the training programmes.
Therefore PhD candidates do not apply to the commission for the funding of their
posts. Instead, they apply directly on the European Researchers Mobility portal
EURAXESS (European Commission 2016b).
Acknowledgements vii

The External Contributors

In addition to the research conducted under MARE-WINT and MSCA, several

fellows collaborated with other researchers, funded under different schemes. On
behalf of all authors, the editors would like to thank these external collaborators;
individual acknowledgements are present in the various chapters.
The editors would also like to thank all external contributors who were not
directly involved in MARE-WINT but contributed through workshops and subse-
quent special chapters for the current book. Their knowledge, expertise and time
were very greatly appreciated. In particular, the editors would like to thank:
• Gregor Giebel and Charlotte Bay Hasager, who provided Chap. 19
• Johan Finsteen Gjødvad and Morten Dallov Ibsen, who authored Chap. 22
• Justine Beauson and Povl Brøndsted, who presented Chap. 23

The MARE-WINT Fellows and Project Partners

The editors would especially like to thank all the fellows whose hard work led to the
excellent research that is present in this book; the editors also extend their gratitude
to the various supervisors and colleagues, who guided the fellows and helped them
achieve their aims in the relevant research fields.

References

European Commission (2016a) The European Charter for Researchers. http://ec.europa.eu/

euraxess/index.cfm/rights/europeanCharter. Accessed 06 Apr 2016
European Commission (2016b) EURAXESS Researchers in Motion. http://ec.europa.eu/euraxess/
index.cfm/jobs/index. Accessed 06 Apr 2016
Contents

1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Raza Ali Mehdi, Wiesław Ostachowicz, and Marcin Luczak

Part I Wind Turbine Blades

2 Design of Wind Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Malcolm McGugan
3 Damage Sensing in Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Borja Hernandez Crespo
4 Fibre Bragg Grating as a Multi-Stage Structure Health
Monitoring Sensor .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Gilmar Ferreira Pereira
5 Analysis and Design of Bend-Twist Coupled Wind
Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Alexander R. Stäblein
6 Improvement of Wind Turbine Blade Performance
by Means of Rod Vortex Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Javier Martinez, Pawel Flaszynski, Piotr Doerffer,
and Oskar Szulc
7 Trailing and Leading Edge Flaps for Load Alleviation
and Structure Control.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Vladimir Leble and George N. Barakos

Part II Enabling Technologies for Drivetrain and Gearbox

Analysis
8 OWT Drivetrain & Gearbox Simulation and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Simone Manzato and Bert Pluymers

ix
x Contents

9 Dynamic Behavior of Bearings on Offshore Wind Turbine

Gearboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Rubén Cerdá, Bart Blockmans, Jakob Fiszer,
Tommaso Tamarozzi, Bert Pluymers, and Wim Desmet
10 Experimental Characterization of Wind Turbine Gearbox
in Operation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Emilio Di Lorenzo and Simone Manzato

Part III Tower & Support Structure

11 An Overview of Analysis and Design of Offshore Wind Turbines . . . . 169
Torgeir Moan and Tomasz Bugalski
12 Dynamic Response Analysis of Floating Wind Turbines
with Emphasis on Vertical Axis Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Zhengshun Cheng, Torgeir Moan, and Zhen Gao
13 Bottom Fixed Substructure Analysis, Model Testing
and Design for Harsh Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Duje Veic, Marek Kraskowski, and Tomasz Bugalski
14 Detection of Damage in Metallic Structures for Offshore
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Rohan Soman, Paweł Malinowski, and Wiesław Ostachowicz

Part IV Reliability & Preventive Maintenance of Offshore

Wind Turbines
15 Reliability and Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Itamar Esdras Martínez García, Alejandro Sánchez Sánchez,
and Stefano Barbati

Part V CFD Analysis of a Complete Offshore Wind Turbine

16 An Overview of the CFD Analyses in the MARE-WINT Project . . . . . 275
George N. Barakos
17 CFD Investigation of a Complete Floating Offshore
Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Vladimir Leble and George N. Barakos
18 CFD Study of DTU 10 MW RWT Aeroelasticity and
Rotor-Tower Interactions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Sergio González Horcas, François Debrabandere, Benoît
Tartinville, Charles Hirsch, and Grégory Coussement
Contents xi

Part VI Offshore Wind Farm Design

19 An Overview of Offshore Wind Farm Design . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Gregor Giebel and Charlotte Bay Hasager
20 Large Eddy Simulation of Wind Farm Aerodynamics
with Energy-Conserving Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dhruv Mehta
21 A Theoretical Risk Management Framework for Vessels
Operating Near Offshore Wind Farms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Raza Ali Mehdi and Jens-Uwe Schröder-Hinrichs

Part VII Offshore Wind Decommissioning

22 ODIN-WIND: An Overview of the Decommissioning
Process for Offshore Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Johan Finsteen Gjødvad and Morten Dallov Ibsen
23 Wind Turbine Blades: An End of Life Perspective .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Justine Beauson and Povl Brøndsted
Chapter 1
Introduction

Raza Ali Mehdi, Wiesław Ostachowicz, and Marcin Luczak

Abstract The current chapter provides an overview of the offshore wind industry,
followed by an introduction to the MARE-WINT project. We discuss the important
role that MARE-WINT has fulfilled in reducing the cost of offshore wind energy,
by improving the reliability, and operation and maintenance strategies of various
wind turbine components. Lastly, we present an overview of the current book for
the readers.

1.1 The Emergent Offshore Wind Industry

Wind is one of the most plentiful and widely available natural resources available
on our planet. For centuries, mankind has harvested the power of the wind for
applications such as maritime and agriculture. Most of the world was explored on
the back of wind-powered ships, and it was truly wind that made globalisation and
exploration possible.
With society becoming increasingly mindful of the impacts of fossil fuels,
renewable energy is on the rise, and the harvesting of wind to generate electricity
is becoming increasingly common. To enable this to happen, wind turbines have
been installed all over the globe. A vast majority of these wind turbines have been
installed on land and are referred to as onshore wind turbines. Statistics by the
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) indicate that only around 3 % of global
electricity is currently generated by wind power—but this number is on the rise.

R.A. Mehdi ()

Maritime Risk and System Safety (MaRiSa) Research Group, World Maritime University,
Fiskehamnsgatan 1, 21118 Malmö, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
W. Ostachowicz
Mechanics of Intelligent Structures Department, Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery, Polish
Academy of Sciences, ul. Fiszera 14, 80-231 Gdańsk, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Luczak
Aerodynamics Department, Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery, Polish Academy of Sciences
(IFFM), ul. Fiszera 14, 80-231 Gdańsk, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2016 1

W. Ostachowicz et al. (eds.), MARE-WINT, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6_1
2 R.A. Mehdi et al.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects that by the year 2035, 25 % of the
electricity generation will be fulfilled by renewable sources, and that wind energy
will have a major role to play.

1.1.1 The Benefits of Wind Energy

The popularity of wind energy arises from the simple fact that it is, by and large,
cost effective, environmentally friendly and socially popular amongst a majority of
the populace. A common method of assessing the cost-effectiveness of an energy
source is through a parameter called Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), which is
essentially a ratio between two parameters: the total lifetime costs and the total
electricity produced over the lifetime. Siemens (2014) calculated the LCOE of
various electricity generation sources to be as follows:
As Table 1.1 shows, the LCOE of onshore wind is reasonably close to the LCOE
of commonly used fossil fuels. However, the LCOE alone does not often provide
the complete picture.
A more comprehensive measure, as provided by Siemens (2014) is the so-called
Society’s Cost of Energy (SCOE). The SCOE takes into consideration further
factors such as number of jobs created by energy source, subsidies, transmission
costs, variability costs, geopolitical risk impact, and environmental impact. The
predicted SCOE in the year 2025 for various electricity generation sources is shown
in Table 1.2.
As shown in Table 1.2, it is expected that onshore and offshore wind will be
the two most viable sources of energy in the near future. In fact, this phenomenon
is already manifesting—statistics indicate the benefits from wind energy to be

Table 1.1 LCOE in 2013 for Source of electricity generation LCOE (A

C/MWh)
various electricity generation
sources Nuclear 79
Coal 63
Gas 60
Photovoltaics 145
Onshore wind 81
Offshore wind 140
Source: Siemens (2014)

Table 1.2 SCOE in 2025 for Source of electricity generation SCOE (A

C/MWh)
various electricity generation
sources Nuclear 107
Coal 110
Gas 89
Photovoltaics 78
Onshore wind 60
Offshore wind 61
Source: Siemens (2014)
1 Introduction 3

significant. As an example of the social benefits of wind energy, GWEC estimates

that more than 600,000 people are employed by the wind industry—a number that is
likely to rise to more than 2,000,000 by 2030. In terms of a positive environmental
impact, wind energy helped to avoid more than 608 million tonnes of carbon dioxide
emissions in 2014 alone. GWEC also estimate that wind farms generate between 17
and 39 times more power than they consume—compared to 16 times for nuclear
and 11 times for coal plants (GWEC 2016).

1.1.2 The Challenges of Going Offshore

The continued increase in wind energy is not without its challenges. Offshore wind,
in particular, still has some way to go before it can meet the LCOE and SCOE cost
expectations. This raises the question—why go offshore at all?
The growth of offshore wind is primarily due to better, more consistent wind
resource available on open seas. Combined with limited land space, and the fact
that onshore turbines may be less socially acceptable, this makes offshore wind
very appealing.
On the other hand, going offshore presents novel challenges—currently, there
are limitations in deep-water installation technology, and the harsher environment
is not ideal for the reliability, maintainability and availability of offshore wind
turbines. Furthermore, offshore wind farms (OWFs) need to be situated in locations
where simultaneously, the wind resource and the transmission-to-shore options are
optimum. Often times, these locations may be in conflict with national, regional or
international marine spatial plans, and other sectors such as fisheries and shipping
may take precedence in these areas.
There is, thus, a clear need to improve the viability and feasibility of OWFs, and
to make offshore turbines closely competitive to their onshore counterparts—and
indeed other sources of energy. To fulfil this gap, organizations like the European
Commission have encouraged and funded research projects such as MARE-WINT.

1.2 An Introduction to the MARE-WINT Project

The aim of the MARE-WINT (new MAterials & REliability in offshore WInd
Turbine Technology) project was to reduce cost of energy, and increase the
energy output, by improving reliability of wind turbines and their components
and optimizing operation and maintenance (O&M) strategies. Thus, the project
contributed towards making wind energy more competitive. The outcomes of the
project are particularly evident and relevant for the offshore sector, where O&M
represents a high percentage of total costs.
An offshore wind turbine (OWT) is a complex energy conversion fluid flow
machine with coupled hydro-aero-mechanical issues. To design, build, and operate
4 R.A. Mehdi et al.

a reliable OWT, knowledge from disciplines like mechanical engineering, material

science, metrology, fluid mechanics, condition monitoring, and computer simulation
needs to be combined. The MARE-WINT network bought together specific part-
ners’ capabilities and know-how to realize tailored training trajectories, focusing on
an increased reliability OWT design.
MARE-WINT achieved the overall aim by providing training in the context of
doctoral programmes for 15 researchers, in multi-disciplinary areas related to future
generations of Offshore Wind Turbines (OWT). An emphasis was placed on issues
that may have a major impact on the mechanical loading of OWT and which were
not sufficiently addressed at the initiation of the project. One of the strengths of
MARE-WINT has been the validation of various numerical, analytical and empirical
models through experimental data. This has allowed novel concepts such as floating
10 MW wind turbines to be thoroughly investigated, to better prepare the industry
for the challenges of tomorrow.

1.3 An Overview of the Current Research

To get a better insight of the outstanding work done by the fellows in the MARE-
WINT project—as presented in this book—it is firstly important to understand the
components, design process and operation of a typical wind turbine.

1.3.1 The Components of a Wind Turbine

Wind turbines are aero-mechanical devices that convert the rotational movement of
a rotor into electrical energy. In order for wind turbines to function, there needs to be
wind flowing past them. Wind on Earth is created as a result of the uneven heating
of our atmosphere, the irregularities of the Earth’s surface, and the actual rotation
of our plant. As wind flows past a turbine, it generates a lifting force on the blades
of a wind turbine—which are connected to a rotor. The lifting force on the blades
creates a rotational movement on the rotor. This rotational movement is transferred,
via a shaft and gearbox, to a generator where it is converted into electrical energy.
The components of a turbine are shown in Fig. 1.1.

1.3.2 Designing a Wind Turbine

Within the MARE-WINT project, several researchers worked in the context of

the 10 MW reference turbine developed by the Technical University of Denmark
(DTU), and described by Bak et al. (2013); the parameters are shown in Table 1.3.
1 Introduction 5

Fig. 1.1 Wind turbine components. Source: wind.energy.gov; copyright: public domain

Table 1.3 Properties of the 10 MW DTU reference wind turbine

Parameter Value
Rating 10 MW
Rotor orientation, configuration Upwind, three blades
Control Variable speed, collective pitch
Drivetrain Medium speed, multiple stage gearbox
Rotor, hub diameter 178.3 m, 5.6 m
Cut-in, rated, cut-out wind speed 4 m/s, 11.4 m/s, 25 m/s
Cut-in, rated rotor speed 6 RPM, 9.6 RPM
Rated tip speed 90 m/s
Overhang, shaft tilt, pre-cone 7.07 m, 5ı , 2.5ı
Pre-bend 3m
Rotor mass 229 tons (each blade 41 tons)
Nacelle mass 446 tons
Tower mass 605 tons
Source: Bak et al. (2013)

To design and develop this 10 MW reference turbine, the Bak et al. (2013) applied
the method shown in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.2 has a heavy emphasis on aerodynamics and structural mechanic and
is, in fact, only a simplified version of a much more sophisticated process. Typically,
as shown in Fig. 1.2, the starting point for a wind turbine concept is the design of the
blades. The size (primarily, the length) of the blades directly determines the capacity
6 R.A. Mehdi et al.

Fig. 1.2 Method for

developing the 10 MW
reference wind turbine.
Adapted from Bak et al.
(2013)

of the turbine. As a rule of thumb, the larger the diameter, the greater the power
output of the turbine. Of course, principals of aerodynamics govern the efficiency of
the wind turbine. On a very basic level, the Betz law means that theoretically only
around 59.3 % (16/27) of the kinetic energy from wind can actually be captured—
no matter how large the rotor size is; furthermore, being a mechanical device, there
are further inefficiencies in the system, which means that only around 75–80 % of
the 59.3 % theoretical cap is actually achieved. In order to make wind turbines
more reliable and efficient, these inefficiencies need to be minimized as much as
possible. Therefore, the design of blades is crucial. Blades must be aerodynamically
efficient, whilst at the same time being structurally sound enough to bear all
the mechanical and aerodynamic loads. Balancing the aerodynamic and structural
parameters is becoming increasingly challenging as wind turbines get larger and
more sophisticated.
The blades are connected to a rotor, which in turn is connected to a shaft, which
goes through a gearbox into the generator. The shaft and gearbox must be able to
1 Introduction 7

tolerate the mechanical loads in an often harsh environment, and be able to transmit
the rotational movement as efficiently as possible. If the drivetrain and gearbox are
unable to handle the loads from the blade and rotor, the blades design may have to be
changed; alternatively, the gearbox and drivetrain would be updated. The research
in this area, too, is critical as offshore turbines get more complex.
The blade and the nacelle (housing the gearbox and generator, amongst other
components) assembly must be supported on an adequate tower structure, which in
turn needs to be mounted or tethered on the sea-bed through an appropriate sub-
structure. Depending on the design requirements and factors such as the turbine
location, optimizing the tower and sub-structure can be a substantial task. The tower
and sub-structure must not only cope with aerodynamic and mechanical loading
(particularly from the blades, rotor and nacelle), but also bear its own load and
various hydrodynamic loads. As with the research conducted for the blades and
the gearbox, optimizing the tower and support structure for larger, more complex
turbines is a unique challenge.
Once all the components are in place and assembled, the overall reliability of
the turbine and all its sub-systems must be assessed. Furthermore, maintenance
strategies must be optimized in order to reduce the costs associated with offshore
wind. If it is unfeasible to maintain a wind farm in a cost effective manner, the
design or maintenance strategy may have to be adapted.
To ensure that a turbine is reliable and efficient, it is also important to analyse
the complete system. This is generally done using combined fluid and structural
analysis methods, to ensure that the components complement each other, and are
able to tolerate design loads without failures occurring.
A wind turbine on its own is often not the end goal—it needs to be integrated
into a wind farm. In order to do so, one must analyse the aerodynamic effects
of wake turbulence from each individual turbine over the entire proposed wind
farm area. This helps to determine the efficiency of various turbines in different
layouts. The layout of a wind farm is not only driven by aerodynamic factors; factors
such as seabed conditions, grid connection locations, hydrography and bathymetry
must also be taken into account. Furthermore, wind resource in an area must be
considered. Equally important is the consideration of potential ‘conflict’ or ‘overlap’
areas—which may be reserved for marine, environmental, or other purposes. The
layout of any wind farm can also have an impact on the navigational safety of
passing vessels; in turn, vessel accidents in the area may damage wind turbines,
or cause a wind farm shutdown, leading to reduced reliability. Wind turbine towers
may have to be designed to be ‘collision-friendly’ to ships (BSH 2015). A potential
conflict with other marine and maritime activities may cause a wind farm application
to be denied, or at the very least, the layout may have to be changed.
Wind turbines are designed to last around 25 years. Once their lifetime has been
fulfilled, the turbines need to be decommissioned. This is a fairly novel research
area, as most offshore turbines are just now entering their end-of-life cycle. Despite
this, the decommissioning is an important phase to consider when assessing LCOE,
as it can have a significant impact on the parameter. It may even be the case that a
wind farm is approved or denied permission based on its decommissioning plan.
8 R.A. Mehdi et al.

1.3.3 MARE-WINT’s Contribution to the Offshore Wind

Industry

In the MARE-WINT project, the focus was not solely on the design of a wind tur-
bine; rather, the fellows also focused on developing tools to analyse and improve the
reliability and efficiency of various wind turbine components. The best way to high-
light the contributions of the MARE-WINT project is by summarizing the content of
the present book, which more or less covers the topic areas identified in Sect. 1.3.2:
• Part I of this book focuses on blade design, and tools to improve analysis and
reliability of wind turbine blades. This research ranges from damage sensing to
the analysis of bend-twist coupling of blades—and even a study into rod-vortex
generators to minimize aerodynamic noise on the blade. Part I also describes the
‘Smart-Blade’ strategy used in the current work.
• Part II focuses on analysing and improving the reliability of these components.
The research described in this part of the book can allow turbine engineers to
assess the adequacy of the drivetrain and gearbox sub-systems.
• Part III presents tools that can be used to study, analyse and improve the
reliability and design of the tower and substructure. Researchers performed a
thorough fluid–structure interaction analysis of different wind turbine concepts—
floating, horizontal axis, and vertical axis, and determined the feasibility and
viability of each, compared to the others. Researchers also conducted numerical
and experimental studies focusing on hydrodynamic loads on various sub-
structures and towers. Lastly, a tool for structural health monitoring, to provide
an improved method of assessing turbine tower damage is also presented.
• Part IV discusses tools, methods strategies which can be used to analyse and
improve reliability and preventive maintenance of offshore wind turbines.
• Part V of the current book presents novel research in this area of complete
offshore wind turbine analysis. It describes relevant tools and models to assess
the fluid–structure interactions in a complex system like an offshore turbine.
• Part VI covers the crucial area of wind farm design. Topics including aerody-
namic simulations over wind farms, maritime risk assessment are covered. The
EERA-DTOC tool for designing wind farm clusters is also presented.
• Part VII of this book covers original decommissioning tools and strategies, both
from an industry and research perspective.
Several topics are not explicitly covered in this book, as they have been
sufficiently addressed in other published works. The spatial planning and approval
of wind farms, for instance, has been the focus of the SEANERGY project (EWEA
et al. 2012). Similarly, the environmental impacts of wind farms have been covered
by Koeller et al. (2006). The installation process of OWFs is also not explicitly
covered in this current work, although it is briefly discussed in Chap. 22, in
the context of the decommissioning phase of offshore turbines. Aside from these
aforementioned areas, the book comprehensively covers all topics from design to
decommissioning of OWFs.
1 Introduction 9

1.3.4 Contributions from External Authors

The majority of the content in this book has been has been generated from
original research conducted within the MARE-WINT project. Some research topics,
however, were not explicitly researched within the project; instead, subject matter
experts were invited to speak to the fellows during various training workshops.
Some of these experts were also invited to provide specific chapters for the book.
• Gregor Giebel and Charlotte Bay Hasager provided Chap. 19.
• Johan Finsteen Gjødvad and Morten Dallov Ibsen authored Chap. 22.
• Justine Beauson and Povl Brøndsted presented Chap. 23.
This book has been authored for everyone interested in advanced topics related
to offshore wind energy. It provides a unique perspective—both academic and
industrial—on novel research topics that will shape the future of the offshore wind
industry. On behalf of all the editors and authors, we wish you a very pleasant and
insightful reading!

Open Access This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/),
which permits any noncommercial use, duplication, adaptation, distribution and reproduction
in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the work’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included
in the work’s Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory
regulation, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or
reproduce the material.

References

Bak C, Zahle F, Bitsche R et al (2013) The DTU 10-MW reference wind turbine. In: DTU orbit—
the research information system. Available via Technical University of Denmark. http://orbit.
dtu.dk/files/55645274/The_DTU_10MW_Reference_Turbine_Christian_Bak.pdf. Accessed 6
Apr 2016
BSH (2015) Minimum requirements concerning the constructive design of offshore structures
within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Available via BSH. http://www.bsh.de/en/
Products/Books/Standard/7005-15.pdf. Accessed 6 Apr 2016
EWEA, ECN, 3E et al (2012) Delivering offshore electricity to the EU: spatial planning of
offshore renewable energies and electricity grid infrastructures in an integrated EU maritime
policy; SEANERGY 2020 Final Project Report. In: Intelligent Energy Europe. Available
via European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/intelligent/projects/en/printpdf/projects/
seanergy-2020. Accessed 6 Apr 2016
GWEC (2016) Wind in numbers. http://www.gwec.net/global-figures/wind-in-numbers/.
Accessed 6 Apr 2016
Koeller J, Koeppel J, Peters W (eds) (2006) Offshore wind energy: research on environmental
impacts. Springer, New York
Siemens AG (2014) A macro-economic viewpoint: what is the real cost of offshore wind? Available
via Siemens AG. http://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/pool/hq/power-generation/renewables/
wind-power/SCOE/Infoblatt-what-is-the-real-cost-of-offshore.pdf. Accessed 6 Apr 2016
 Part I
Wind Turbine Blades
Chapter 2
Design of Wind Turbine Blades

Malcolm McGugan

Abstract In this section the research program framework for European PhD
network MARE-WINT is presented, particularly the technology development work
focussing on reliability/maintenance and the models describing multi-body fluid
structure interaction for the Rotor Blade structure. In order to give a context for
the effort undertaken by the individual researchers this section gives a general
background for Wind Turbine blades identifying the trends and issues of importance
for these structures as well as concepts for “smarter” blades that address these issues.

2.1 Rotor Blades as a Common Research Topic

In order to meet its objective of strengthening the fundamental scientific work

within the multi-disciplinary engineering field of hydro-aero-mechanical coupling
in the wind energy conversion process, the MARE-WINT project was organised as
five cross-linked work packages in a common research programme. The first three
research work packages focus on the major structural components of the Offshore
Wind Turbine; Blade, Drive train, and Support structure. In addition to these inde-
pendent structure based work packages, there were two consolidating technology
based work packages focussing on Reliability and Predictive maintenance, and
Fluid–Structure interaction. In this way the goal of integrating multiple disciplines
was to be achieved. This concept is visualised in Fig. 2.1 where the three vertical,
structure-based Work Packages, are connected by the two horizontal technology-
based Work Packages.
Work Package 1 is the focus of this chapter and concerns the challenges for
offshore wind turbines with regard to the rotor blades, as well as proposing an
innovative response to address these. Within the network two researchers were
allocated within Work Package 1; Gilmar Pereira, based at the Technical University
of Denmark (DTU) and Vladimir Leble, based initially at the University of
Liverpool, and later at the University of Glasgow. In addition three researchers in
the network allocated within Work Packages 4 and 5 conducted work at the nexus

M. McGugan ()
Department of Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), DTU Risø Campus,
Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2016 13

W. Ostachowicz et al. (eds.), MARE-WINT, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6_2
14 M. McGugan

Innovative Offshore
Rotor Support
Blades Drive Train Structure
WP1 WP2 WP3

Reliability and
Predictive WP4
Maintenance

Fluid-Structure
WP5
Interaction

Fig. 2.1 Diagram showing the cross-linked MARE-WINT Work Packages

between their technology area and the blade structure. Borja Hernandez Crespo,
based at The Welding Institute in Cambridge, worked on Reliability and Predictive
Maintenance for the blades, and Alexander Stäblein worked with wind turbine blade
Fluid–Structure Interaction models at DTU Wind Energy, as Javier Martinez Suarez
did at the Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery in the Polish Academy of Sciences.
In Work Package 1 the structural and fluid dynamic investigations on the rotor
blade are approached by numerical and experimental methods. Within the work
package individual projects were developed, the first considering the behaviour
of the composite material (particularly when in damaged condition) within the
blade structure and the use of embedded sensors to detect this behaviour, and the
second describing structural behaviour and rotor performance in Computational
Fluid Dynamics models, including the use of leading and trailing edge flaps to
modify this.
These activities cross-link with the combinatory horizontal work packages (4
and 5) by providing, among other things, structural health information to the
reliability and predictive maintenance work package, and input to the fluid–structure
interaction models developed for the entire turbine.
In Work Package 4 the prime consideration is the economic efficiency of an
offshore wind farm as depending upon the individual turbines availability and
reliability. For the blades this involves the study of the various damages observed
in service, and understanding their root causes and criticality with respect to
operational lifetime. Detecting damages that initiate and propagate during service
is not straightforward and developing inspection technologies alongside remote
sensing systems is a key part of the future optimisation in this area.
In Work Package 5 the structural description of the various Offshore Wind
Turbine components are combined with flow models in a fluid–structure interaction
description of the complete system. The key task involves identifying and integrat-
ing the various aero/hydro loadings and their effect on the structural responses,
particularly any coupled effects. Of the three researchers in Work Package 5,
2 Design of Wind Turbine Blades 15

two worked specifically on the complex blade structure. The areas of interest
here include the use of twist-coupled aeroelastic blades to achieve structural load
reduction at high wind loads, and the development of flow control technology for
advanced blades.
In order to provide a common platform for the different Work Packages, a
reference model was agreed as one of the first deliverables within the project.
Described by Bak et al. (2013), the DTU 10 MW reference wind turbine
was developed by DTU Wind Energy together with Vestas Wind Systems as
part of a collaborative research intended to create the design basis for the
next generation of wind turbines. As such it is an ideal, publically available
reference for MARE-WINT to work on the optimisation of large offshore wind
installations; and indeed many of the inputs within this chapter use this shared
reference.

2.2 General Background for WT Blades

Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is one of the 2030
targets for the United Nations (UN 2016). This requires a substantial increase in the
share of renewable energy within the global energy mix, and wind is a prominent
part of the solution if the world is to achieve such a target. The potential for
offshore wind energy is enormous with industry projections in Europe showing
an increase from 5 GW in 2012 to 150 GW in 2030 (European Wind Energy
Association, Fig. 2.2 (EWEA 2016)). By moving to offshore sites the Industry can
establish larger wind farms with turbines of a size that would not be easily accepted
onshore where land use is at a premium. In addition to this, the quality of the wind
resource is greatly improved away from the effect of land contours, forests, and
so on.
However, moving such a large portion of the industrial production capacity
offshore is a major challenge. The environment offshore can be extreme and requires
a more robust and durable design for all components, access is expensive for
establishing and maintaining production offshore, and support structure designs
for deep water sites are yet to be proven commercially. At the European Wind
Energy Association conference in 2014, the delegates were warned that without
a reduction in energy costs corresponding to at least 40 %, offshore wind could
not persist in the current energy market beyond 2020 (EWEA 2014). While costs
for onshore wind are already competitive, targeting a reduction in the cost of
energy offshore was vital if the ambitious political and industrial targets are to be
achieved. It was further observed that initial offshore developments were based on
technology from the offshore oil and gas supply chain which is driven by a need to
maximise production, rather than by cost reduction. The solution agreed was for a
more focussed investment in research and development that produces innovations in
logistics, transport and operation.
Another random document with
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 That eye of wight could not indure to view:
But others tell that it so beautious was,
And round about such beames of splendor threw,
That it the Sunne a thousand times did pass,
Ne could be seene, but like an image in a glass.

That well may seemen true: for, well I weene vii

That this same day, when she on Arlo sat,
Her garment was so bright and wondrous sheene,
That my fraile wit cannot deuize to what
It to compare, nor finde like stuffe to that,
As those three sacred Saints, though else most wise,
Yet on mount Thabor quite their wits forgat,
When they[617] their glorious Lord in strange disguise
Transfigur’d sawe; his garments so did daze their eyes.

In a fayre Plaine vpon an equall Hill, viii

She placed was in a pauilion;
Not such as[618] Craftes-men by their idle skill
Are wont for Princes states to fashion:
But th’earth her self of her owne motion,
Out of her fruitfull bosome made to growe
Most dainty trees; that, shooting vp anon,
Did seeme to bow their bloosming heads full lowe,
For homage vnto her, and like a throne did shew[619].

So hard[620] it is for any liuing wight, ix

All her array and vestiments to tell,
That old Dan Geffrey (in whose gentle spright
The pure well head of Poesie did dwell)
In his Foules parley durst not with it mel,
But it transferd to Alane, who he thought
Had in his Plaint of kindes[621] describ’d it well:
Which who will read set forth so as it ought,
Go seek he out that Alane where he may be sought.

And all the earth far vnderneath her feete x

 Was dight with flowres, that voluntary grew
Out of the ground, and sent forth odours sweet;
Tenne thousand mores[622] of sundry sent and hew,
That might delight the smell, or please the view:
The which, the Nymphes, from all the brooks thereby
Had gathered, which[623] they at her foot-stoole threw;
That richer seem’d then any tapestry,
That Princes bowres adorne with painted imagery.

And Mole himselfe, to honour her the more, xi

Did deck himself in freshest faire attire,
And his high head, that seemeth alwaies hore
With hardned frosts of former winters ire,
He with an Oaken girlond now did tire,
As if the loue of some new Nymph late seene,
Had in him kindled youthfull fresh desire,
And made him change his gray attire to greene;
Ah gentle Mole! such ioyance hath thee well beseene.

Was neuer[624] so great ioyance since the day, xii

That all the gods whylome assembled were,
On Hæmus hill in their diuine array,
To celebrate the solemne bridall cheare,
Twixt Peleus[625], and dame Thetis pointed there;
Where Phœbus self, that god of Poets hight,
They say did sing the spousall hymne full cleere,
That all the gods were rauisht with delight
Of his celestiall song, and Musicks wondrous might.

This great Grandmother of all creatures bred xiii

Great Nature, euer young yet full of eld,
Still moouing, yet vnmoued from her sted;
Vnseene of any, yet of all beheld;
Thus sitting in her throne as I haue teld,
Before her came dame Mutabilitie;
And being lowe before her presence feld,
With meek obaysance and humilitie,
Thus gan her plaintif Plea, with words to amplifie;

To thee O greatest goddesse, onely great, xiv

An humble suppliant loe, I lowely fly
Seeking for Right, which I of thee entreat;
Who Right to all dost deale indifferently,
Damning all Wrong and tortious Iniurie,
Which any of thy creatures doe to other
(Oppressing them with power, vnequally)
Sith of them all thou art the equall mother,
And knittest each to each[626], as brother vnto brother.

To thee therefore of this same Ioue I plaine, xv

And of his fellow gods that faine to be,
That challenge to themselues the whole worlds raign;
Of which, the greatest part is due to me,
And heauen it selfe by heritage in Fee:
For, heauen and earth I both alike do deeme,
Sith heauen and earth are both alike to thee;
And, gods no more then men thou doest esteeme[627]:
For, euen the gods to thee, as men to gods do seeme.

Then weigh, O soueraigne goddesse, by what right xvi

These gods do claime the worlds whole souerainty;
And that is onely dew vnto thy[628] might
Arrogate to themselues ambitiously:
As for the gods owne principality,
Which Ioue vsurpes vniustly; that to be
My heritage, Ioue’s self cannot deny,
From my great Grandsire Titan, vnto mee,
Deriv’d by dew descent; as is well knowen to thee.

Yet mauger Ioue, and all his gods beside, xvii

I doe possesse the worlds most regiment;
As, if ye please it into parts diuide,
And euery parts inholders to conuent,
Shall to your eyes appeare incontinent.
 And first, the Earth (great mother of vs all)
That only seems vnmov’d and permanent,
And vnto Mutability not thrall;
Yet is she chang’d in part, and eeke in generall.

For, all that from her springs, and is ybredde, xviii

How-euer fayre it flourish for a time,
Yet see we soone decay; and, being dead,
To turne again vnto their earthly slime:
Yet, out of their decay and mortall crime,
We daily see new creatures to arize;
And of their Winter spring another Prime,
Vnlike in forme, and chang’d by strange disguise:
So turne they still about, and change in restlesse wise.

As for her tenants; that is, man and beasts, xix

The beasts we daily see massacred dy,
As thralls and vassalls vnto mens beheasts:
And men themselues doe change continually,
From youth to eld, from wealth to pouerty,
From good to bad, from bad to worst of all.
Ne doe their bodies only flit and fly:
But eeke their minds (which they immortall call)
Still change and vary thoughts, as new occasions fall.

Ne is the water in more constant case; xx

Whether those same on high, or these belowe.
For, th’Ocean moueth stil, from place to place;
And euery Riuer still doth ebbe and flowe:
Ne any Lake, that seems most still and slowe,
Ne Poole so small, that can his smoothnesse holde,
When any winde doth vnder heauen blowe;
With which, the clouds are also tost and roll’d;
Now like great Hills; and, streight, like sluces, them vnfold.

So likewise are all watry liuing wights xxi

Still tost, and turned, with continuall change,
Neuer abyding in their stedfast plights.
 The fish, still floting, doe at randon range,
And neuer rest; but euermore exchange
Their dwelling places, as the streames them carrie:
Ne haue the watry foules a certaine grange,
Wherein to rest, ne in one stead do tarry;
But flitting still doe flie, and still their places vary.

Next is the Ayre: which who feeles not by sense xxii

(For, of all sense it is the middle meane)
To flit still? and, with subtill influence
Of his thin spirit, all creatures to maintaine,
In state of life? O weake life! that does leane
On thing so tickle as th’vnsteady ayre;
Which euery howre is chang’d, and altred cleane
With euery blast that bloweth fowle or faire:
The faire doth it prolong; the fowle doth it impaire.

Therein the changes infinite beholde, xxiii

Which to her creatures euery minute chaunce;
Now, boyling hot: streight, friezing deadly cold:
Now, faire sun-shine, that makes all skip and daunce:
Streight, bitter storms and balefull countenance,
That makes them all to shiuer and to shake:
Rayne, hayle, and snowe do pay them sad penance,
And dreadfull thunder-claps (that make them quake)
With flames and flashing lights that thousand changes make.

Last is the fire: which, though it liue for euer, xxiv

Ne can be quenched quite; yet, euery day,
Wee see his parts, so soone as they do seuer,
To lose their heat, and shortly to decay;
So, makes himself his owne consuming pray.
Ne any liuing creatures doth he breed:
But all, that are of others bredd, doth slay;
And, with their death, his cruell life dooth feed;
Nought leaning, but their barren ashes, without seede.

Thus, all these fower (the which the ground-work bee xxv
 Of all the world, and of all liuing wights)
To thousand sorts of Change we subiect see:
Yet are they chang’d (by other wondrous slights)
Into themselues, and lose their natiue mights;
The Fire to Aire, and th’Ayre to Water sheere,
And Water into Earth: yet Water fights
With Fire, and Aire with Earth approaching neere:
Yet all are in one body, and as one appeare.

So, in them all raignes Mutabilitie; xxvi

How-euer these, that Gods themselues do call,
Of them doe claime the rule and souerainty:
As, Vesta, of the fire æthereall;
Vulcan, of this, with vs so vsuall;
Ops, of the earth; and Iuno of the Ayre;
Neptune, of Seas; and Nymphes, of Riuers all.
For, all those Riuers to me subiect are:
And all the rest, which they vsurp, be all my share.

Which to approuen true, as I haue told, xxvii

Vouchsafe, O goddesse, to thy presence call
The rest which doe the world in being hold:
As, times and seasons of the yeare that fall:
Of all the which, demand in generall,
Or iudge thy selfe, by verdit of thine eye,
Whether to me they are not subiect all.
Nature did yeeld thereto; and by-and-by,
Bade Order call them all, before her Maiesty.

So, forth issew’d the Seasons of the yeare; xxviii

First, lusty Spring, all dight in leaues of flowres
That freshly budded and new bloosmes did beare
(In which a thousand birds had built their bowres
That sweetly sung, to call forth Paramours):
And in his hand a iauelin he did beare,
And on his head (as fit for warlike stoures)
A guilt engrauen morion he did weare;
That as some did him loue, so others did him feare.

Then came the iolly Sommer, being dight xxix

In a thin silken cassock coloured greene,
That was vnlyned all, to be more light:
And on his head a girlond well beseene
He wore, from which as he had chauffed been
The sweat did drop; and in his hand he bore
A boawe and shaftes, as he in forrest greene
Had hunted late the Libbard or the Bore,
And now would bathe his limbes, with labor heated sore.

Then came the Autumne all in yellow clad, xxx

As though he ioyed in his plentious store,
Laden with fruits that made him laugh, full glad
That he had banisht hunger, which to-fore
Had by the belly oft him pinched sore.
Vpon his head a wreath that was enrold
With eares of corne, of euery sort he bore:
And in his hand a sickle he did holde,
To reape the ripened fruits the which the earth had yold.

Lastly, came Winter cloathed all in frize, xxxi

Chattering his teeth for cold that did him chill,
Whil’st on his hoary beard his breath did freese;
And the dull drops that from his purpled bill
As from a limbeck did adown distill.
In his right hand a tipped staffe he held,
With which his feeble steps he stayed still:
For, he was faint with cold, and weak with eld;
That scarse his loosed limbes he hable was to weld.

These, marching softly, thus in order went, xxxii

And after them, the Monthes all riding came;
First, sturdy March with brows full sternly bent,
And armed strongly, rode vpon a Ram,
The same which ouer Hellespontus swam:
Yet in his hand a spade he also hent,
 And in a bag all sorts of seeds ysame,
Which on the earth he strowed as he went,
And fild her womb with fruitfull hope of nourishment.

Next came fresh Aprill full of lustyhed, xxxiii

And wanton as a Kid whose horne new buds:
Vpon a Bull he rode, the same which led
Europa floting through th’ Argolick fluds:
His homes were gilden all with golden studs
And garnished with garlonds goodly dight
Of all the fairest flowres and freshest buds
Which th’earth brings forth, and wet he seem’d in sight
With waues, through which he waded for his loues delight.

Then came faire May, the fayrest mayd on ground, xxxiv

Deckt all with dainties of her seasons pryde,
And throwing flowres out of her lap around:
Vpon two brethrens shoulders she did ride,
The twinnes of Leda; which on eyther side
Supported her like to their soueraine Queene.
Lord! how all creatures laught, when her they spide,
And leapt and daunc’t as they had rauisht beene!
And Cupid selfe about her fluttred all in greene.

And after her, came iolly Iune, arrayd xxxv

All in greene leaues, as he a Player were;
Yet in his time, he wrought as well as playd,
That by his plough-yrons mote right well appeare:
Vpon a Crab he rode, that him did beare
With crooked crawling steps an vncouth pase,
And backward yode, as Bargemen wont to fare
Bending their force contrary to their face,
Like that vngracious crew which faines demurest grace.

Then came hot Iuly boyling like to fire, xxxvi

That all his garments he had cast away:
Vpon a Lyon raging yet with ire
He boldly rode and made him to obay:
 It was the beast that whylome did forray
The Nemæan forrest, till th’Amphytrionide
Him slew, and with his hide did him array;
Behinde his back a sithe, and by his side
Vnder his belt he bore a sickle circling wide.

The sixt was August, being rich arrayd xxxvii

In garment all of gold downe to the ground:
Yet rode he not, but led a louely Mayd
Forth by the lilly hand, the which was cround
With eares of corne, and full her hand was found;
That was the righteous Virgin, which of old
Liv’d here on earth, and plenty made abound;
But, after Wrong was lov’d and Iustice solde,
She left th’vnrighteous world and was to heauen extold.

Next him, September marched eeke on foote; xxxviii

Yet was he heauy laden with the spoyle
Of haruests riches, which he made his boot,
And him enricht with bounty of the soyle:
In his one hand, as fit for haruests toyle,
He held a knife-hook; and in th’other hand
A paire of waights, with which he did assoyle
Both more and lesse, where it in doubt did stand,
And equall gaue to each as Iustice duly scann’d.

Then came October full of merry glee: xxxix

For, yet his noule was totty of the must,
Which he was treading in the wine-fats see,
And of the ioyous oyle, whose gentle gust
Made him so frollick and so full of lust:
Vpon a dreadfull Scorpion he did ride,
The same which by Dianaes doom vniust
Slew great Orion: and eeke by his side
He had his ploughing share, and coulter ready tyde.

Next was Nouember, he full[629] grosse and fat, xl

 As fed with lard, and that right well might seeme;
For, he had been a fatting hogs of late,
That yet his browes with sweat, did reek and steem,
And yet the season was full sharp and breem;
In planting eeke he took no small delight:
Whereon he rode, not easie was to deeme;
For it a dreadfull Centaure was in sight,
The seed of Saturne, and faire Nais, Chiron hight.

And after him, came next the chill December: xli

Yet he through merry feasting which he made,
And great bonfires, did not the cold remember;
His Sauiours birth his mind so much did glad:
Vpon a shaggy-bearded Goat he rode,
The same wherewith Dan Ioue in tender yeares,
They say, was nourisht by th’Idæan[630] mayd;
And in his hand a broad deepe boawle he beares;
Of which, he freely drinks an health to all his peeres.

Then came old Ianuary, wrapped well xlii

In many weeds to keep the cold away;
Yet did he quake and quiuer like to quell,
And blowe his nayles to warme them if he may:
For, they were numbd with holding all the day
An hatchet keene, with which he felled wood,
And from the trees did lop the needlesse spray:
Vpon an huge great Earth-pot steane he stood;
From whose wide mouth, there flowed forth the Romane floud.

And lastly, came cold February, sitting xliii

In an old wagon, for he could not ride;
Drawne of two fishes for the season fitting,
Which through the flood before did softly slyde
And swim away: yet had he by his side
His plough and harnesse fit to till the ground,
And tooles to prune the trees, before the pride
Of hasting Prime did make them burgein round:
So past the twelue Months forth, and their dew places found.

And after these, there came the Day, and Night, xliv
Riding together both with equall pase,
Th’one on a Palfrey blacke, the other white;
But Night had couered her vncomely face
With a blacke veile, and held in hand a mace,
On top whereof the moon and stars were pight,
And sleep and darknesse round about did trace:
But Day did beare, vpon his scepters hight,
The goodly Sun, encompast all with beames bright.

Then came the Howres, faire daughters of high Ioue, xlv

And timely Night, the which were all endewed
With wondrous beauty fit to kindle loue;
But they were Virgins all, and loue eschewed,
That might forslack the charge to them fore-shewed
By mighty Ioue; who did them Porters make
Of heauens gate (whence all the gods issued)
Which they did dayly watch, and nightly wake
By euen turnes, ne euer did their charge forsake.

And after all came Life, and lastly Death; xlvi

Death with most grim and griesly visage seene,
Yet is he nought but parting of the breath;
Ne ought to see, but like a shade to weene,
Vnbodied, vnsoul’d, vnheard, vnseene.
But Life was like a faire young lusty boy,
Such as they faine Dan Cupid to haue beene,
Full of delightfull health and liuely ioy,
Deckt all with flowres, and wings of gold fit to employ.

When these were past, thus gan the Titanesse; xlvii

Lo, mighty mother, now be iudge and say,
Whether in all thy creatures more or lesse
CHANGE doth not raign and beare the greatest sway:
For, who sees not, that Time on all doth pray?
But Times do change and moue continually.
 So nothing here long standeth in one stay:
Wherefore, this lower world who can deny
But to be subiect still to Mutabilitie?

Then thus gan Ioue; Right true it is, that these xlviii
And all things else that vnder heauen dwell
Are chaung’d of Time, who doth them all disseise
Of being: But, who is it (to me tell)
That Time himselfe doth moue and still compell
To keepe his course? Is not that namely wee
Which poure that vertue from our heauenly cell,
That moues them all, and makes them changed be?
So them we gods doe rule, and in them also thee.

To whom, thus Mutability: The things xlix

Which we see not how they are mov’d and swayd,
Ye may attribute to your selues as Kings,
And say they by your secret powre are made:
But what we see not, who shall vs perswade?
But were they so, as ye them faine to be,
Mov’d by your might, and ordred by your ayde;
Yet what if[631] I can proue, that euen yee
Your selues are likewise chang’d, and subiect vnto mee?

And first, concerning her that is the first, l

Euen you faire Cynthia, whom so much ye make
Ioues dearest darling, she was bred and nurst
On Cynthus hill, whence she her name did take:
Then is she mortall borne, how-so ye crake;
Besides, her face and countenance euery day
We changed see, and sundry forms partake,
Now hornd, now round, now bright, now brown and gray:
So that as changefull as the Moone men vse to say.

Next, Mercury, who though he lesse appeare li

To change his hew, and alwayes seeme as one;
Yet, he his course doth altar euery yeare,
 And is of late far out of order gone:
So Venus eeke, that goodly Paragone,
Though faire all night, yet is she darke all day;
And Phœbus self, who lightsome is alone,
Yet is he oft eclipsed by the way,
And fills the darkned world with terror and dismay.

Now Mars that valiant man is changed most: lii

For, he some times so far runs out of square,
That he his way doth seem quite to haue lost,
And cleane without his vsuall sphere to fare;
That euen these Star-gazers stonisht are
At sight thereof, and damne their lying bookes:
So likewise, grim Sir Saturne oft doth spare
His sterne aspect, and calme his crabbed lookes:
So many turning cranks these haue, so many crookes.

But you Dan Ioue, that only constant are, liii

And King of all the rest, as ye do clame,
Are you not subiect eeke to this misfare?
Then let me aske you this withouten blame,
Where were ye borne? some say in Crete by name,
Others in Thebes, and others other-where;
But wheresoeuer they comment the same,
They all consent that ye begotten were,
And borne here in this world, ne other can appeare.

Then are ye mortall borne, and thrall to me, liv

Vnlesse the kingdome of the sky yee make
Immortall, and vnchangeable to bee;
Besides, that power and vertue which ye spake,
That ye here worke, doth many changes take,
And your owne natures change: for, each of you
That vertue haue, or this, or that to make,
Is checkt and changed from his nature trew,
By others opposition or obliquid view.

Besides, the sundry motions of your Spheares, lv

 So sundry waies and fashions as clerkes faine,
Some in short space, and some in longer yeares;
What is the same but alteration plaine?
Onely the starrie skie doth still remaine:
Yet do the Starres and Signes therein still moue,
And euen it self is mov’d, as wizards saine[632].
But all that moueth, doth mutation loue:
Therefore both you and them to me I subiect proue.

Then since within this wide great Vniuerse lvi

Nothing doth firme and permanent appeare,
But all things tost and turned by transuerse:
What then should let, but I aloft should reare
My Trophee, and from all, the triumph beare?
Now iudge then (O thou greatest goddesse trew!)
According as thy selfe doest see and heare,
And vnto me addoom that is my dew;
That is the rule of all, all being rul’d by you.

So hauing ended, silence long ensewed, lvii

Ne Nature to or fro spake for a space,
But with firme eyes affixt, the ground still viewed.
Meane while, all creatures, looking in her face,
Expecting th’end of this so doubtfull case,
Did hang in long suspence what would ensew,
To whether side should fall the soueraigne place:
At length, she looking vp with chearefull view,
The silence brake, and gaue her doome in speeches few.

I well consider all that ye have sayd, lviii

And find that all things stedfastnes doe hate
And changed be: yet being rightly wayd
They are not changed from their first estate;
But by their change their being doe dilate:
And turning to themselues at length againe,
Doe worke their owne perfection so by fate:
Then ouer them Change doth not rule and raigne;
But they raigne ouer change, and doe their states maintaine.

Cease therefore daughter further to aspire, lix

And thee content thus to be rul’d by me:
For thy decay thou seekst by thy desire;
But time shall come that all shall changed bee,
And from thenceforth, none no more change shall see.
So was the Titaness put downe and whist,
And Ioue confirm’d in his imperiall see.
Then was that whole assembly quite dismist,
And Natur’s selfe did vanish, whither no man wist.

FOOTNOTES:
[614] liv 8 champain 1611
[615] ii 3 feeble] sable 1609: corr. Hughes
[616] iv 5 euery 1609
[617] vii 8 they] they 1609
[618] viii 3 as] ar 1609
[619] 9 showe 1611
[620] ix 1 hard] heard 1609: corr. 1611
[621] 7 kindes] kinde Morris after Upton
[622] x 4 mores] more Hughes &c.
[623] 7 which om. Hughes &c.
[624] xii 1 neuer 1609
[625] 5 Pelene 1609: corr. 1611
[626] xiv 9 to’each 1609: corr. 1611
[627] xv 8 esteeeme 1609
[628] xvi 3 thy] my 1611
[629] xl i full bis 1609
[630] xli 7 Iæan 1609, 1611: corr. Upton
[631] xlix 8 if] If 1609
[632] lv 7 saine] faine 1611
 The VIII. Canto, vnperfite.
When I bethinke me on that speech whyleare, i
Of Mutability, and well it way:
Me seemes, that though she all vnworthy were
Of the Heav’ns Rule; yet very sooth to say,
In all things else she beares the greatest sway.
Which makes me loath this state of life so tickle,
And loue of things so vaine to cast away;
Whose flowring pride, so fading and so fickle,
Short Time shall soon cut down with his consuming sickle.

Then gin I thinke on that which Nature sayd, ii

Of that same time when no more Change shall be,
But stedfast rest of all things firmely stayd
Vpon the pillours of Eternity,
That is contrayr to Mutabilitie:
For, all that moueth, doth in Change delight:
But thence-forth all shall rest eternally
With Him that is the God of Sabbaoth[633] hight:
O that great Sabbaoth God[634], graunt me that Sabaoths sight.

FOOTNOTES:
[633] ii 8 Sabaoth 1611
[634] 9 Sabaoth God 1611 Sabbath’s sight conj. Church

FINIS.
 A
Letter[635] of the Authors
expounding his

whole intention in the course of this worke:

which for that it giueth great light to the Reader,
for the better vnderstanding is hereunto annexed.
To the Right noble, and Valorous, Sir Walter Raleigh knight, Lo.
Wardein of the Stanneryes, and her Maiesties liefetenaunt of the
County of Cornewayll.
ir knowing how doubtfully all Allegories may be construed,
and this booke of mine, which I haue entituled the Faery
Queene, being a continued Allegory, or darke conceit, I haue
thought good as well for auoyding of gealous opinions and
misconstructions, as also for your better light in reading therof (being
so by you commanded,) to discouer vnto you the general intention
and meaning, which in the whole course thereof I haue fashioned,
without expressing of any particular purposes or by-accidents[636]
therein occasioned. The generall end therefore of all the booke is to
fashion a gentleman or noble person in vertuous and gentle
discipline: Which for that I conceiued shoulde be most plausible and
pleasing, being coloured with an historicall fiction, the which the most
part of men delight to read, rather for variety of matter, then for
profite of the ensample: I chose the historye of king Arthure, as most
fitte for the excellency of his person, being made famous by many
mens former workes, and also furthest from the daunger of enuy,
and suspition of present time. In which I haue followed all the antique
Poets historicall, first Homere, who in the Persons of Agamemnon
and Vlysses hath ensampled a good gouernour and a vertuous man,
the one in his Ilias, the other in his Odysseis: then Virgil, whose like
intention was to doe in the person of Aeneas: after him Ariosto
comprised them both in his Orlando: and lately Tasso disseuered
them againe, and formed both parts in two persons, namely that part
which they in Philosophy call Ethice, or vertues of a priuate man,
coloured in his Rinaldo: The other named Politice in his Godfredo.
By ensample of which excellente Poets, I labour to pourtraict in
Arthure, before he was king, the image of a braue knight, perfected
in the twelue priuate morall vertues, as Aristotle hath deuised, the
which is the purpose of these first twelue bookes: which if I finde to
be well accepted, I may be perhaps encoraged, to frame the other
part of polliticke vertues in his person, after that hee came to be king.
To some I know this Methode will seeme displeasaunt, which had
rather haue good discipline deliuered plainly in way of precepts, or
sermoned at large, as they vse, then thus clowdily enwrapped in
Allegoricall deuises. But such, me seeme, should be satisfide with
the vse of these dayes, seeing all things accounted by their showes,
and nothing esteemed of, that is not delightfull and pleasing to
commune sence. For this cause is Xenophon preferred before Plato,
for that the one in the exquisite depth of his iudgement, formed a
Commune welth such as it should be, but the other in the person of
Cyrus and the Persians fashioned a gouernement such as might
best be: So much more profitable and gratious is doctrine by
ensample, then by rule. So haue I laboured to doe in the person of
Arthure: whome I conceiue after his long education by Timon, to
whom he was by Merlin deliuered to be brought vp, so soone as he
was borne of the Lady Igrayne, to haue seene in a dream or vision
the Faery Queen, with whose excellent beauty rauished, he awaking
resolued to seeke her out, and so being by Merlin armed, and by
Timon throughly instructed, he went to seeke her forth in Faerye
land. In that Faery Queene I meane glory in my generall intention,
but in my particular I conceiue the most excellent and glorious
person of our soueraine the Queene, and her kingdoms in Faery
land. And yet in some places els, I doe otherwise shadow her. For
considering she beareth two persons, the one of a most royall
Queene or Empresse, the other of a most vertuous and beautifull
Lady, this latter part in some places I doe expresse[637] in
Belphœbe, fashioning her name according to your owne excellent