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Wiesław Ostachowicz
Malcolm McGugan
Jens-Uwe Schröder-Hinrichs
Marcin Luczak
Editors

MARE-WINT
New Materials and Reliability in
Offshore Wind Turbine Technology
MARE-WINT
Wiesław Ostachowicz • Malcolm McGugan •
Jens-Uwe SchrRoder-Hinrichs • Marcin Luczak
Editors

MARE-WINT
New Materials and Reliability in Offshore
Wind Turbine Technology
Editors
Wiesław Ostachowicz Malcolm McGugan
Mechanics of Intelligent Structures Department of Wind Energy
Polish Academy of Sciences (IFFM) Technical University of Denmark
Gdansk, Poland Roskilde, Denmark

Jens-Uwe SchrRoder-Hinrichs Marcin Luczak

Maritime Risk and System Safety Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery
(MaRiSa) Polish Academy of Sciences (IFFM)
World Maritime University Gdansk, Poland
MalmRo, Sweden

ISBN 978-3-319-39094-9 ISBN 978-3-319-39095-6 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016950528

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Acknowledgements

The European Commission

The editors would like to start by thanking the European Commission for their Marie
Skłodowska-Curie actions (MSCA). The current research and publication was
primarily made possible through funding under the MSCA project FP7-PEOPLE-
20120 ITN 309395 “MARE-WINT” (new MAterials and REliablity in offshore
WINd Turbines technology).

About MSCA

The Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (MSCA) provide grants at all stages of

researchers’ careers, from doctoral candidates to highly experienced researchers,
and encourage transnational, intersectoral and interdisciplinary mobility. For
research institutions (universities, research centres and companies), MSCA offer
the possibility to host talented foreign researchers and create strategic partnerships
with leading institutions. The idea is to equip researchers with the necessary skills
for a successful career, be it in the public or the private sector.
The MSCA are open to all domains of research and innovation, from basic
research up to market take-up and innovation services. Research and innovation
fields are chosen freely by the applicants (individuals and/or organisations) in
a fully bottom-up manner. International mobility is prerequisite under all Marie
Skłodowska-Curie actions. There are no restrictions in terms of research field,
nationality or age.
Endowing researchers with new skills and a wider range of competencies, while
offering them attractive working conditions, is a crucial aspect of the MSCA. In
addition to mobility between countries, the MSCA also seek to break the real and
perceived barriers between academic and other sectors, especially business.

v
vi Acknowledgements

About ITN

The doctoral training is covered under the action Innovative Training Networks
(ITN). This high-quality joint research and doctoral training is delivered by interna-
tional networks that bring together universities, research centres and non-academic
organisations (companies, NGOs, charities, etc.) across Europe and beyond.
ITN can take one of three forms:
• European Training Networks (ETN): Joint research training, involving a mini-
mum of three partners from in and outside academia (business, museum, NGO,
etc.).
• European Industrial Doctorates (EID): Joint doctoral training delivered by at least
one academic partner entitled to award doctoral degrees and at least one partner
from outside academia, primarily enterprise. Each participating researcher is
enrolled in a doctoral programme and is jointly supervised by supervisors from
the academic and non-academic sector, where they spend at least 50 % of their
time. The aim is to broaden the career perspective of the PhD candidate upon
completion of the training.
• European Joint Doctorates (EJD): A minimum of three academic organisations
form a network with the aim of delivering joint, double or multiple degrees.
Joint supervision of the research fellow and a joint governance structure are
mandatory. The participation of additional organisations from anywhere in the
world, including from the non-academic sector, is encouraged.
During their ITN training, researchers will develop key transferable skills
common to all fields, such as entrepreneurship, management and financing of
research activities and programmes, management of intellectual property rights,
ethical aspects and communication.
In all cases, the recruited researchers are fully funded by the Marie Skłodowska-
Curie actions, with an attractive living and mobility allowance. The host organ-
isations receive a contribution to the research and training costs of the recruited
researcher and apply good employment practices in line with the European Charter
for Researchers and the European Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of
Researchers (European Commission 2016a).
The Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions support PhD candidates by financing
organisations which subsequently recruit candidates to the training programmes.
Therefore PhD candidates do not apply to the commission for the funding of their
posts. Instead, they apply directly on the European Researchers Mobility portal
EURAXESS (European Commission 2016b).
Acknowledgements vii

The External Contributors

In addition to the research conducted under MARE-WINT and MSCA, several

fellows collaborated with other researchers, funded under different schemes. On
behalf of all authors, the editors would like to thank these external collaborators;
individual acknowledgements are present in the various chapters.
The editors would also like to thank all external contributors who were not
directly involved in MARE-WINT but contributed through workshops and subse-
quent special chapters for the current book. Their knowledge, expertise and time
were very greatly appreciated. In particular, the editors would like to thank:
• Gregor Giebel and Charlotte Bay Hasager, who provided Chap. 19
• Johan Finsteen Gjødvad and Morten Dallov Ibsen, who authored Chap. 22
• Justine Beauson and Povl Brøndsted, who presented Chap. 23

The MARE-WINT Fellows and Project Partners

The editors would especially like to thank all the fellows whose hard work led to the
excellent research that is present in this book; the editors also extend their gratitude
to the various supervisors and colleagues, who guided the fellows and helped them
achieve their aims in the relevant research fields.

References

European Commission (2016a) The European Charter for Researchers. http://ec.europa.eu/

euraxess/index.cfm/rights/europeanCharter. Accessed 06 Apr 2016
European Commission (2016b) EURAXESS Researchers in Motion. http://ec.europa.eu/euraxess/
index.cfm/jobs/index. Accessed 06 Apr 2016
Contents

1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Raza Ali Mehdi, Wiesław Ostachowicz, and Marcin Luczak

Part I Wind Turbine Blades

2 Design of Wind Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Malcolm McGugan
3 Damage Sensing in Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Borja Hernandez Crespo
4 Fibre Bragg Grating as a Multi-Stage Structure Health
Monitoring Sensor .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Gilmar Ferreira Pereira
5 Analysis and Design of Bend-Twist Coupled Wind
Turbine Blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Alexander R. Stäblein
6 Improvement of Wind Turbine Blade Performance
by Means of Rod Vortex Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Javier Martinez, Pawel Flaszynski, Piotr Doerffer,
and Oskar Szulc
7 Trailing and Leading Edge Flaps for Load Alleviation
and Structure Control.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Vladimir Leble and George N. Barakos

Part II Enabling Technologies for Drivetrain and Gearbox

Analysis
8 OWT Drivetrain & Gearbox Simulation and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Simone Manzato and Bert Pluymers

ix
x Contents

9 Dynamic Behavior of Bearings on Offshore Wind Turbine

Gearboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Rubén Cerdá, Bart Blockmans, Jakob Fiszer,
Tommaso Tamarozzi, Bert Pluymers, and Wim Desmet
10 Experimental Characterization of Wind Turbine Gearbox
in Operation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Emilio Di Lorenzo and Simone Manzato

Part III Tower & Support Structure

11 An Overview of Analysis and Design of Offshore Wind Turbines . . . . 169
Torgeir Moan and Tomasz Bugalski
12 Dynamic Response Analysis of Floating Wind Turbines
with Emphasis on Vertical Axis Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Zhengshun Cheng, Torgeir Moan, and Zhen Gao
13 Bottom Fixed Substructure Analysis, Model Testing
and Design for Harsh Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Duje Veic, Marek Kraskowski, and Tomasz Bugalski
14 Detection of Damage in Metallic Structures for Offshore
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Rohan Soman, Paweł Malinowski, and Wiesław Ostachowicz

Part IV Reliability & Preventive Maintenance of Offshore

Wind Turbines
15 Reliability and Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Itamar Esdras Martínez García, Alejandro Sánchez Sánchez,
and Stefano Barbati

Part V CFD Analysis of a Complete Offshore Wind Turbine

16 An Overview of the CFD Analyses in the MARE-WINT Project . . . . . 275
George N. Barakos
17 CFD Investigation of a Complete Floating Offshore
Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Vladimir Leble and George N. Barakos
18 CFD Study of DTU 10 MW RWT Aeroelasticity and
Rotor-Tower Interactions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Sergio González Horcas, François Debrabandere, Benoît
Tartinville, Charles Hirsch, and Grégory Coussement
Contents xi

Part VI Offshore Wind Farm Design

19 An Overview of Offshore Wind Farm Design . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Gregor Giebel and Charlotte Bay Hasager
20 Large Eddy Simulation of Wind Farm Aerodynamics
with Energy-Conserving Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dhruv Mehta
21 A Theoretical Risk Management Framework for Vessels
Operating Near Offshore Wind Farms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Raza Ali Mehdi and Jens-Uwe Schröder-Hinrichs

Part VII Offshore Wind Decommissioning

22 ODIN-WIND: An Overview of the Decommissioning
Process for Offshore Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Johan Finsteen Gjødvad and Morten Dallov Ibsen
23 Wind Turbine Blades: An End of Life Perspective .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Justine Beauson and Povl Brøndsted
Chapter 1
Introduction

Raza Ali Mehdi, Wiesław Ostachowicz, and Marcin Luczak

Abstract The current chapter provides an overview of the offshore wind industry,
followed by an introduction to the MARE-WINT project. We discuss the important
role that MARE-WINT has fulfilled in reducing the cost of offshore wind energy,
by improving the reliability, and operation and maintenance strategies of various
wind turbine components. Lastly, we present an overview of the current book for
the readers.

1.1 The Emergent Offshore Wind Industry

Wind is one of the most plentiful and widely available natural resources available
on our planet. For centuries, mankind has harvested the power of the wind for
applications such as maritime and agriculture. Most of the world was explored on
the back of wind-powered ships, and it was truly wind that made globalisation and
exploration possible.
With society becoming increasingly mindful of the impacts of fossil fuels,
renewable energy is on the rise, and the harvesting of wind to generate electricity
is becoming increasingly common. To enable this to happen, wind turbines have
been installed all over the globe. A vast majority of these wind turbines have been
installed on land and are referred to as onshore wind turbines. Statistics by the
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) indicate that only around 3 % of global
electricity is currently generated by wind power—but this number is on the rise.

R.A. Mehdi ()

Maritime Risk and System Safety (MaRiSa) Research Group, World Maritime University,
Fiskehamnsgatan 1, 21118 Malmö, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
W. Ostachowicz
Mechanics of Intelligent Structures Department, Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery, Polish
Academy of Sciences, ul. Fiszera 14, 80-231 Gdańsk, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Luczak
Aerodynamics Department, Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery, Polish Academy of Sciences
(IFFM), ul. Fiszera 14, 80-231 Gdańsk, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2016 1

W. Ostachowicz et al. (eds.), MARE-WINT, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6_1
2 R.A. Mehdi et al.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects that by the year 2035, 25 % of the
electricity generation will be fulfilled by renewable sources, and that wind energy
will have a major role to play.

1.1.1 The Benefits of Wind Energy

The popularity of wind energy arises from the simple fact that it is, by and large,
cost effective, environmentally friendly and socially popular amongst a majority of
the populace. A common method of assessing the cost-effectiveness of an energy
source is through a parameter called Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), which is
essentially a ratio between two parameters: the total lifetime costs and the total
electricity produced over the lifetime. Siemens (2014) calculated the LCOE of
various electricity generation sources to be as follows:
As Table 1.1 shows, the LCOE of onshore wind is reasonably close to the LCOE
of commonly used fossil fuels. However, the LCOE alone does not often provide
the complete picture.
A more comprehensive measure, as provided by Siemens (2014) is the so-called
Society’s Cost of Energy (SCOE). The SCOE takes into consideration further
factors such as number of jobs created by energy source, subsidies, transmission
costs, variability costs, geopolitical risk impact, and environmental impact. The
predicted SCOE in the year 2025 for various electricity generation sources is shown
in Table 1.2.
As shown in Table 1.2, it is expected that onshore and offshore wind will be
the two most viable sources of energy in the near future. In fact, this phenomenon
is already manifesting—statistics indicate the benefits from wind energy to be

Table 1.1 LCOE in 2013 for Source of electricity generation LCOE (A

C/MWh)
various electricity generation
sources Nuclear 79
Coal 63
Gas 60
Photovoltaics 145
Onshore wind 81
Offshore wind 140
Source: Siemens (2014)

Table 1.2 SCOE in 2025 for Source of electricity generation SCOE (A

C/MWh)
various electricity generation
sources Nuclear 107
Coal 110
Gas 89
Photovoltaics 78
Onshore wind 60
Offshore wind 61
Source: Siemens (2014)
1 Introduction 3

significant. As an example of the social benefits of wind energy, GWEC estimates

that more than 600,000 people are employed by the wind industry—a number that is
likely to rise to more than 2,000,000 by 2030. In terms of a positive environmental
impact, wind energy helped to avoid more than 608 million tonnes of carbon dioxide
emissions in 2014 alone. GWEC also estimate that wind farms generate between 17
and 39 times more power than they consume—compared to 16 times for nuclear
and 11 times for coal plants (GWEC 2016).

1.1.2 The Challenges of Going Offshore

The continued increase in wind energy is not without its challenges. Offshore wind,
in particular, still has some way to go before it can meet the LCOE and SCOE cost
expectations. This raises the question—why go offshore at all?
The growth of offshore wind is primarily due to better, more consistent wind
resource available on open seas. Combined with limited land space, and the fact
that onshore turbines may be less socially acceptable, this makes offshore wind
very appealing.
On the other hand, going offshore presents novel challenges—currently, there
are limitations in deep-water installation technology, and the harsher environment
is not ideal for the reliability, maintainability and availability of offshore wind
turbines. Furthermore, offshore wind farms (OWFs) need to be situated in locations
where simultaneously, the wind resource and the transmission-to-shore options are
optimum. Often times, these locations may be in conflict with national, regional or
international marine spatial plans, and other sectors such as fisheries and shipping
may take precedence in these areas.
There is, thus, a clear need to improve the viability and feasibility of OWFs, and
to make offshore turbines closely competitive to their onshore counterparts—and
indeed other sources of energy. To fulfil this gap, organizations like the European
Commission have encouraged and funded research projects such as MARE-WINT.

1.2 An Introduction to the MARE-WINT Project

The aim of the MARE-WINT (new MAterials & REliability in offshore WInd
Turbine Technology) project was to reduce cost of energy, and increase the
energy output, by improving reliability of wind turbines and their components
and optimizing operation and maintenance (O&M) strategies. Thus, the project
contributed towards making wind energy more competitive. The outcomes of the
project are particularly evident and relevant for the offshore sector, where O&M
represents a high percentage of total costs.
An offshore wind turbine (OWT) is a complex energy conversion fluid flow
machine with coupled hydro-aero-mechanical issues. To design, build, and operate
4 R.A. Mehdi et al.

a reliable OWT, knowledge from disciplines like mechanical engineering, material

science, metrology, fluid mechanics, condition monitoring, and computer simulation
needs to be combined. The MARE-WINT network bought together specific part-
ners’ capabilities and know-how to realize tailored training trajectories, focusing on
an increased reliability OWT design.
MARE-WINT achieved the overall aim by providing training in the context of
doctoral programmes for 15 researchers, in multi-disciplinary areas related to future
generations of Offshore Wind Turbines (OWT). An emphasis was placed on issues
that may have a major impact on the mechanical loading of OWT and which were
not sufficiently addressed at the initiation of the project. One of the strengths of
MARE-WINT has been the validation of various numerical, analytical and empirical
models through experimental data. This has allowed novel concepts such as floating
10 MW wind turbines to be thoroughly investigated, to better prepare the industry
for the challenges of tomorrow.

1.3 An Overview of the Current Research

To get a better insight of the outstanding work done by the fellows in the MARE-
WINT project—as presented in this book—it is firstly important to understand the
components, design process and operation of a typical wind turbine.

1.3.1 The Components of a Wind Turbine

Wind turbines are aero-mechanical devices that convert the rotational movement of
a rotor into electrical energy. In order for wind turbines to function, there needs to be
wind flowing past them. Wind on Earth is created as a result of the uneven heating
of our atmosphere, the irregularities of the Earth’s surface, and the actual rotation
of our plant. As wind flows past a turbine, it generates a lifting force on the blades
of a wind turbine—which are connected to a rotor. The lifting force on the blades
creates a rotational movement on the rotor. This rotational movement is transferred,
via a shaft and gearbox, to a generator where it is converted into electrical energy.
The components of a turbine are shown in Fig. 1.1.

1.3.2 Designing a Wind Turbine

Within the MARE-WINT project, several researchers worked in the context of

the 10 MW reference turbine developed by the Technical University of Denmark
(DTU), and described by Bak et al. (2013); the parameters are shown in Table 1.3.
1 Introduction 5

Fig. 1.1 Wind turbine components. Source: wind.energy.gov; copyright: public domain

Table 1.3 Properties of the 10 MW DTU reference wind turbine

Parameter Value
Rating 10 MW
Rotor orientation, configuration Upwind, three blades
Control Variable speed, collective pitch
Drivetrain Medium speed, multiple stage gearbox
Rotor, hub diameter 178.3 m, 5.6 m
Cut-in, rated, cut-out wind speed 4 m/s, 11.4 m/s, 25 m/s
Cut-in, rated rotor speed 6 RPM, 9.6 RPM
Rated tip speed 90 m/s
Overhang, shaft tilt, pre-cone 7.07 m, 5ı , 2.5ı
Pre-bend 3m
Rotor mass 229 tons (each blade 41 tons)
Nacelle mass 446 tons
Tower mass 605 tons
Source: Bak et al. (2013)

To design and develop this 10 MW reference turbine, the Bak et al. (2013) applied
the method shown in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.2 has a heavy emphasis on aerodynamics and structural mechanic and
is, in fact, only a simplified version of a much more sophisticated process. Typically,
as shown in Fig. 1.2, the starting point for a wind turbine concept is the design of the
blades. The size (primarily, the length) of the blades directly determines the capacity
6 R.A. Mehdi et al.

Fig. 1.2 Method for

developing the 10 MW
reference wind turbine.
Adapted from Bak et al.
(2013)

of the turbine. As a rule of thumb, the larger the diameter, the greater the power
output of the turbine. Of course, principals of aerodynamics govern the efficiency of
the wind turbine. On a very basic level, the Betz law means that theoretically only
around 59.3 % (16/27) of the kinetic energy from wind can actually be captured—
no matter how large the rotor size is; furthermore, being a mechanical device, there
are further inefficiencies in the system, which means that only around 75–80 % of
the 59.3 % theoretical cap is actually achieved. In order to make wind turbines
more reliable and efficient, these inefficiencies need to be minimized as much as
possible. Therefore, the design of blades is crucial. Blades must be aerodynamically
efficient, whilst at the same time being structurally sound enough to bear all
the mechanical and aerodynamic loads. Balancing the aerodynamic and structural
parameters is becoming increasingly challenging as wind turbines get larger and
more sophisticated.
The blades are connected to a rotor, which in turn is connected to a shaft, which
goes through a gearbox into the generator. The shaft and gearbox must be able to
1 Introduction 7

tolerate the mechanical loads in an often harsh environment, and be able to transmit
the rotational movement as efficiently as possible. If the drivetrain and gearbox are
unable to handle the loads from the blade and rotor, the blades design may have to be
changed; alternatively, the gearbox and drivetrain would be updated. The research
in this area, too, is critical as offshore turbines get more complex.
The blade and the nacelle (housing the gearbox and generator, amongst other
components) assembly must be supported on an adequate tower structure, which in
turn needs to be mounted or tethered on the sea-bed through an appropriate sub-
structure. Depending on the design requirements and factors such as the turbine
location, optimizing the tower and sub-structure can be a substantial task. The tower
and sub-structure must not only cope with aerodynamic and mechanical loading
(particularly from the blades, rotor and nacelle), but also bear its own load and
various hydrodynamic loads. As with the research conducted for the blades and
the gearbox, optimizing the tower and support structure for larger, more complex
turbines is a unique challenge.
Once all the components are in place and assembled, the overall reliability of
the turbine and all its sub-systems must be assessed. Furthermore, maintenance
strategies must be optimized in order to reduce the costs associated with offshore
wind. If it is unfeasible to maintain a wind farm in a cost effective manner, the
design or maintenance strategy may have to be adapted.
To ensure that a turbine is reliable and efficient, it is also important to analyse
the complete system. This is generally done using combined fluid and structural
analysis methods, to ensure that the components complement each other, and are
able to tolerate design loads without failures occurring.
A wind turbine on its own is often not the end goal—it needs to be integrated
into a wind farm. In order to do so, one must analyse the aerodynamic effects
of wake turbulence from each individual turbine over the entire proposed wind
farm area. This helps to determine the efficiency of various turbines in different
layouts. The layout of a wind farm is not only driven by aerodynamic factors; factors
such as seabed conditions, grid connection locations, hydrography and bathymetry
must also be taken into account. Furthermore, wind resource in an area must be
considered. Equally important is the consideration of potential ‘conflict’ or ‘overlap’
areas—which may be reserved for marine, environmental, or other purposes. The
layout of any wind farm can also have an impact on the navigational safety of
passing vessels; in turn, vessel accidents in the area may damage wind turbines,
or cause a wind farm shutdown, leading to reduced reliability. Wind turbine towers
may have to be designed to be ‘collision-friendly’ to ships (BSH 2015). A potential
conflict with other marine and maritime activities may cause a wind farm application
to be denied, or at the very least, the layout may have to be changed.
Wind turbines are designed to last around 25 years. Once their lifetime has been
fulfilled, the turbines need to be decommissioned. This is a fairly novel research
area, as most offshore turbines are just now entering their end-of-life cycle. Despite
this, the decommissioning is an important phase to consider when assessing LCOE,
as it can have a significant impact on the parameter. It may even be the case that a
wind farm is approved or denied permission based on its decommissioning plan.
8 R.A. Mehdi et al.

1.3.3 MARE-WINT’s Contribution to the Offshore Wind

Industry

In the MARE-WINT project, the focus was not solely on the design of a wind tur-
bine; rather, the fellows also focused on developing tools to analyse and improve the
reliability and efficiency of various wind turbine components. The best way to high-
light the contributions of the MARE-WINT project is by summarizing the content of
the present book, which more or less covers the topic areas identified in Sect. 1.3.2:
• Part I of this book focuses on blade design, and tools to improve analysis and
reliability of wind turbine blades. This research ranges from damage sensing to
the analysis of bend-twist coupling of blades—and even a study into rod-vortex
generators to minimize aerodynamic noise on the blade. Part I also describes the
‘Smart-Blade’ strategy used in the current work.
• Part II focuses on analysing and improving the reliability of these components.
The research described in this part of the book can allow turbine engineers to
assess the adequacy of the drivetrain and gearbox sub-systems.
• Part III presents tools that can be used to study, analyse and improve the
reliability and design of the tower and substructure. Researchers performed a
thorough fluid–structure interaction analysis of different wind turbine concepts—
floating, horizontal axis, and vertical axis, and determined the feasibility and
viability of each, compared to the others. Researchers also conducted numerical
and experimental studies focusing on hydrodynamic loads on various sub-
structures and towers. Lastly, a tool for structural health monitoring, to provide
an improved method of assessing turbine tower damage is also presented.
• Part IV discusses tools, methods strategies which can be used to analyse and
improve reliability and preventive maintenance of offshore wind turbines.
• Part V of the current book presents novel research in this area of complete
offshore wind turbine analysis. It describes relevant tools and models to assess
the fluid–structure interactions in a complex system like an offshore turbine.
• Part VI covers the crucial area of wind farm design. Topics including aerody-
namic simulations over wind farms, maritime risk assessment are covered. The
EERA-DTOC tool for designing wind farm clusters is also presented.
• Part VII of this book covers original decommissioning tools and strategies, both
from an industry and research perspective.
Several topics are not explicitly covered in this book, as they have been
sufficiently addressed in other published works. The spatial planning and approval
of wind farms, for instance, has been the focus of the SEANERGY project (EWEA
et al. 2012). Similarly, the environmental impacts of wind farms have been covered
by Koeller et al. (2006). The installation process of OWFs is also not explicitly
covered in this current work, although it is briefly discussed in Chap. 22, in
the context of the decommissioning phase of offshore turbines. Aside from these
aforementioned areas, the book comprehensively covers all topics from design to
decommissioning of OWFs.
1 Introduction 9

1.3.4 Contributions from External Authors

The majority of the content in this book has been has been generated from
original research conducted within the MARE-WINT project. Some research topics,
however, were not explicitly researched within the project; instead, subject matter
experts were invited to speak to the fellows during various training workshops.
Some of these experts were also invited to provide specific chapters for the book.
• Gregor Giebel and Charlotte Bay Hasager provided Chap. 19.
• Johan Finsteen Gjødvad and Morten Dallov Ibsen authored Chap. 22.
• Justine Beauson and Povl Brøndsted presented Chap. 23.
This book has been authored for everyone interested in advanced topics related
to offshore wind energy. It provides a unique perspective—both academic and
industrial—on novel research topics that will shape the future of the offshore wind
industry. On behalf of all the editors and authors, we wish you a very pleasant and
insightful reading!

Open Access This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/),
which permits any noncommercial use, duplication, adaptation, distribution and reproduction
in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the work’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included
in the work’s Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory
regulation, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or
reproduce the material.

References

Bak C, Zahle F, Bitsche R et al (2013) The DTU 10-MW reference wind turbine. In: DTU orbit—
the research information system. Available via Technical University of Denmark. http://orbit.
dtu.dk/files/55645274/The_DTU_10MW_Reference_Turbine_Christian_Bak.pdf. Accessed 6
Apr 2016
BSH (2015) Minimum requirements concerning the constructive design of offshore structures
within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Available via BSH. http://www.bsh.de/en/
Products/Books/Standard/7005-15.pdf. Accessed 6 Apr 2016
EWEA, ECN, 3E et al (2012) Delivering offshore electricity to the EU: spatial planning of
offshore renewable energies and electricity grid infrastructures in an integrated EU maritime
policy; SEANERGY 2020 Final Project Report. In: Intelligent Energy Europe. Available
via European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/intelligent/projects/en/printpdf/projects/
seanergy-2020. Accessed 6 Apr 2016
GWEC (2016) Wind in numbers. http://www.gwec.net/global-figures/wind-in-numbers/.
Accessed 6 Apr 2016
Koeller J, Koeppel J, Peters W (eds) (2006) Offshore wind energy: research on environmental
impacts. Springer, New York
Siemens AG (2014) A macro-economic viewpoint: what is the real cost of offshore wind? Available
via Siemens AG. http://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/pool/hq/power-generation/renewables/
wind-power/SCOE/Infoblatt-what-is-the-real-cost-of-offshore.pdf. Accessed 6 Apr 2016
 Part I
Wind Turbine Blades
Chapter 2
Design of Wind Turbine Blades

Malcolm McGugan

Abstract In this section the research program framework for European PhD
network MARE-WINT is presented, particularly the technology development work
focussing on reliability/maintenance and the models describing multi-body fluid
structure interaction for the Rotor Blade structure. In order to give a context for
the effort undertaken by the individual researchers this section gives a general
background for Wind Turbine blades identifying the trends and issues of importance
for these structures as well as concepts for “smarter” blades that address these issues.

2.1 Rotor Blades as a Common Research Topic

In order to meet its objective of strengthening the fundamental scientific work

within the multi-disciplinary engineering field of hydro-aero-mechanical coupling
in the wind energy conversion process, the MARE-WINT project was organised as
five cross-linked work packages in a common research programme. The first three
research work packages focus on the major structural components of the Offshore
Wind Turbine; Blade, Drive train, and Support structure. In addition to these inde-
pendent structure based work packages, there were two consolidating technology
based work packages focussing on Reliability and Predictive maintenance, and
Fluid–Structure interaction. In this way the goal of integrating multiple disciplines
was to be achieved. This concept is visualised in Fig. 2.1 where the three vertical,
structure-based Work Packages, are connected by the two horizontal technology-
based Work Packages.
Work Package 1 is the focus of this chapter and concerns the challenges for
offshore wind turbines with regard to the rotor blades, as well as proposing an
innovative response to address these. Within the network two researchers were
allocated within Work Package 1; Gilmar Pereira, based at the Technical University
of Denmark (DTU) and Vladimir Leble, based initially at the University of
Liverpool, and later at the University of Glasgow. In addition three researchers in
the network allocated within Work Packages 4 and 5 conducted work at the nexus

M. McGugan ()
Department of Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), DTU Risø Campus,
Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2016 13

W. Ostachowicz et al. (eds.), MARE-WINT, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39095-6_2
14 M. McGugan

Innovative Offshore
Rotor Support
Blades Drive Train Structure
WP1 WP2 WP3

Reliability and
Predictive WP4
Maintenance

Fluid-Structure
WP5
Interaction

Fig. 2.1 Diagram showing the cross-linked MARE-WINT Work Packages

between their technology area and the blade structure. Borja Hernandez Crespo,
based at The Welding Institute in Cambridge, worked on Reliability and Predictive
Maintenance for the blades, and Alexander Stäblein worked with wind turbine blade
Fluid–Structure Interaction models at DTU Wind Energy, as Javier Martinez Suarez
did at the Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery in the Polish Academy of Sciences.
In Work Package 1 the structural and fluid dynamic investigations on the rotor
blade are approached by numerical and experimental methods. Within the work
package individual projects were developed, the first considering the behaviour
of the composite material (particularly when in damaged condition) within the
blade structure and the use of embedded sensors to detect this behaviour, and the
second describing structural behaviour and rotor performance in Computational
Fluid Dynamics models, including the use of leading and trailing edge flaps to
modify this.
These activities cross-link with the combinatory horizontal work packages (4
and 5) by providing, among other things, structural health information to the
reliability and predictive maintenance work package, and input to the fluid–structure
interaction models developed for the entire turbine.
In Work Package 4 the prime consideration is the economic efficiency of an
offshore wind farm as depending upon the individual turbines availability and
reliability. For the blades this involves the study of the various damages observed
in service, and understanding their root causes and criticality with respect to
operational lifetime. Detecting damages that initiate and propagate during service
is not straightforward and developing inspection technologies alongside remote
sensing systems is a key part of the future optimisation in this area.
In Work Package 5 the structural description of the various Offshore Wind
Turbine components are combined with flow models in a fluid–structure interaction
description of the complete system. The key task involves identifying and integrat-
ing the various aero/hydro loadings and their effect on the structural responses,
particularly any coupled effects. Of the three researchers in Work Package 5,
2 Design of Wind Turbine Blades 15

two worked specifically on the complex blade structure. The areas of interest
here include the use of twist-coupled aeroelastic blades to achieve structural load
reduction at high wind loads, and the development of flow control technology for
advanced blades.
In order to provide a common platform for the different Work Packages, a
reference model was agreed as one of the first deliverables within the project.
Described by Bak et al. (2013), the DTU 10 MW reference wind turbine
was developed by DTU Wind Energy together with Vestas Wind Systems as
part of a collaborative research intended to create the design basis for the
next generation of wind turbines. As such it is an ideal, publically available
reference for MARE-WINT to work on the optimisation of large offshore wind
installations; and indeed many of the inputs within this chapter use this shared
reference.

2.2 General Background for WT Blades

Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is one of the 2030
targets for the United Nations (UN 2016). This requires a substantial increase in the
share of renewable energy within the global energy mix, and wind is a prominent
part of the solution if the world is to achieve such a target. The potential for
offshore wind energy is enormous with industry projections in Europe showing
an increase from 5 GW in 2012 to 150 GW in 2030 (European Wind Energy
Association, Fig. 2.2 (EWEA 2016)). By moving to offshore sites the Industry can
establish larger wind farms with turbines of a size that would not be easily accepted
onshore where land use is at a premium. In addition to this, the quality of the wind
resource is greatly improved away from the effect of land contours, forests, and
so on.
However, moving such a large portion of the industrial production capacity
offshore is a major challenge. The environment offshore can be extreme and requires
a more robust and durable design for all components, access is expensive for
establishing and maintaining production offshore, and support structure designs
for deep water sites are yet to be proven commercially. At the European Wind
Energy Association conference in 2014, the delegates were warned that without
a reduction in energy costs corresponding to at least 40 %, offshore wind could
not persist in the current energy market beyond 2020 (EWEA 2014). While costs
for onshore wind are already competitive, targeting a reduction in the cost of
energy offshore was vital if the ambitious political and industrial targets are to be
achieved. It was further observed that initial offshore developments were based on
technology from the offshore oil and gas supply chain which is driven by a need to
maximise production, rather than by cost reduction. The solution agreed was for a
more focussed investment in research and development that produces innovations in
logistics, transport and operation.
16 M. McGugan

Global cumulative installed capacity (GW)

500

450
Only 12GW of the Global installed
400
capacity in 2015 comes from
350 offshore wind farms...

300 The target for 2030 is 150GW

offshore wind
250

200

150

100

50

Fig. 2.2 Growth in Wind Energy capacity from 1995 to 2015 (data available on www.gwec.net)

Table 2.1 Comparison Year Manufacturer (rotor diameter) Effect Tip height
example between commercial
turbines developed by Vestas 2000 Vestas Wind Systems V52 2.5 MW 70 m
in 2000 and 2015 2014 Vestas Wind Systems V164 8.0 MW 222 m

One of the most eye-catching developments in the wind energy industry over the
last 15 years has been the increase in the size of the turbines being manufactured
with new turbine designs consistently providing larger turbines with higher power
ratings, as shown in Table 2.1.
As the rotors become larger, the industry has relied on improvements in blade
structural design, manufacturing processes and material properties in order to meet
the requirements for ever longer blades that remain light-weight, strong and stiff.
It can be argued that the blades present the most challenging materials, design
and engineering problems being a complex, anisotropic material in an aerodynamic
structure that is subjected to continuous dynamic loadings of a combined and non-
uniform nature over long periods of time. These operational requirements and
conditions lead to materials that must exhibit a high stiffness, a low density, and
long fatigue life.
Material performance criteria therefore identify fibre reinforced polymer com-
posites as the prime candidate for rotor blades. Here the stiff fibres (usually glass,
sometimes carbon) are aligned in the primary load directions within a cured matrix
of resin (usually thermosetting polyester or epoxy). The processing technology for
such material (whether pre-preg, resin infusion, or wet layup) involves considering
the material properties, design approach and manufacturing process as an integrated
2 Design of Wind Turbine Blades 17

issue as already at this stage the characteristics of the material (and hence the
behaviour of the final structure) are determined. For example, in longer rotor blades
the reinforcing (stiffening) fibres must be aligned along the length of the blade,
but with sufficient understanding of the out-of-plane properties and weak laminate
interfaces and bond lines so as not to generate problems with durability when the
complex combined loads are encountered.
Blade design combines a relatively thin shelled aerodynamic profile supported
by a longitudinal beam or webs which carry the bulk of the structural load. The
blades are heavier at the root section and taper towards the tip to match the load
distribution in a cantilever beam structure and maintain the allowed material strain
levels. Industry demands have spurred improvements in design with an optimised
aerodynamic profile, relative reduction in weight for longer blades and integrated
bend-twist coupling into the structural response.
For much more on material and structure requirements for wind turbine blades
see Brøndsted and Nijssen (2013).
The design philosophy for rotor blades (as with all fibre reinforced polymer
structures) began with large safety factors and addressing simple issues of linear
elastic behaviour. With time, as knowledge about the materials, structural behaviour
and manufacturing approaches increased (coupled with the pressure to make more
daring multi-MW designs) it became possible to adopt more advanced structural
design approaches. The development in light weight structure design is nicely
illustrated in a general way by Braga et al. (2014) and here we see that an
implementation of “smart” structure technology is the anticipated innovation to
supersede the current state of the art not only for offshore wind turbine blades, but
also in other industries where polymer composites are utilised.
Recent trends in the wind energy industry can be summarized as follows:
• A rapid increase in the level of installed capacity world-wide
• An increase in the physical size (dimensions) of the structures
• An increase in the size (number of multi-MW turbines) of individual wind farms
• A tendency to place these wind farms offshore
• Higher industry requirements for reliability, safety and easy maintenance
• A strong focus on a reduction in the cost per “unit” of energy produced
• New materials, designs, and production methods continuously adopted

2.3 Innovative Blade Concept

As the most effective way to increase the power produced per turbine is to make
each turbine bigger, we now have an industry that manufactures extremely large
rotor blades using low-cost fibre composite material and low-cost manufacturing
methods. A consequence of the components in a wind turbine blade being so large
(in some companies almost the entire structure is manufactured in one piece via
resin infusion of dry laminate layers), is that there is little scope for improving the
18 M. McGugan

performance of a finished blade by rejecting parts that do not meet very high quality
standards. This is because the low-cost manufacturing approach demanded by the
industry makes manufacturing a “perfect” blade challenging, and parts thus rejected
would be too costly to simply discard.
Instead the situation is that each blade has a unique set of “variations” (we might
call then defects) from the intended “perfect” design; these are then more or less
mitigated with repair technology before leaving the factory. And in operation the
specific load profile will also vary for each turbine. Without detailed information
about the distribution of structural/material defects and repairs present, combined
with detailed loading and response history for each blade, it will be impossible
to make accurate predictions about the lifetime performance of these blades
individually; only a generalised probability analysis is possible. And prescribing
regular manual inspection is neither an economical nor technically efficient solution
to control the health of the structures as for large offshore farms this would be both
costly and difficult.
Having an isolated understanding of the individual stages in the wind turbine
blade operational life, such as manufacturing, operational, emergency situations,
repairing, etc., is therefore not enough to achieve a smart wind turbine blade
concept. Rather knowledge of how each stage interconnects with the processor and
successor, and the impact of a change in any of the properties to the individual
wind turbine blades operational life is required. The traditional Mono-Stage design
and methodology, as shown in Fig. 2.3, is no longer applicable to match this
requirement; especially as blades become larger, more complex and expensive to
manufacture, more information feedback is required to maximise their lifetime and
improve processes.
Thus, methods to measure and evaluate structural integrity and operational
parameters through all the wind turbine blade life stages need to be implemented
from the design stage (McGugan et al. 2015).
The smart blade design and methodology is shown in Fig. 2.4. The presence of
sensors integrated in the structure since manufacture will provide feedback at each
stage of the structure life time. For example, if during an extreme load a change in

Traditional Wind Turbine Design

Design

Manufacturing protocol Operation Manual Load/Wind Limits Inspection procedure Repair manual

Inspections
Extreme Situation
Manufacturing Operation and Repair
Emergency Stop
Maintenance

Fig. 2.3 Life stages of a wind turbine blade: traditional design methodology
2 Design of Wind Turbine Blades 19

“Smart blade” Wind Turbine Design

Extreme Situation
Emergency Stop Inspections
In
Operation and
a
Maintenance
Structure Structure
response specific Assisted
based control limits manual
inspections
Manufacturing
Process Repair
control Criticality
based
schedule

Design Improved Recycling

SHM: History dependent
design and prognosis
data Sensor output,
driven decision
Modelling,
Decision making

Fig. 2.4 Life stages of a wind turbine blade: “smart-blade” design methodology

the material stiffness is detected, caused by delamination or a crack in the adhesive

joint, the wind turbine operation limit can be decreased based on this information.
This will enable the structure to operate safely until the next repair action, continue
to generate energy, and minimise monetary loses.
Structural Health Monitoring is a well-known engineering area concerned with
assessing the current state of a specific asset in order to ensure proper performance.
It has the perspective to function both as an automated (and remote) maintenance
and inspection process, as well as a “smart” structure feedback allowing activation
and response based on condition and environment.
The novel approach proposed is thus that blades are allowed to contain defects
and develop stable damage under operation as under the current “passive” damage
tolerant design philosophy. But the implementation of structural feedback from the
embedded sensors and active response is combined with improved damage tolerant
materials and design methods in order to expand the current design philosophy and
include SHM and applied fracture mechanics from the initial concept. This allows
a design that ensures any defects present cannot develop into unstable damage that
leads to blade failure. Furthermore, a full life-time perspective is given that enables
a holistic optimisation of the structural resources.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
implication that we were shipping loot in wholesale lots to the United States. That would
be alarming news to the countries whose stolen art works we were already returning as
rapidly as possible.
The Times story most emphatically called for a correction. But if a statement from our
office were sent through channels, it probably wouldn’t reach New York before Easter.
Edith looked up from her work. There was a glint in her eye. She asked, “Will you do me a
favor? I’d like to write the letter of correction.”
I told her to go ahead. Ten minutes later she showed me the rough draft. It covered all
the points. I reworked a phrase here and there but made no important changes and, as
soon as it was typed and cleared, I signed and mailed it. As published in the New York
Times two weeks later, on January 2, 1946, the letter read as follows:

TO THE EDITOR OF THE NEW YORK TIMES

On Dec. 7 The Times printed a report to the effect that $80,000,000 worth of
paintings, presumably from the stores of art objects stolen by the Nazis, had
arrived from Europe in the Army transport James Parker. Your Overseas Weekly
edition of Dec. 9 repeated this information but stated categorically that the
paintings were Nazi loot.
It is true that the James Parker brought to America some 200 paintings of
inestimable value, but none of them is loot or of dubious ownership. They are
the property of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin. A press release from the
Office of Military Government for Germany (U.S.), dated Nov. 24, states that
these “priceless German-owned paintings, which might suffer irreparable
damage if left in Germany through the winter, have been selected for temporary
storage in the United States. These paintings have been gathered from various
wartime repositories in the United States Zone of Germany and are being
shipped to Washington to insure their safety and to hold them in trust for the
people of Germany. The United States Government has promised their return to
the German people.”
It cannot be stated too emphatically that the policy of the American Military
Government is to return all looted works of art to their owner nations with the
greatest possible speed. Since the restitution in August of the famous van Eyck
altarpiece, “The Mystic Lamb,” to Belgium, a steady stream of paintings,
sculpture, fine furniture and other art objects has poured from the highly
organized collecting points of the United States Zone to the liberated countries.
Few, if any, looted works of art of any importance are of unknown origin; and
though, among the vast masses of material taken from the Jews and other
“enemies of the state” for what was always described as “safekeeping” there will
undoubtedly be many pieces whose ownership will be difficult to determine, it
appears unlikely that these will be found to be of great value.
The shipment of German-owned paintings to the United States is thus a
project entirely separate from the main objectives of the Monuments, Fine Arts
and Archives Section of the Office of Military Government—namely, the
restitution of loot and the re-establishment of the German museums and other
cultural organizations. To confuse this shipment, which was directed by the
 highest national authority, with what is now the routine work of preservation,
identification and restitution performed by trained specialist personnel is to
mislead our Allies and to underrate the accomplishments of a small group of
disinterested and hard-working Americans.
Thomas C. Howe Jr.
Lieut. Comdr., USNR, Deputy Chief; Director
on Leave, California Palace of the
Legion of Honor, San Francisco.
European Theatre, Dec. 18, 1945.

The main objectives of the Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives Section of American
Military Government in Germany were defined in my letter to the New York Times as “the
restitution of loot and the re-establishment of the German museums and other cultural
institutions.” Honorable and constructive objectives. And, as expressed in that letter,
unequivocal and reassuring both to the liberated countries of Europe and to the
Germans. Yet how difficult of attainment! How difficult even to keep those objectives
clearly in mind when confronted simultaneously—as our officers often were—with a
dozen problems of equal urgency!
At close range it was impossible to look objectively at the overall record of our
accomplishments. But homeward bound in February I had that opportunity. The pieces of
the puzzle began to fit together and the picture took shape. It was possible to determine
to what extent we have realized our objectives.
So far as restitution is concerned, the record has been a success. During the summer
months our energies were devoted to obvious preliminary preparations. They included
the establishment of Central Collecting Points at Munich, Marburg and Wiesbaden.
Immediately thereafter, the contents of art repositories in the American Zone were
removed to those central depots. The Central Collecting Points, organized and directed
by Monuments officers with museum experience, were staffed with trained personnel
from German museums. The one at Munich was primarily reserved for looted art, since
the majority of the cultural booty was found in Bavaria. The Collecting Points at
Wiesbaden and Marburg, on the other hand, housed German-owned collections brought
from repositories in which storage conditions were unsatisfactory.
The process of actual restitution was inaugurated by token restitutions in the name of
General Eisenhower to Belgium, Holland, France and Czechoslovakia. Circumstances
beyond our control postponed similar gestures of good will to Poland and Greece.
Representatives of the liberated countries were invited to the American Zone to identify
and remove the loot from the collecting points. According to late reports, the restitution of
loot was continuing without interruption.
Shortly after my return, there were disquieting rumors of drastic reductions in American
personnel connected with cultural restitution in Germany. I earnestly hope that these
rumors are without foundation. Such reductions would be disastrous to the completion of
a program which has reflected so creditably on our government.
The re-establishment of German museums and other cultural institutions—our second
main objective—has been, to a large extent, sacrificed in the interests of restitution. This
brings up again the urgent need for the immediate replenishment of our dwindling Fine
Arts personnel in Germany. Our moral responsibility for the continuation of this phase of
the MFA&A program is a grave one. It was understandably neglected during the first six
months of our occupation in Germany. And it would be unfair to argue that the British
have far outdistanced us in this field. That they have done so is undeniably true.
However, the British found but little loot in their zone. Consequently, they have been able
to make rapid strides in the reconstitution of German collections and cultural institutions,
while we have been preoccupied with restitution.
Notwithstanding that preoccupation, our Monuments officers were instrumental in
arranging a series of impressive exhibitions of German-owned masterpieces. The first of
these was held at Marburg in November 1945. A second and more ambitious show,
which included many of the finest treasures of the Bavarian State Galleries, opened at
Munich in January 1946. A third, comprising paintings and sculptures from the museums
of Berlin and Frankfurt, was presented at Wiesbaden in February.
All these exhibitions were accompanied by catalogues with German and English texts.
Those of Munich and Wiesbaden were lavishly illustrated. The Munich catalogue
contained several plates showing the rooms in which the exhibition was held—lofty,
spacious galleries recalling the marble halls of our own National Gallery at Washington.
At the time of my departure from Germany, little was known of French and Russian
procedures with regard to cultural rehabilitation in their respective zones of occupation.
Their Military Governments have made provisions for personnel capable of carrying on
work similar to ours and that of the British.
The caliber of the men drawn into the project from all branches of our Armed Forces
has been cited as an important factor in the success of the Monuments, Fine Arts and
Archives program. I would like to cite another factor which I consider equally important:
There was no arbitrary drafting of personnel; participation was voluntary. The resulting
spontaneity and its value to the spirit of the work cannot be exaggerated.
APPENDIX
 APPENDIX
The following is the complete list of the paintings transferred from
Germany and now stored at the National Gallery, according to its
News Release of December 14, 1945:
Albrecht Altdorfer: Rest on the Flight into Egypt
Albrecht Altdorfer: Landscape with Satyr Family
Albrecht Altdorfer: Nativity
Albrecht Altdorfer: Christ’s Farewell to His Apostles
Christoph Amberger: Cosmographer Sebastian Münster
Jacopo Amigioni: Lady as Diana
Fra Angelico: Last Judgment
Austrian Master (ca. 1400): Christ, Madonna, St. John
Austrian Master (ca. 1410): Crucifixion
Hans Baldung Grien: Altar of Halle
Hans Baldung Grien: Graf von Löwenstein
Hans Baldung Grien: Pietà
Hans Baldung Grien: Pyramus and Thisbe
Giovanni Bellini: The Resurrection
Bohemian (ca. 1350): Glatyer Madonna
Hieronymus Bosch: St. John on Patmos
Botticelli: Giuliano de Medici, and frame
Botticelli: Madonna of the Lilies
Botticelli: St. Sebastian
Botticelli: Simonetta Vespucci
Botticelli: Venus
Dirk Bouts: Madonna and Child
Dirk Bouts: Virgin in Adoration
Peter Breughel: Dutch Proverbs
Peter Breughel: Two Monkeys
Angelo Bronzino: Portrait of a Young Man
Angelo Bronzino: Portrait of a Young Man
Angelo Bronzino: Ugolino Martelli
Hans Burgkmair: Holy Family
Giovanni Battista Caracciolo: Cosmos and Damian
Caravaggio: Cupid as Victor
Vittore Carpaccio: Entombment of Christ
Andrea del Castagno: Assumption of the Virgin
Chardin: The Draughtsman
Chardin: Still Life
Petrus Christus: Portrait of a Girl
Petrus Christus: St. Barbara and a Carthusian Monk
Joos van Cleve: Young Man
Cologne Master (ca. 1400): Life of Christ
Cologne Master (ca. 1350): Madonna Enthroned, Crucifixion
Correggio: Leda and the Swan
Francesco Cossa: Allegory of Autumn
Lucas Cranach, the Elder: Frau Reuss
Lucas Cranach, the Elder: Lucretia
Lucas Cranach, the Elder: Rest on the Flight into Egypt
Daumier: Don Quixote
Piero di Cosimo: Mars, Venus and Cupid
Lorenzo di Credi: Young Girl
Albrecht Dürer: Madonna
Albrecht Dürer: Madonna with the Goldfinch
Albrecht Dürer: Young Woman
Albrecht Dürer: Hieronymus Holzschuher
Albrecht Dürer: Cover for Portrait of Hieronymus Holzschuher
Adam Elsheimer: The Drunkenness of Noah
Adam Elsheimer: Holy Family
Adam Elsheimer: Landscape with the Weeping Magdalene
Adam Elsheimer: St. Christopher
Jean Fouquet: Etienne Chevalier with St. Stephen
French (ca. 1400): Coronation of the Virgin
French Master (ca. 1400): Triptych
Geertgen tot Sint Jans: John the Baptist
Geertgen tot Sint Jans: Madonna
Giorgione: Portrait of a Young Man
Giotto: Death of the Virgin
Jan Gossaert: Baudouin de Bourbon
Jan Gossaert: Christ on the Mount of Olives
Francesco Guardi: The Balloon Ascension
Francesco Guardi: St. Mark’s Piazza in Venice
Francesco Guardi: Piazzetta in Venice
Frans Hals: Hille Bobbe
Frans Hals: Nurse and Child
Frans Hals: Portrait of a Young Man
Frans Hals: Portrait of a Young Woman
Frans Hals: Singing Boy
Frans Hals: Tyman Oosdorp
Meindert Hobbema: Landscape
Hans Holbein: George Giesze
Hans Holbein: Old Man
Hans Holbein: Portrait of a Man
Pieter de Hooch: The Mother
Pieter de Hooch: Party of Officers and Ladies
Willem Kalf: Still Life
Willem Kalf: Still Life
Philips Konninck: Dutch Landscape
Georges de la Tour: St. Sebastian
Filippino Lippi: Allegory of Music
Fra Filippo Lippi: Adoration of the Child
Pietro Lorenzetti: St. Humilitas Raises a Nun
Pietro Lorenzetti: Death of St. Humilitas
Claude Lorrain: Italian Coast Scene
Lorenzo Lotto: Christ’s Farewell to His Mother
Bastiano Mainardi: Portrait of a Man
Manet: In the Winter Garden
Andrea Mantegna: Cardinal Mezzarota
Andrea Mantegna: Presentation in the Temple
Simon Mannion: Altar of St. Omer (two panels)
Simone Martini: Burial of Christ
Masaccio: Birth Platter
Masaccio: Three Predelle
Masaccio: Four Saints
Quentin Massys: The Magdalene
Master of the Darmstadt Passion: Altar Wings
Master of Flémalle: Crucifixion
Master of Flémalle: Portrait of a Man
Master of the Virgo inter Virgines: Adoration of the Kings
Hans Memling: Madonna Enthroned with Angels
Hans Memling: Madonna Enthroned
Hans Memling: Madonna and Child
Lippo Memmi: Madonna and Child
Antonello da Messina: Portrait of a Man
Jan Mostaert: Portrait of a Man
Aelbert Ouwater: Raising of Lazarus
Palma Vecchio: Portrait of a Man
Palma Vecchio: Young Woman
Giovanni Paolo Pannini: Colosseum.
Giovanni di Paolo: Christ on the Cross
Giovanni di Paolo: Legend of St. Clara
Joachim Patinir: Rest on the Flight into Egypt
Sebastiano del Piombo: Roman Matron
Sebastiano del Piombo: Knight of the Order of St. James
Antonio Pollaiuolo: David
Nicolas Poussin: St. Matthew
Nicolas Poussin: Amaltea
Raphael: Madonna Diotalevi
Raphael: Madonna Terranova
Raphael: Solly Madonna
Rembrandt: Landscape with Bridge
Rembrandt: John the Baptist
Rembrandt: Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife
Rembrandt: Vision of Daniel
Rembrandt: Moses Breaking the Tablets of the Law
Rembrandt: Susanna and the Elders
Rembrandt: Tobias and the Angel
Rembrandt: Minerva
Rembrandt: Rape of Proserpina
Rembrandt: Self Portrait
Rembrandt: Hendrickje Stoffels
Rembrandt: Man with Gold Helmet
Rembrandt: Old Man with Red Hat
Rembrandt: Rabbi
Rembrandt: Saskia
Rubens: Landscape (shipwreck of Aeneas)
Rubens: St. Cecilia
Rubens: Madonna Enthroned with Saints
Rubens: Andromeda
Rubens: Perseus and Andromeda
Rubens: Isabella Brandt
Jacob van Ruysdael: View of Haarlem
Andrea Sacchi(?): Allesandro del Boro
Sassetta: Legend of St. Francis
Sassetta: Mass of St. Francis
Martin Schongauer: Nativity
Seghers: Landscape
Luca Signorelli: Three Saints (altar wing)
Luca Signorelli: Three Saints (altar wing)
Luca Signorelli: Portrait of a Man
Francesco Squarcione: Madonna and Child
Jan Steen: Inn Garden
Jan Steen: The Christening
Bernardo Strozzi: Judith
Gerard Terborch: The Concert
Gerard Terborch: Paternal Advice
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo: Carrying of the Cross
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo: St. Agatha
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo: Rinaldo and Armida
Tintoretto: Doge Mocenigo
Tintoretto: Old Man
Titian: Venus with Organ Player
Titian: Self Portrait
Titian: Lavinia
Titian: Portrait of a Young Man
Titian: Child of the Strozzi Family
Cosma Tura: St. Christopher
Cosma Tura: St. Sebastian
Adriaen van der Velde: The Farm
Roger Van der Weyden: Altar with Scenes from the Life of Mary
 Roger Van der Weyden: Johannes-alter Altar with Scenes from the
Life of John the Baptist
Roger Van der Weyden: Bladelin Altar
Roger Van der Weyden: Portrait of a Woman
Roger Van der Weyden: Charles the Bold
Jan Van Eyck: Crucifixion
Jan Van Eyck: Madonna in the Church
Jan Van Eyck: Giovanni Arnolfini
Jan Van Eyck: Man with a Pink
Jan Van Eyck: Knight of the Golden Fleece
Lucas van Leyden: Chess Players
Lucas van Leyden: Madonna and Child
Velásquez: Countess Olivares
Domenico Veneziano: Adoration of the Kings
Domenico Veneziano: Martyrdom of St. Lucy
Domenico Veneziano: Portrait of a Young Woman
Vermeer: Young Woman with a Pearl Necklace
Vermeer: Man and Woman Drinking Wine
Andrea del Verrocchio: Madonna and Child
Andrea del Verrocchio: Madonna and Child
Watteau: Fête Champêtre
Watteau: French Comedians
Watteau: Italian Comedians
Westphalian Master (ca. 1250): Triptych
Konrad Witz: Crucifixion
Konrad Witz: Allegory of Redemption
 On January 15, 1946, Mr. Rensselaer W. Lee, President of the
College Art Association of America, sent the following letter to the
Secretary of State:

My dear Mr. Secretary:

The members of the College Art Association of America, a
constituent member of the American Council of Learned
Societies, have been disturbed by the removal to this country
of works of art from Berlin museums.
Information that we have received from abroad leads us to
believe that the integrity of United States policy has been
questioned as a result of this action. We have also been
informed that adequate facilities and American personnel now
exist in the American zone in Germany to assure the proper
care of art treasures in that area.
We would therefore urge that the department of State
clarify this action, and would strongly recommend that
assurances be given that no further shipments are
contemplated.

Copies of this letter were sent to members of the American

Commission for the Protection and Salvage of Artistic and Historic
Monuments in War Areas.
The State Department replied on January 25:

My Dear Mr. Lee:

Your letter of January 15, urging the Department to clarify
the action taken in removing to the United States certain
works of art from German museums, has been received. In
the absence of the Secretary, I am replying to your letter and
am glad to give you additional information on this question.
The decision to remove these works of art to this country
was made on the basis of a statement by General Clay that
he did not have adequate facilities and personnel to
safeguard German art treasures and that he could not
undertake the responsibility of their proper care.
You indicated in your letter that you have been informed
that adequate facilities and personnel now exist in the
American zone for the protection of these art treasures. I must
inform you that our information, based upon three separate
investigations, is precisely to the contrary. The redeployment
program has, as you no doubt realize, reduced American
personnel in Germany and this reduction is applied to arts
and monuments and this personnel as well as to other
branches.
The coal situation in Germany is critical and has made it
impossible to provide heat for the museums. General Clay
cannot be expected to provide heat for the museums if that
means taking it away from American forces, from hospitals, or
from essential utility needs.
We are furthermore advised that the security situation was
not such as to ensure adequate protection in Germany. In
short, the Department’s information is such that it cannot
agree with your premise.
It was realized that the “integrity of United States policy”
might be questioned by some if these works of art were
removed to this country. After a careful review of the facts, it
was decided that the most important aspect was to safeguard
these priceless treasures by bringing them to this country
where they could be properly cared for. It was hoped that the
President’s pledge that they would be returned to Germany
would satisfy those who might be critical of this Government’s
motives.
Sincerely yours,
For the Acting Secretary of State:
James W. Riddleberger
Chief, Division of Central European Affairs[6]
 In April the author of this book received from Frederick Mortimer
Clapp, director of the Frick Collection, New York, the following letter
regarding the removal of German-owned works of art to this country.
A copy of the resolution which accompanied this letter and a list of
those who subsequently signed the resolution are also printed below.

1 East 70th Street

New York 21, New York
April 24, 1946
Dear
Since we believe that it is impossible to defend on
technical, political or moral grounds the decision to ship to this
country two hundred internationally known and extremely
valuable pictures belonging indisputably, by prewar gift or
purchase, to German institutions, notably the Kaiser Friedrich
Museum of Berlin, we propose to memorialize the President
in a resolution to be signed by a group of like-minded people
interested in or associated with the arts.
We also intend to point out that no reason can be found for
even temporarily alienating these works of art from the
country to which legally they belong.
We represent no organized movement or institution. We
merely wish as American citizens to go on record by
appealing to our government to set right an ill considered
action arising from an error of judgment which, however
disinterested in intention, has already done much to weaken
our national condemnation of German sequestrations of the
artistic heritage or possessions of other nations under the
subterfuge of “protective custody,” or openly as loot.
The moral foundations of our war effort and final victories
will be subtly undermined if we, who understand the
implications, pass over in silence an action taken by our own
officials that, in outward appearance at least cannot be
distinguished from those, detestable to all right thinking
people, which the Nazis’ policy of pillage inspired and
condoned.
The Monuments Officers attached to our armed forces with
their specialized knowledge of the practical risks involved
unanimously condemned the decision. Those Americans
whose profession it is to study and preserve old paintings
deplore it. On ethical grounds it is disapproved by the opinion
of enlightened laymen.
We therefore consider the protest we will make to be our
plain and simple duty, for it is our considered judgment that no
explanation or excuse acceptable to the public conscience
can be found for sending fragile old masters across the sea to
this country. The physical hazards, the momentous
responsibilities and the intellectual ambiguities inherent in
such an act are only too grossly evident. The historical
repercussions that will follow it can be imagined in the light of
past situations of a similar kind. It is well known that the Nazis
inculcated in the German mind a fanatical belief that we are
destructive barbarians. All future deterioration of these
pictures will now, rightly or wrongly, be laid at our door.
We should be glad if you would care to join us and others,
who have already expressed to us their sense of the
unjustified impropriety of the action to which we refer in
demanding the immediate return to Germany of these panels
and canvasses, the cancellation of all plans to exhibit them in
this country and the countermanding at once of any
contemplated further shipments.
The text of the proposed resolution is enclosed. As one of
the principal reasons for submitting it to our government is to
forestall further action of a similar kind with reference to
pictures or objects of art belonging to German museums, as
well as to rectify the existing situation, may I earnestly request
you to signify your approval, if you are so minded, by signing
the resolution and returning it to me before May 6.
Sincerely yours,
 Signed: Frederick Mortimer Clapp.

On May 9, 1946, Dr. Clapp and Mrs. Juliana Force, director of the
Whitney Museum, sent President Truman the following resolution, a
copy of which was enclosed with the above letter:

RESOLUTION
Whereas in all civilized countries one of the most
significant public reactions during the recent war was the
horrified indignation caused by the surreptitious or brazen
looting of works of art by German officials in countries they
had conquered;
And Whereas that indignation and abhorrence on the part
of free peoples was a powerful ingredient in the ardor and
unanimity of their support of the war effort of democratically
governed states in which the private opinions of citizens are
the source and controlling directive of official action;
And Whereas two hundred important and valuable
pictures belonging to the Kaiser Friedrich and other Berlin
museums have been removed from Germany and sent to this
country on the still unestablished ground of ensuring their
safety;
And Whereas it is apparent that disinterested and
intelligent people believe that this action cannot be justified on
technical, political or moral grounds and that many, including
the Germans themselves, may find it hard to distinguish
between the resultant situation and the “protective custody”
used by the Nazis as a camouflage for the sequestration of
the artistic treasures of other countries;
Be It Therefore Resolved that we, the undersigned,
respectfully request the President to order the immediate safe
return to Germany of the aforesaid paintings, the cancellation
of any plans that may have been made to exhibit them in this
country and the countermanding without delay of any further
shipments of the kind that may have been contemplated.
This resolution was signed by:

Abbott, Jere
Director
Smith College Museum of Art
Northampton, Mass.
Abbott, John E.
Executive Vice-President
The Museum of Modern Art
New York, N.Y.
Adams, Philip R.
Director
Cincinnati Museum
Cincinnati, Ohio
Barber, Professor Leila
Vassar College
Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Baker, C. H. Collins
Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery
San Marino, Calif.
Barr, Alfred H.
The Museum of Modern Art
New York, N. Y.
Barzun, Jacques
History Department
Columbia University
New York, N. Y.
Baur, John I. H.
Curator of Painting
Brooklyn Museum
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Biebel, Franklin
Assistant to Director
Frick Collection
New York, N.Y.
Breeskin, Mrs. Adelyn
Acting Director
Baltimore Museum of Art
Baltimore, Md.
Burdell, Dr. Edwin S.
Director
The Cooper Union
New York, N. Y.
Chase, Elizabeth
Editor “Bulletin”
Yale University Art Gallery
New Haven, Conn.
Claflin, Professor Agnes Rindge
Vassar College
Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Clapp, Frederick Mortimer
Director
Frick Collection
New York, N. Y.
Cole, Grover
Instructor in Ceramics
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Cook, Walter W. S.
Chairman
Institute of Fine Arts
New York University, N. Y.
Courier, Miss Elodie
Dir. of Circulating Exhibitions
The Museum of Modern Art
 New York, N. Y.
Crosby, Dr. Sumner
Assistant Professor, History of Art
Yale University
New Haven, Conn.
Cunningham, Charles C.
Director
Wadsworth Atheneum
Hartford, Conn.
Dawson, John P.
Professor of Law
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Faisan, Professor Lane, Jr.
Williams College
Williamstown, Mass.
Faunce, Wayne M.
Vice-Director
American Museum of Natural History
New York, N. Y.
Fisher, H. H.
Hoover Library
Stanford University
Palo Alto, Calif.
Force, Mrs. Juliana
Director
Whitney Museum of American Art
New York, N. Y.
Goodrich, Lloyd
Research Curator
Whitney Museum of American Art
New York, N. Y.
Gores, Walter J.