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A
Project Report on
HEAT TREATMENT OF LOW ALLOY
CAST STEEL WHEELS
In partial fulfillment of the requirements of

Bachelor of Engineering (Metallurgy)

Submitted By

Dr. Rekha Singh (Membership no.51525)

Registration no.:J01/H01/2/019

Department of Metallurgy

Indian Institute of Metals

Kolkata
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Rail Wheel Plant,Bela

For
Indian Institute of Metals, Kolkata

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that that the work in this thesis report entitled

“Heat treatment of low alloy cast steel wheels” submitted by

Dr.Rekha Singh in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of Bachelor of Engineering in Metallurgy for associate member of IIM

having membership no. 51525 and registration no.J01/H01/2/019 in the

department of Metallurgy Engineering, Indian Institute of Metals is an

authentic work carried out by her under my supervision and guidance.

Date: Shri Rajeev Kumar

Deputy Chief Chemist And Metallugist
Rail Wheel Plant, Bela
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ACKNOWLEDGEM
ENT

We deem it a privilege to have been the student member of

Metallurgy Engineering stream in Indian Institute of Metals,Salt

lake, Kolkata. Our heartfelt thanks to Shri Rajeev

Kumar(Dy.chief chemist &metallurgist), my project guide who

helped me to bring out this project in good manner with his

precious suggestion and rich experience. We take this

opportunity to express our sincere thanks to our project guide for

cooperation in accomplishing this project a satisfactory

conclusion.

Dr.Rekha Singh
(Membership no.51525)

Registration no.J01/H01/2/019
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Contents

A....................................................................................................................................1

Bachelor of Engineering (Metallurgy)...........................................................................1

SYNOPSIS.......................................................................................................................5

Chapter1............................................................................................................................... 6

INTRODUCTION:-.....................................................................................................6-8

Chapter 2.............................................................................................................................. 9

Literature survey:............................................................................................9-15

Chapter 3............................................................................................................................ 16

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS........................................................................................ 19

Chapter 4............................................................................................................................ 25

Results&Discussion................................................................................................. 25

Chapter 5............................................................................................................................ 26

CONCLUSION:......................................................................................................... 26

Chapter 6. Scope of future study........................................................................................ 27

Chapter 7............................................................................................................................ 28

References:.................................................................................................................28

SYNOPSIS
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The objective of this project work is to study the effect of heat treatment on

mechanical properties of Cast Steel wheels of carriage and wagons.

In this project work, heat treatment is subjected on low carbon steel wheels of two

types to improve ductility, to improve toughness, strength, hardness and tensile

strength and to relieve internal stress developed in the cast wheels.

Two classes of cast steel wheels were selected for this purpose.

Class 'A'-For carriage stock

Class 'B'-For wagon wheels

Here basically the experiment of hardness, toughness,impact resistance and ultimate

tensile strength is done to get idea about heat treated low carbon steel wheels, which has

extensive uses in all industrial and scientific fields. Heat treatment is often associated

with increasing the strength of the material.

It can also be used to obtain certain manufacturing objectives such as to improve

machining &formability to restore ductility.

Chapter1
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INTRODUCTION:-
Heat treatment involves the improvement of the properties of materials by bringing

about certain permanent structural changes.

Solidification of the cast wheel progress in a dendritic mode, which inherently leads

to chemical segregation and unsatisfactory mechanical properties. To eliminate any

anomalies present in the wheel,all wheels must be heat treated. We know there is a

little bit of steel in everybody life. Steel has many practical applications in every

aspects of life. Steel with favorable properties are the best among the goods. The

steel is being divided as low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel on

the basis of carbon content.

Low alloy carbon cast steel wheels has carbon content of 0.45% to 0.70%. It is

neither externally brittle nor ductile due to its lower carbon content. It has desirable

tensile strength and impact resistance. Steel with low carbon content has properties

similar to iron. As the carbon content increases,with suitable alloying elements the

metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile and more difficult to weld. It

acquires desirable mechanical properties on suitable heat treatment process.

The process heat treatment is carried out first by heating the metal and then cooling

it in water following tempering The purpose of heat treatment is to soften the metal,

to change the grain size, to modify the structure of the material and relive the stress

set up in the material.

The heat treatment of wheels provides a high strength and yield point, combined

with significant ductility even in large section. As it has been established that
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mechanical yielding or deformation of materials takes place mainly by the

movement of line imperfection, called dislocations, along definite slip system and

the kind of phase present in a material that are governed by the type of interaction

among atoms of its constituent elements, into the metal surface forming a hard, wear

resistance skin but preserving a tough and ductile applied to railway wheels.

As my project concerned, it is basically concentrate on the control of eutectoid

decomposition i.e the transformation of austenite to pearlite of suitable grain size by

the reaction.

¥Fe(0.8%C)¿ α Fe (0.02%C)+Fe3C(6.67%).

The proper metallurgical structure for satisfactory service is attained by heating the

wheel until the hub reaches a temperature of 921°c±22° and holding the wheel at

this homogenizing temperature for 45 minute cooling of the wheel from the

normalizing temperature and must be controlled to produce a residual stress pattern

of 0 to 2.54 mm , which is the major of differential cooling between hub and tread.

Following the intial heat treatment the tread of the wheel is sprayed with water until

a uniform hardness pattern of the rim section is produce.

After quenching , the wheels are tempered at desired temperature for 2 hrs in the

tempering furnace . tempering relieves the stresses developed during quenching and

imparts some toughening to the microstructure, following tempering the inside of

the hub is water cooled to produce the proper stress pattern .

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So we go through the most important heat treatments and their purposes are: Stress

relieving - a low-temperature treatment, to reduce or relieve Internal stresses

remaining after casting

Normalising - to refine grain structure and to homogenize the casting to improve

machinability and to remove free carbides.

Quenching or Hardening - to increase hardness or to give improved Strength and

higher proof stress ratio.

Tempering - to yield pearlite structures of high strength, with significant

ductility and good wear resistance.

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Chapter 2

2. Literature Review:
2.1Present status of knowledge
All basic heat treatment/treating processes for steel involve the transformation or

decomposition of existing structure. The nature &appearance of these transformation

products determine the physical &mechanical properties of any given steel .The

heating temperature of steel depends upon its chemical composition ,principally its

carbon contents .Low alloy Carbon steel is steel which contain main alloying element

as carbon with manganese and silicon . Here we find maximum up to 0.70% carbon

and other alloying elements like manganese, silicon. It is divided into the following

two types wheels depending upon the carbon content.

• Class –A-For carriage stock (up to 0.70% carbon)

• Class –B-For wagon wheels(0.45%-0.57% carbon)

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2.2. Classification of Heat treatment.

Steels are heat treated for one of the following reasons;
Hardening
Softening
Property modification
The process of heat treatment is carried out first by heating the material and then

cooling it in the water . The purpose of heat treatment is to soften the metal, to

change the grain size, to modify the structure of the material and to relieve the stress

set up in the material after hot and cold working. The various heat treatment

processes commonly employed in engineering practice as follows:-

Hardening heat treatment:-

These heat treatments are aimed at imparting hardness along with workable

toughness in the components .Through hardening of steel components we uses the

process of hardening and tempering.

Softening heat treatment:-

The process consists of heating the steel to facilitate subsequent operation, for steel

components we should apply the process of stress releaving.

Final heat treatment:-

These heat treatments are done mostly to meet the delivery condition or service

requirements.

For cast steel wheels we have two categories-

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Class-A- FOR CARRAIGE STOCK

Class-B-FOR WAGON STOCK.

These wheels are manufactured from steel made by electric process and refined by

secondary refining process. Chemical composition of both wheels decides the heat

treatment parameters to improve their mechanical properties.

During the process of manufacture necessary care in regulation of temp. gradients

are exercised to prevent the development at internal defects or injurious stresses.

The heat treatment for our cast steel wheels consist treatment of rim only.

For this the wheels are uniformally reheated to proper temp. to refine the grain.

When cast wheels solidify they inherently leads to chemical segregation and

unsatisfactory mechanical properties. The phase constituent of the as cast wheel are

irregular coarse grains of pearlite and island of soft phase of ferrite .The process of

normalizing consist of heating the wheels to a temperature of 30 to 50 0 c above the

upper critical temperature for hypo-eutectoid steels. The amount of free ferrite present

in a properly normalized wheel can be expected to increase as the carbon content is

lowered. The criteria is being done to prevent poor physical properties. If a wheel

reaches too high a temp. and or it is held too long at temp., coarsening of the structure

will result. With the help of an optical pyrometer we can measure the temp. of surface

of a wheel in soaking furnace .The temp. of the wheel upon existing furnace should be

minimum of 9270c.for this a test wheel with a thermocouple embedded in the

thermocenter of the hub, passed through the furnace.

Cooling of the wheel from the normalizing temp. must be controlled to produce a

residual stress pattern,for this the stationary hub insulating disk, provide the additional
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benefit of controlling the residual stress pattern of 0 to 2.54 mm preferred 0 to 1.27 mm

closing. This amount of closing or opening of the saw cut reveals the differential

cooling between the hub and tread. If hub cools slower than the tread, the saw cut will

yield a closer.

To provide the additional benefit of controlling the residual stress pattern,we use a

stationary hub insulating disks .These disks must be kept as close to the hub as possible

to insure a soft hub for easy machinability.

Under these condition, we maintained the hub temp. up to 593 0c,while discharging off

the cooling line.

Following the initial heat treatment, the tread is sprayed with water until a uniform

hardness pattern throughout the rim section is produced. This treatment of cooing with

water jet starts while the rim section of the wheel is above the critical transformation.

The temp. of rim surface must be maintained to 788 oC , before quenching. we find that

if the temp. drops below this critical temp. at the start of the quenching operation, the

desired structure has not be obtained and the physical properties has not be enhanced

after quenching and lower hardness value be also obtained. Along with temp. we have

follow the length of time for the quenching, as well as pressure and flow rate of water.

These all parameters show a great impact on the desired properties of material.

We set these values for our requirements for BGC and BOX’N wheels. According to

the chemistry of our wheel type, we set the tmep. Of water at 13 oc to 27oC, As, too cold

water affects the wheel in such a manner that quench crack phenomenon occurs. If the

temp. of the water raises above 27 oC, it shows the affect of water vapour blanket, so we

adjust the pressure and flow rate of water in such a way that it may penetrate the water

vapour barrier.

Alignment of water nozzles also has impact on the hub or plate physical properties. We

have to adjust the nozzle in such a way that no water enters the hub or plate, and the
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tread surface turns black within a few second.

We then focus on the temperature of the rim, such that there temp must stabilize

between 427oC to 451oC. We find that too high stablization temp. produces a soft

wheel. Quenching time has also be maintained in such a way that after properly

quenching wheel shows a circumferential line of demarcation, about two thirds inwards

through the sprues reveals that they found better heat treatment.

Now, wheels get ready for tempering, we saw their temp. to be maintained upto 371 oC.

If quenched wheel falls below 371 oC , we have to again reprocess the wheel through the

normalizing furnace.

For tempering the wheels are entered into draw furnace for two hours at a temp of

460±11oC.

Following quenching, the wheels are tempered and we found the hardness of the wheel

as our required value such that:

For Class A- Carbon-0.47 to 0.57,hardness range in between 255 HBW TO 321HBW

Class B- Carbon-0.57 to 0.67, hardness range in between 277 HBW TO 341 HBW

2.3 AIM OR OBJECTIVE

For satisfactory service to be attained by cast steel wheel , we choose the heating

parameters to obtain the desired Mechanical properties. First we heat the wheels

according to set parameters of temp. in normalizing furnace for as long as 1hrs, beyond

the minimum holding time before renormalizing. This criteria is being done to prevent

poor physical properties. If is a wheel reaches too high temperature,and or it is held too

long at temperature coarsening of the grain structure will result.

With the help of an optical pyrometer we can measure the temp. of surface of a wheel in

soaking furnace.The temp. of the wheel upon existing furnace should be minimum of
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927~c.for this a test wheel with a thermocouple embedded in the thermocenter of the

hub, passed through the furnace.

Cooling of the wheel from the normalizing temp. must be controlled tproduce a residual

stress pattern,for this the stationary hub insulating disk, provide the additional benefit of

controlling the residual stress pattern of 0 to 2.54 mm preferred 0 to 1.27 mm closing.

This amount of closing or opening of the saw cut reveals the differential cooling

between the hub and tread. If hub cools slower than the tread, the saw cut will yield a

closer.

To provide the additional benefit of controlling the residual stress pattern,we use a

stationary hub insulating disks.These disks must be kept as close to the hub as possible

to insure a soft hub for easy machinability. Under these condition, we maintained the

hub temp.up to 5930c,while discharging off the cooling line.

Following the initial heat treatment, the tread is sprayed with water until a uniform

hardness pattern throughout the rim section is produced. This treatment of cooing with

water jet starts while the rim section of the wheel is above the critical transformation.

The temp. of rim surface must be maintained to 788oC , before quenching. E find that if

the temp. drops below this critical temp. at the start of the quenching operation, the

desired structure has not be obtained and the physical properties has not be enhanced

after quenching lower hardness value also be obtained. Along with temp. we have

follow the length of time for the quenching, as well as pressure and flow rate of water.

These all parameters show a great impact on the desired properties of material. For

proper quenching speed and reproducible results,water at a temp. of 13 0 c to 270 c is

preferred.

After the rim quench has been completed, the rim section will start to pick up heat from

the rest of the wheel ,and the temp. of the rim should stabilize between 427 c to 454 c.

Following quenching,the wheels are tempered at482 0 c± 110c.Tempering process

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reveals the stress developed during quenching and imparts some toughening of the

microstructure. We find that during tempering, only a slight decrease in hardness

occurs, as the tempering of pearlite is involved exclusively with a tendency toward

carbide spheroidization from a lamellar microstructure , which are rather slow diffusion

process.

After tempering the inside of Hub are water cooled to produce proper stress pattern.

These are calculated with opening or closing of radial saw cut. The acceptable range of

the saw cut is 0 to 2.54 mm, closing as determined from the radial saw cut test.

Normally, a hub water quench of 2 minutes to 6 minutes will produce the proper stress

pattern. With proper adjustment, exact hub cooling time depends on type of wheels.
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Chapter 3

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS:

3.1)HEAT TREATMENT:
The two classes of wheels with associated mechanical properties are not readily

obtained in the as cast condition due to cast section design and size.Their matrix

microstructure consisting ferrite or pearlite are not homogenize and are not so adjusted

to give the desired mechanical properties.The principal objective of the project is to

carry out the heat treatment of such cast steel wheel,then to compare the mechanical

properties.

RWP/BELA a production unit of cast steel wheel of two classes has set their heat

treatment parameters according to the wheel chemistry of two categories and to obtain

the desired mechanical properties of wheels.

3.2)PROCESS PARAMETERS:

NORMALISING FURNACE(N.F.)
Type Zone temp. in °c Cycle time Wheel
of discha
wheel 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. rge
temp.
BOXN 700± 1000± 1000± 960± 960± 960 2hrs.4 min. 920 925
10 10 10 10 10 ±10
BGC 700± 1000± 1000± 980±1 980 980 2hrs.4 min. 920 925
10 10 10 0 ±10 ±10
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The max.permissible holding time for NF is 1 hr.

RIM QUENCHING(RQ)
Type of Wheel Water Cycle Cycle Air
wheel entry pressure time(water) time(Air) pressure
temp.
BOX-N 788 c(min.) 4.0 bar 5 min. 30sec. 5 bar
BGC 788 c(min.) 4.0bar 6 min. 30 sec. 5 bar

If any case water has been felled over plate area of wheel,the wheel is being
bypassed

DRAW FURNACE(D.F.)
Type Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Wheel
of .1 2. 3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. dischargete
whee mp.
l
rim hub
BOX 4900c 4900 4900c 490 c 490 c 490 c 490 c 490 c 490 c 470 c 480
-N c
BGC 340 c 400 c 440 c 440 c 440 c 440 c 440 c 440 c 440 c 425 c 435
c

Cycle time:2 hrs.

If in case the wheels holding in D.F. increases the maximum permissible

holding time for D.F. is 30 min. beyond this the wheel should be re-heat
treated.

HUB COOLING
All hub cooler shall be in working order.
Type of wheel Cycle time Water Cycle time of Air pressure
pressure air
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BOX-N 30sec. 4.0 bar 10 sec. 5 bar

BGC 30sec. 4.0bar 10 sec. 5 bar

Low Carbon Steel are primarily heat treated to create matrix microstructures and

associated mechanical properties not readily obtained in the as-cast condition. As-

cast matrix microstructures usually consist of ferrite or pearlite or combinations of

both, depending on cast section size and/or alloy composition The principle

objective of the project is to carry out the heat treatment of Low carbon steel and

then to compare the mechanical properties. There are various types of heat treatment

processes we had adopted.

(From low alloy carbon, cast steel wheels production unit Rail Wheel Plant Bela).

Six(04) trail batches of wheels are heat treated in NF and DF with different parameters.

The details parameters are appended below:

Sl. Batch Wheel Heat N.F. D.F. Rim quenching

No. no. no. no.
Cycle time Exit Cycle Exit Temp. Cycle time
temp. time temp.

1. 30 17 15 2hr.30min. 884 2 hrs. 491 763 5min.30sec.

2. 31 23 24 2hr.30min. 916 2 hrs. 496 717 5min.30sec

3. 31 27 24 2hr.30min. 900 2 hrs. 496 748 5min.30sec.

4. 32 02 51 2hr.04min. 916 2 hrs. 498 608 6 m 30sec

5. 32 08 56 2hr.04min. 923 2 hrs. 496 634 6 m 30sec

6. 33 14 60 2hr.04min 924 2 hrs. 494 636 6 m 30sec
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Chemical composition of heat treated selected samples:

Sl. Wheelno./ C % Mn% Si% P% S% Cr% Mo% Ni H N
No heat no. % ppm ppm
.
1. 17/15(BGC) 0.45 0.63 0.49 0.006 0.01 0.06 0.020 0.07 2.9 0.0058
7
2. 23/24(BGC) 0.52 0.70 0.57 0.012 0.02 0.07 0.015 0.06 2.5 0.0068
1
3. 27/24(BGC) 0.52 0.70 0.57 0.012 0.02 0.07 0.015 0.06 2.5 0.0068
1
4. 02/51(BOXN) 0.60 0.75 0.38 0.014 0.00 0.07 0.023 0.06 1.7 0.0064
9
5. 08/56(BOXN) 0.62 0.74 0.43 0.014 0.01 0.06 0.012 0.06 2.4 0.0063
7
6. 14/60(BOXN) 0.66 0.72 0.39 0.017 0.01 0.07 0.014 0.05 1.1 0.0040
5

3.3 STUDY OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

As the objective of the project is to compare the mechanical properties of various

heat treated cast iron specimens, now the specimens were sent to hardness test,

tensile test and microstructure analysis.

Sample for project work:- SPECIMEN PREPARATION:

The first and foremost job for the experiment is the specimen preparation. The

specimen size should be compatible to the machine specifications:

We got the sample from plant care shop. The sample that we got was of from class A &
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class B wheels.

HARDNESS TESTING:

The heat treated specimens were taken for hardness measurement. Hardness were

measured by means of Brinnel hardness testing machine. The procedure adopted can

be listed as follows:

First the hardmetal ball indenter of dia. 10 mm was inserted in the machine; the

load is adjusted to 3000 kgf.

Place the specimen on the test table and turn the nut in such a way it just touches the

bottem face of the lower support plate.

Now turn the handle to apply major load for a period of dwelling time. The diameter

of indentation is measured by means of micrometer.

We note the BHN value according to the diameter of impression.

TABULATION FOR HARDNESS TESTING:

Table.1
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SL Wheel Applied Observed BHN

NO no./Heat no. load reading
.
1. 17/15(BGC) 30KN 246-280
2. 23/24(BGC) 30KN 255-298
3. 27/24(BGC) 30KN 256-296
4. 02/51(BOXN) 30KN 275-315
5. 08/56(BOXN) 30KN 278-326
6. 14/60(BOXN) 30KN 297-329
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ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING:

The heat treated specimens were treated in UTS Machine for obtaining the %

elongation, Ultimate Tensile Strength, yield Strength. The procedures for obtaining

these values can be listed as follows;

At first the cross section area of the specimen was measured by means of an

electronic slide caliper and then the gauge length was calculated.

Now the distance between the jaws of the UTS was fixed to the gauge l

ength of the specimen

The specimen was gripped by the jaws of the holder

The maximum load was set at 150 KN.

The specimen was loaded till it fails

The corresponding Load vs. Displacement diagrams were plotted by using the

software. From the data obtained the % elongation, yield strength and ultimate

tensile strength were calculated by using the following formulae: -

.% elongation = (change in gauge length of specimen/initial gauge

length of the specimen.) ×100

Yield strength = load at 0.2% offset yield/ initial cross section area

Ultimate tensile strength = maximum load/ initial cross section area

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TABULATION FOR ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH

TESTING:

Table.2.
SL.NO Wheel no./Heat UTS UTS ELONGATION ELONGATION
2 2
. no. (N/mm ) (N/mm ) % %
RIM PLATE
RIM PLATE

1. 17/15(BGC) 859.37 735.34 6.27 11.82

2. 23/24(BGC) 932.06 801.50 6.42 10.91
3. 27/24(BGC) 927.90 808.86 6.48 10.86
4. 02/51(BOXN) 966.75 840.21 5.24 8.26
5. 08/56(BOXN) 1035.81 867.37 5.08 7.73
6. 14/60(BOXN) 1128.90 889.62 4.91 7.01

Tensile properties for different tempering temperature for 2

hours. tempering time
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Micro structure testing

Microscopic examination begins with

Selection of specimen from rim location of wheel
Cutting
Grinding
Polishing and Examination from metallurgical microscope.
Microstructure constituents of specimen are revealed by using sutaible enchants .
Two samples were selected for Micro structure examination, it was found that grain sixe and
microstructure property changes with heat treatment parameters and chemical constituents of
sample.

Microstructure of cast steel wheels

BGC WHEELS BOX-N WHEELS

Microstructure @1000x

Grain size@100x

Chapter 4.
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Results&Discussion
From the various experiments carried out following observations and inferences

were made. It was seen that the various tensile properties followed a particular

sequence:

1) More is the tempering temperature, less is the hardness or more is the softness

(ductility) induced in the quenched specimen. (ductility) induced in the

quenched specimen.

2) Microstructure photographs taken by optical metallurgical microscope and

metallurgical inspections indicated that the surfaces of heat treated samples are

fine pearlite,with grain size of 6 ASTM to 7 ASTM.

3) More is the tempering time (keeping the tempering temperature constant), more

is the ductility induced in the specimen.

4) This clearly implies that the UTS and also to some extent the yield strength

decreases with increase in tempering time where as the ductility (% elongation)

increases.

5) For a given tempering time, an increase in the tempering temperature decreases

the UTS value and the yield strength of the specimen where as on the other hand

increasing the % elongation and hence theductility.

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Chapter 5.

CONCLUSION:
From the various results obtained during the project work it can be concluded that

the mechanical properties vary depending upon the various heat treatment processes.

Hence depending upon the properties and applications required we should go for a

suitable heat treatment processes. When ductility is the only criteria tempering at

high temperature for 2 hours gives the best result among all tempering experiments

however it is simply the hardness of the low carbon steel that is desired than we

should go for low temperature tempering for 1 hour or so. However if strength is

also desired along with hardness, this should not be done. It is seen that annealing

causes a Tremendous increase in % elongation (ductility). It can be clearly seen

comparing all the heat treatment processes, optimum Combination of UTS, Yield

Strength, % Elongation as well as hardness can be Obtained through austempering

only.
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Chapter 6.

Scope of future study

Cast steel heat treated wheels referes to a process of altering the physical

and chemical properties of metals through different operations, such as

heating, holding and cooling of metal in the solid state as cast steel

structure, in order to obtain the particular desirable metallurgical

properties. Manufacturing industries are integrating these process with

their existing production lines in order to enhance the overall efficiency of

final cast steel production.

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Chapter 7.

References:
1) Heat Treatment: Principles and Techniques-By T.V Rajan, C.P Sharma, Ashok
Sharma

2) Physical Metallurgy- Vijendar Singh.

3) Wheel manual volume:111 Rail wheel plant bela

4) Putatunda Sushil K Material science and Engineering Vol 315, sept

2001

5) Principles and application of heat treatment of CI, Isfahan University

Iran, 1987

6) Indian railway std. specification for cast steel wheels. Serial no. IRS R-
19/1993(Part 111)

7) Zamba J, Sumandi M, Materials and Design Vol 25 august 2004

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