GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 1:
→ Population Geography is a branch of Human Geography.
→ In this branch, we study quantitative and qualitative
composition of population, how population influences the
economy and development and much more.
→ The distribution of population in the world is uneven.
→ Asia has 30% landmass and supports 60% of the world’s
population.
→ Number of people living in a unit area is called density of
population.
→ Density of population = Total population / Total area (sq.
km)

Components of population change:

→ People from one region differ from another region. They
can be distinguished from one another on the basis of age,
sex, place of residence, occupation and life expectancy.
Population growth:
→ Population growth is the change in number of inhabitants
of a territory during specific period of time.
→ Growth of population can be expressed either in terms of
absolute number or in percentage.
→ Change of population is an economic indicator of
development and social upliftment.
→ Birth rate (BR), Death rate (DR) and Migration are three
components of change of population.
Crude birth rate:
Number of live births in a year per thousand populations is
known as crude birth rate (CBR).
CBR = Total number of live births in a year / Total population
in that year × 1000
Crude death rate
→ Number of deaths in particular year per 1000 population is
known as crude death rate.
CDR = Total number of deaths in a year / Total population in
that year × 1000
→ Population growth in any region occurs not only by
increasing birth rate but also because of decreasing death
rate
The Theory of Demographic Transition:
→ No country experiences the same rate of growth or
decline of population.
→ Population growth or decline changes with the economic
development, tendencies of birth rate and death rate.
→ The theory of demographic transition is based on the
population trends of a country with time.
→ Any country passes through different stages of population
growth.
Stages of Population Growth :
Stage 1 High stationary stage :
 High birth and death rates
 Stable population
 Poor financial position
 People engage in primary activities like agriculture
 Limited educational opportunities
 Big families
 Poor science and technological development
 Poor sanitation facilities, malnutrition and high death
rate.
Stage 2 Early expanding stage
 Development of medical and health care services
 Control and combat diseases
 Reduction in mortality rate
 Constant birth rates
 Rapidly growing population
 Efforts to control population
 Increase in agricultural and industrial production.
Stage 3 Late expanding stage
 Decreasing death rates
 Decreasing birth rates
 Reduction in population
 Income of the people is slightly above subsistence level
 Slight increase in the standard of living hence,
decreasing poverty
 Rise in technological growth
 Expansion of secondary and tertiary activities
 Increased education facilities, awareness of family
planning
Stage 4 Low stationary stage
  Decrease in birth rate
 High standard of living
 Improved economic condition of the country
 Improved economic status of the people
 Increased engagement in secondary and tertiary
activities
 Better medical facilitates, hence, low death rates
 Epidemics under control
 Health-conscious
Stage 5 Declining stage
 Equal birth rate and death rate
 Minimum population growth and negative in some
countries
 Reduced population due to higher mortality
 Percentage of children is lower than elders
 Most of the country’s income comes from tertiary
activities
 Best quality education and health facilities
 Healthy environment and pleasant life
CHAPTER 2:
→ The population is considered a human resource. Its
physical and intellectual characteristics affect the
development of any region/country.
→ Economic activities develop only with reference to human
resources. In the absence of proper use of human resources,
other resources are not developed effectively.
→ While studying population composition, we study, age
structure, sex, literacy, education, and occupational
structure.
Population Composition:
Age Structure
→ Age structure refers to the number of people in different
age groups such as infants, children, teenagers, young, adult
and old people.
→ Share of each age group in population varies from country
to country.
→ Age structure of population can be studied with the help
of population pyramid.
→ While drawing population pyramid, age group is taken on
Y-axis in the centre and on X-axis population or percentage of
population in different age group. On left side of graph is
male population and right-side female population.
→ The base of the graph shows children population and apex
shows old population.
→ Population in the age group 15-59 years indicate group of
working population i.e., economically active population.
→ Population in the age group 0-15 years indicate dependent
population or economically inactive population.
→ Population in the age group above 60 years, indicates
greater expenditure on medical and health facilities since
population in this age group is economically dependent.

Types of population pyramid

→ Expansive – Broad base with tapering top. This shows high
birth rate and high death rates.
→ Constructive – This pyramid has narrower base and
broader apex. It indicates lower percentages of younger
population and more elderly population. It also shows lower
birth rates and lower death rates.
→ Stationary – Population in almost all age groups is same.
Very low birth and death rates. There is hardly any
population growth.
Sex Composition:
→ Population pyramid gives us idea about number of men
and women in different age groups.
→ The ratio between number of men and women in
population is called sex ratio.
Sex Ratio = Total Female Population Total Male
Population ×1000
→ The sex ratio gives us important information about the
status of women in a country.
→ Average sex ratio of the world population is 990 females
per 1000 males.
→ Countries like Latvia, Estonia, Russia and Ukraine have the
highest sex ratio in the world. (1162 females per 1000 males)
→ On the other hand, in Saudi Arabia, there are 667 females
per 1000 males.

Demographic Dividend:
→ The growth in an economy as a result of a change in the
age structure of a country’s population is known as
Demographic Dividend.
→ The change in demographic dividend comes because of a
decline in birth and death rates.
→ As birth rate decreases, the number of young dependent
population decreases.
→ Economic productivity of a country depends upon the
ratio between working and dependant (non-working)
population.
→ Higher the ratio, higher is the contribution of working
population in the economy.
→ With fewer people to support and more people working,
economy’s resources are invested in other areas to
accelerate a country’s economic development.
→ Per capita income increases.
→ Demographic dividend depends on the proper
implementation of policies in the areas such as education,
health, research, etc.
→ It also depends on the level of schooling, employment,
frequency of childbearing, economic policy on tax incentives,
health, pension, and retirement policies.
Literacy and Education
→ An important indicator of socio-economic development is
the proportion of literate population of a country.
→ The standard of living, social status of females, education
facilities, government policies reveal socio-economic
development of a country.
→ Population above 7 years of age, who can read, write and
have the ability to do simple arithmetic calculations with
understanding is considered as a literate person in India.
Occupational Structure:
→ Population of men and women in the age group 15-59
years are considered as working population.
→ Working population take part in primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary occupations.

Rural and Urban Composition:

→ On the basis of residence, population is divided into Rural
and Urban.
→ Lifestyles of people living in rural and urban areas is
different, which is based upon their livelihood and social
conditions.
→ Age and sex composition, occupational structure, density
and level of economic development are different in rural and
urban areas.
→ The areas in which very large proportion of population
engaged in primary occupations are considered as rural.
→ The areas in which large proportion and working
population engaged other than primary occupations are
considered as urban.
Migration:
→ Movement of people from one place to another, from one
country to another, for lesser or longer period or
permanently is called migration.
→ Migration also can be voluntary or non-voluntary.
→ Migration changes density patterns and structure of
population in both donor as well as recipient region.
Impact of migration on population :
Donor region:
→ Out migration from donor region causes no utilization of
existing facilities/services like housing, water supply,
transportation, health facilities, education, recreation etc.
→ Expenditure incurred to develop these facilities goes to
waste.
→ Age and sex structure changes tremendously. For
example, in Kerala, sex ratio of 1,084 female per 1000 male
population in working-age group.
Recipient regions
 Recipient region experiences tremendous pressure on
the available facilities.
 In this region housing, water supply, transportation,
medical, education facilities are becoming insufficient
due to increasing population.
 Agricultural land is converted into non – agricultural
activities, such as housing.
 Land prices increase tremendously. Lack of housing
leads to the development of slums.
 There is a shortage of public services, increased
economic inequality and crime rate.
 There will be unfavourable sex ratio e.g., Mumbai 832
and Pune 948.
 Working-age population higher than non-working age
group population.
CHAPTER 3:
→ Man being a social animal, likes living in groups.
→ Due to social bonding and social needs many people come
together and construct houses, which is known as
settlement.
→ Development of settlement have co-relation between man
and environment.
→ Type and spacing of settlements depend upon many
physical factors like relief, soil, climate, drainage,
groundwater level etc.
→ Social factors, sometimes are responsible for
fragmentation of settlements.

Types of Settlement:
→ Settlements vary in their size and types ranging from
hamlets to metropolitan city.
→ Type of settlement refers to some common features of the
settlement.
→ Pattern of settlements refers to regular form in which
series of things occur.
→ The term settlement pattern is strictly applied to the
spatial arrangement or distribution of settlement within the
given area.
→ On the basis of functions, there are two types of
settlement – rural and urban.
→ Cities can be divided on the basis of their function.
→ Some cities specialise in certain functions, activities,
products or services.
→ On the basis of specialisation of some important functions,
Indian cities can be classified as follows:
Pimpri – Chinchwad as industrial town, Khadki as cantonment
town, Pune as educational centre and Kolhapur, Pandharpur
as religious town etc.
→ As town becomes city and city becomes metro cities, lots
of changes can be seen in them in their form, land uses and
structure.
→ As cities grow in their size, there is change in their skyline.

Land Use Classification:

→ Land use in rural areas is different from urban areas.

Land use and Landcover:

→ Land cover describes the physical surface covering the
land like forest, water, sand, ice, rocks, etc.
→ Land use describes the use of the land; use might be
recreational, but land cover might be forest or vegetation.
→ Land cover can be determined by analysis of satellite
imagery, but the land use cannot be determined from the
satellite imagery.
Urban-Rural Fringe:
→ The area between urban and rural area is called urban-
rural fringe. It has both the urban and rural characteristics.
→ It is a transition zone between urban and rural area.
→ People from this area daily travel to central area for their
work.
→ Here, we have a mixture of rural and urban land use.
→ The city and the surrounding areas consist of two
administrative areas – Municipal Councils and Gram
Panchayats.
→ Smaller municipal towns lose their identity, though they
are geographical part of the city.
→ Town far from the main city maintain its distinct identity
and have problems relating to the urban amenities and
transportation.
→ The quality of available services is generally inferior.
→ Agricultural land may have been converted to residential
or industrial areas or entire area may be rural.
→ Beyond urban fringe, there is a rural fringe. Rural fringe
consists of only villages partly affected by the urbanisation.

Suburbs:
→ Outside metropolitan cities, there might be small towns or
number of well-developed cities or towns. Such cities or
towns are suburbs of Mumbai.
→ Andheri, Goregaon, Bhandup, Mulund, Thane, Kalyan etc.,
are suburbs of Mumbai.
→ All these suburbs developed as a result of the growth and
development of Mumbai.
CHAPTER 4:
→ Primary economic activities are dependent on nature and
produce natural resources. They are affected by natural
calamities.

Hunting:
→ Hunting was a primitive activity of man to get food; as a
result, many animal species have become extinct.
→ Even today hunting is practised in some parts of the world.
Example: Bushmen of Kalahari Desert, Pygmies of Equatorial
Selvas, Boras, Eskimos of Tundra, etc.
→ Commercial hunting is banned all over the world and
many laws have been passed to protect animals.

Gathering:
→ Gathering depends on forest products, such as fruits,
roots, tubers, leaves, flowers, medicinal plants, gum, lac,
honey, wax, rubber, etc., which are carried out in all the
forest-covered areas.
→ In the equatorial rainforests, the climate is humid and
unhealthy.
→ Due to the disturbances of reptiles and insects, collection
of forest products on a large scale becomes difficult.
Lumbering:
1. An important primary activity.
2. Lumbering is practised in coniferous forest region due to
its softwood.
Fishing:
→ Initially fishing started as a primary activity on subsistence
level, now it is one of the important economic activity.
→ Development of fishing is greatly affected by number of
physical factors as follows:
→ Extensive continental shelf with shallow water.
→ Confluence of warm and cold ocean water currents and
availability of plankton.
→ Large size population and limited cultivable land.
→ Absence of alternative occupations.
→ Use of technology and excellent port facilities has
increased fishing activity.
→ Cold climate for preservation of fish.
Animal Husbandry:
→ Climate is the most important factor in the development
of animal husbandry.
→ It is concentrated between 30°N to 60°N and 30°S to 55°S
latitudes.
→ Development of animal husbandry depends upon
advancement of technology, advancement of markets and
availability of large estates.

Mining:
→ Since ancient times, minerals have been used for making
weapons, tools, jewellery, utensils and medicines.
→ Industries using minerals as raw material are located near
mining areas.
→ Improved transport facilities are very important for the
development of mining activities.
→ Development of mining increases industries, thus
improving the economy.
→ Our economic development is closely related to the
exploitation of minerals, oil and natural gas.
→ Exploitation of minerals depends upon the ecology of the
region, value of minerals, capital investments, technology,
skilled labour and climate.
Agriculture:
→ Agriculture is the most important occupation of man.
→ Influencers in the development of agriculture are climate,
topography, soil and biotic factors.
→ Socio-economic factors like labour, capital, market,
transportation facilities, storage facilities, government policy,
population and ownership of land influence agriculture.
→ Greenhouse and playhouse are modern agricultural
techniques.
CHAPTER 5:
→ Some products obtained from primary activities are
consumed directly by man.
→ However, some products need to be processed to make
them more useful and durable.
→ Thus, products obtained from primary activities are used
as raw materials in secondary activities.
→ Processing of products from primary activities takes place
in manufacturing industries where they are changed into
finished product to be sold in markets.
→ Thus, secondary activities increases the value of primary
products by transforming raw material into finished
products.

Physical Factors
→ Extreme climate is not suitable for the development of
industries. Hence, most of the industries develop in the areas
of moderate climate.
→ Industries using perishable, heavy, bulky and weight-losing
raw materials are located near the raw material producing
areas.
→ Water is one of the most important factor for the
industries. Power or energy like coal, electricity, etc., are
indispensable resources for running the machinery of
industries.
→ Different types of industries require different labour.
Some industries need semi-skilled whereas some need skilled
labour.
→ The cost of transportation and time required to transport
raw material and finished product is known as economic
distance.
→ Low cost of transportation is deciding factor of location of
industry.
→ Large area is necessary for the construction of industry
and therefore, flat and well-served areas with transportation
facilities are important for the development of industries.
Economic Factors
→ The entire process of manufacturing is futile until the
finished goods reach the market. Therefore, nearness to
market is an added advantage for quick disposal of finished
products.
→ Capital is a very important factor in the development of
industries as huge investments is necessary for establishing
industries.
Political Factors
→ The government can encourage or discourage the
development of industries in certain areas by providing
facilities and vice-versa.
→ Governments support establishing zones or regions which
are specially developed for industrial production. In India,
they are called Special Economic Zones (SEZs).

Other Factors
→ Some productions are decentralized and are arranged at
different places to reduce transport cost which is referred to
as split location.
→ A proportionate saving in costs gained by an increased
level of production is called economy of scale or
agglomeration.
→ By using available opportunities according to ‘economies
of scale’, the region attracts more and more industries in a
region.
Footloose Industries
→ Footloose industries are industries which does not depend
much on available resources, production skills and
consumers on which it depends can be found in numerous
places.
→ Most footloose industries produce low volume and high-
value outputs.
Characteristic Features of Industrial Regions
1. Agglomeration of industries.
2. Dense population growth, large labour force.
3. Employment to large working populations.
4. Large banking and credit facilities.
5. A large network of transportation.
6. Excellent communication facilities

Classification based on raw material

→ Agro-based Industries:
Industries using agricultural produce as a raw material are
known as agro-based industries.
→ Marine-based Industries :
All those units involved in processing and canning of fish, fish
products and other marine products known as marine-based
industries.
→ Forest-based Industries :
Industries using products from forests which are processed
are known as forest-based industries.
→ Mineral-based Industries :
Industries in which manufacturing is based on minerals are
mineral-based industries.
→ Pastoral-based Industries:
Industries which depend upon animals as their raw material
are pastoral-based industries.

Classification based on the basis of capital investment

→ Large scale Industries
In India, industries requiring an investment of more than X 10
crore are large-scale industries.
→ Micro, Small and Medium Industries
Micro industries: Here, investment in plant and machinery is
not more than X 25 lakh and investment in equipments not
more than X 10 lakh.
→ Small scale industries:
Here, investment in plant and machinery more than X 25 lakh
but does not exceed X 5 crore and investment in equipment
is more than X 10 lakh but not more than X 2 crores.
→ Medium-scale industries:
Here, investment in plant and machinery is more than X 5
crores but does exceed X 10 crores and investment in
equipment more than X 2 crores but does not exceed X 5
crores.
→ Cottage or Household Industry
Cottage industry is a basic industry. It needs little capital and
involves less transportation cost.
Classification based on nature of output
→ Heavy Industries:
Industries producing materials, which are used as raw
material in other industries, are known as heavy industries or
basic industries.
→ Light Industries
Industries producing goods for direct consumption for
consumers are called light industries or consumer goods
industries.
→ Ancillary Industries
Industries which manufacture spare parts to be used in other
industries are called ancillary industries.

Classification based on ownerships

→ Public sector industries
Industries owned by the State are called public sector
industries.
→ Private-sector industries
Industries owned by private individual or partnerships of
private individuals are known as private sector industries.
→ Joint sector industries
Industries which are managed by an individual and
government or between two or more governments are called
joint sector industries.
→ Co-operative sector industries
A group of people pool their resources to set up and manage
industry on cooperative basis are called cooperative sector
industries.
→ MNCs
Privately or public owned industries in the process of
manufacturing involve more than one country are called
multinational corporation.
CHAPTER 6:
→ Natural resources are obtained by primary activities;
secondary activities are dependent on products obtained
from primary activities. Activities that act as links between
primary and secondary are known as tertiary activities.
→ Tertiary activities are mainly service-providing activities.
Therefore, it is called the service sector.
→ Buying and selling of goods, transport, and
communication, loading and unloading, credit facilities,
marketing, import-export, etc., are tertiary activities.
→ The distribution of service activities is dependent on the
number of geographical factors like climate, topography,
nearness to the sea, or continental location, which affects
tertiary activities.
Trade and Commerce
→ Trade refers to the voluntary exchange of goods and
services, where two or more parties are involved.
→ Bilateral or multilateral trades are major types of
international trade. International trade takes place because
of specialisation in production and differences in human
resources.
→ International trade takes place only if it is mutually
beneficial to trading partners (countries) and when it is a
comparative advantage for both.
→ There are various geographical factors that affect trade.
These are, differences in natural resources, climate,
population factors, culture, economic cost and specialisation.

Transportation
→ Transportation is a service or facility through which
passengers, freight and industrial products are carried from
one place to another.
→ Transportation is a very important tertiary activity in the
development of trade.
→ Means of transportation are essential components of
transport systems wherein, each mode has its own
requirements and features.
Communication
→ Different means of communication are used to express
one’s thoughts and making it reach the other.
→ Communication is being depicted through pictures,
symbols, verbal communication using signs, body language,
postures, etc.
→ This is the era of information. Therefore, telephones,
mobiles, internet, etc., are used to communicate.
→ These means of communication are largely used for
regional development. Each country is trying to stay updated
with information. Hence, technology in communication has
increased manifold.

Other services
→ Tourism is an important tertiary economic activity. The
population employed in tourism is increasing.
→ The climate, natural beauty of the region, availability of
land and sea adventure sports are major contributors to the
country’s GDP.
→ The geographical factors like the site and situation of a
place, climate, relief, altitude, biodiversity, accessibility,
availability of water plays an important role in the growth of
tourism.
→ However, transportation facilities, lodging and boarding
facilities, cultural diversity, government policies and political
conditions are human factors affecting the development of
tourism.
→ Considering tertiary economic activities, the services
included in this sector are varied in nature. Therefore, these
are categorized into quaternary (fourth) and quinary (fifth)
activities.
→ Quaternary activities refer to think, research, and develop
ideas whereas quinary activities involve work related to
administrative character.
→ The difference between the two types is that the people
involved in quinary activities are involved in the highest level
of decision-making or policy-making.
CHAPTER 7:
→ Natural (physical) or man-made (administrative
boundaries, political or linguistic) feature of a small or large
area of land having common features help us to identify
them separately.
→ Demarcated boundary separates one region from the
other. The geographical area that distinguishes itself from
another area is called a region.

→ The classification of regions is based on common

characteristics and is homogeneous in nature, which
constitutes of a region.
→ A region is a basic unit in any geographical studies and
helps us to differentiate one area from another.

Types of regions
→ Formal regions and functional regions are the two types
of regions.
→ A formal region is an area inhabited by people who have
one or more characteristics in common.
→ On the basis of characteristics, a formal region is divided
into a physical region or political region.
→ A functional region is an area organized to function
socially and economically as a single unit.
→ Functional region involves more than one type of physical
or political regions.
Factors affecting regional development
→ Development is a relative term. Therefore, while
considering regional development the physical, economic,
social, environmental aspects of a region are taken into
consideration.

Physical factors and regional development

→ Regional development is affected by physical factors like
climate and relief of the region.
→ Areas where land is less fertile, water is scarce and
diseases flourish will be less developed.
→ A region with a large number of resources, but climate is
not suitable, or lack of population to exploit resources, the
region will not develop.

Population and regional development

 Population and regional development are closely
interrelated. The parameters of development are
measured keeping in mind the population of a region.
 The important factors of development are the quantity
and quality of population as well as the efficiency of
resources used by the population in a region.
Land use and regional development
→ There is a difference in the percentage of land use in
developed and underdeveloped regions.
→ Demand for land use changes according to the society’s
needs as well as the changes in the socio-economic
conditions.
Primary, secondary and tertiary economic activities and
regional development
→ Primary, secondary and tertiary economic activities carried
out in any region, give an idea about the regional
development in that region.
→ Regions are developed if they contribute more in the
tertiary sector and depend less on primary activities.
→ The Human Development Index (HDI) is used to access
various aspects of development in a region.

Regional imbalance:
→ The balanced regional development policy is considered
on economic, social and political grounds.
→ The policy is adopted to reduce inequalities between
different regions of a country and also increasing the
standard of living to a higher level at a uniform rate.
Causes of regional imbalance in India:
→ There is regional imbalance in India since the level of
development is not similar in all sub-regions.

Policies to reduce regional imbalance

→ Identify underdeveloped regions.
→ Identify the reasons behind non-development.
→ Allocate funds to regions which need them in particular
sectors or fields.
→ Sector-wise investments to improve conditions of such
areas.
→ Funds are given in the form of subsidies and investments
in roads, schools, agriculture, irrigation, industries, housing,
medical and health facilities, etc.
→ Special care for regions that have been identified as
deserts, drought-prone, hilly, and areas dominated by tribal
population.
→ Decentralisation of industries to reduce the regional
imbalance.
CHAPTER 8:
→ The nature of the earth’s surface is full of variations.
There are various features with variations such as mountains,
hills, plains, plateaus, oceans, rivers, lakes, deserts, etc.
→ In geography, we study climatic patterns on the global
and local level, its impact on vegetation and wildlife, wind
patterns, soils and its types, etc.
→ Types of landforms, submarine relief, ocean currents,
salinity, etc., are also studied by a geographer.
→ All the above-mentioned physical aspects affect human
populations.
→ Such variations bring about changes in social and cultural
features too, which changes from place to place and time to
time.
→ Variations are also observed in the form of settlements,
transportation networks, markets and ports and many other
elements developed by man during the entire period of
man’s cultural development.
→ Taking into consideration the above all factors, the
subject matter of geography can be divided into two major
themes – Physical Factors and Human Factors. Thus, giving
rise to two branches in Geography – Physical Geography and
Human Geography.
→ Human Geography studies relationship between man and
environment.
→ It also studies distribution attributes related to man’s
social and environmental phenomena around the world.

Nature of Geography as a discipline

 The earth is dynamic. Hence, there are variations in its
physical and cultural environments.
 Geography is a study of the earth and phenomena
related to it.
Geographers study –
→ Through scientific and supplemental methods with
experiments, data collection, observation patterns, data
analysis and research.
→ Geographical distributions, their patterns and variations as
well as the causes behind these phenomena.
→ Geographical distributions of various crops in different
regions. Thus, understanding the impact of climate, soil,
market demand and application of technology to identify the
differences.
→ The space, area, region and geographical location. Skills
and techniques used in study of geography make it empirical
and practical in nature.
→ Skills developed by geographers enables them to make
observations and describe various phenomena on the earth;
and enriched the subject and newer branches of geography
went on developing.
→ There are two contrasting approaches to study geography,
which is known as Dualism in geography.
There are two contrasting approaches in Geography –
1. Nature is more dominant than man, which is called
Environmental Determinism.
2. Man dominates nature, which is called Possibilism.
→ Since there are many such dualistic approaches in
geography; it makes geography dualistic in nature.
Scope of Geography
→ Almost every discipline, under natural and social sciences,
is linked with Geography.
→ Therefore, geography has a very strong interface with
natural and social sciences.
→ Since many branches of geography have developed from
mainstream disciplines geography has become an interesting
and interdisciplinary subject.

Latest Trends in Geography:

  Geographer explains the phenomena within the frame
of cause and effect relationship.
 It helps to analyse and predict future through data
collection and modelling.
 This results in intra and inter-disciplinary avenues and
widens the scope of geography and its dynamic nature
of adding new subjects.
The following are uses of geographical models:
 Population growth and density
 Land use
 Intensity of cropping
 migration patterns of population
 Industrialization
 urbanization
 Growth of cities
 Growth of Slums