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 ETHNOBOTANY OF INDIA
Volume 5
The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India
 ETHNOBOTANY OF INDIA
Volume 5
The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India

Edited by
T. Pullaiah, PhD
K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD
Bir Bahadur, PhD
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Ethnobotany of India / edited by T. Pullaiah, PhD, K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD, Bir Bahadur, PhD.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
Contents: Volume 4. Western and central Himalayas -- Volume 5. The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-550-8 (v. 4 : hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-77188-599-7 (v. 5 : hardcover).-- ISBN 978-1-315-
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1. Ethnobotany--India. I. Pullaiah, T author, editor II. Bahadur, Bir, author, editor III. Krishnamurthy, K. V., author, editor
GN635.I4E85 2016 581.6'30954 C2016-902513-6 C2016-902514-4
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Names: Pullaiah, T., editor. | Krishnamurthy, K. V., editor. | Bahadur, Bir., editor.
Title: Ethnobotany of India. Volume 5, The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India / editors: T. Pullaiah, K.V.
Krishnamurthy, Bir Bahadur.
Other titles: Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India
Description: Waretown, NJ : Apple Academic Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
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CONTENTS

List of Contributors........................................................................................ vii

List of Abbreviations....................................................................................... ix
Preface............................................................................................................ xi
Acknowledgements......................................................................................... xv
Ethnobotany of India 5-volume Series.......................................................... xvi
About the Editors......................................................................................... xvii
1. Introduction....................................................................................................1
K. V. Krishnamurthy, T. Pullaiah, Bir Bahadur, and S. John Adams
2. Ethnic Diversity of the Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India...........19
R. L. S. Sikarwar
3. Ethnobotany of Indus Valley Civilization.................................................. 59
K. V. Krishnamurthy and Bir Bahadur
4. Ethnic Food Plants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and Central India.........75
Sudip Ray
5. Ethnomedicinal Plants of the Indo-Gangetic Region
and Central India.......................................................................................127
Chowdhury H. Rahaman , Suman K. Mandal, and T. Pullaiah
6. An Overview of Ethnoveterinary Medicines of the
Indo-Gangetic Region................................................................................ 211
R. L. S. Sikarwar
7. Trade in Indian Medicinal Plants.............................................................321
D. K. Ved, S. Noorunnisa Begum, and K. Ravi Kumar
8. Ethnobotany of Useful Plants in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and
Central India..............................................................................................347
Vijay V. Wagh
9. A Review on Ethnobotany of Hepatoprotective Plants of India............397
Maddi Ramaiah
vi Contents

10. Ethnomedicine for Skin Diseases in India...............................................455

J. Koteswara Rao, J. Suneetha, R. Ratna Manjula, and
T. V. V. Seetharami Reddi
11. Ethnobotany of Plant Contraceptives......................................................543
Baljot Kaur
12. Ethnobotany of the Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss):
A Review.......................................................................................................... 573
K. Sri Rama Murthy, T. Pullaiah, Bir Bahadur, and K. V. Krishnamurthy
13. Ethnogenomics of Some Traditionally Used Plants:
An Emerging Discipline of Biology...........................................................601
Bir Bahadur, Gorti Bala Pratyusha, and E. Chamundeswari
14. Ethnobotany Post-Genomic Horizons and Multidisciplinary
Approaches for Herbal Medicine Exploration: An Overview...............621
Manickam Tamil Selvi, and Ankanagari Srinivas
15. Indian Ethnobotany: Present Status and Future Prospect.................... 653
Chowdhury Habibur Rahaman
Index............................................................................................................. 675
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

S. John Adams
R&D – Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami labs Ltd, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Bir Bahadur
Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal–506009, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

S. Noorunnisa Begum
Centre of Repository of Medicinal Resources, School of Conservation of Natural Resources,
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Healthand Traditions, 74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Attur P.O.,
Via Yelahanka, Bangalore – 560106, India, E-mail: [email protected]

E. Chamundeswari
Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 560009, Telangana, India

Baljot Kaur
Stri Roga & Prasuti Tantra (Gyne & Obs), SKSS Ayurvedic Medical College, Sarabha, Ludhiana,
Punjab, India, E-mail: [email protected]

K. V. Krishnamurthy
R&D – Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami Labs Ltd, Peenya Industrial Area,
Bangalore–560058, India, E-mail: [email protected]

K. Ravi Kumar
Centre of Repository of Medicinal Resources, School of Conservation of Natural Resources,
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Healthand Traditions, 74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Attur P.O.,
Via Yelahanka, Bangalore – 560106, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Suman K. Mandal
Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan–731235, West Bengal

R. Ratna Manjula
Department of Botany, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, India

K. Sri Rama Murthy

R&D Center for Conservation Biology and Plant Biotechnology, Shivashakti Biotechnologies Limited,
S. R. Nagar, Hyderabad – 500038, Telangana, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Gorti Bala Pratyusha

Department of Genetics, Shadan P. G. Institute of Biosciences for Women, Osmania University,
Hyderabad – 500004, Telangana, India, E-mail: [email protected]

T. Pullaiah
Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur–515003, Andhra Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Chowdhury Habibur Rahaman

Department of Botany, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan – 731235, West Bengal, India,
E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
viii List of Contributors

Maddi Ramaiah
Department of Pharmacognosy, Hindu College of Pharmacy, Guntur – 522002, A.P., India,
E-mail: [email protected]

J. Koteswara Rao
Department of Botany, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, India

Sudip Ray
Department of Botany, PMB Gujarati Science College, Indore – 452001, Madhya Pradesh, India,
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]
T. V. V. Seetharami Reddi
Department of Botany, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

Manickam Tamil Selvi

Value Added Corporate Services Pvt. Ltd, Chennai – 600090, Tamil Nadu, India

R. L. S. Sikarwar
Arogyadham (J.R.D. Tata Foundation for Research in Ayurveda and Yoga Sciences),
Deendayal Research Institute, Chitrakoot, Dist. Satna (M.P.) – 485334, India,
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Ankanagari Srinivas
Department of Genetics, Osmania University, Hyderabad – 500007, Telangana, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
J. Suneetha
Department of Botany, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam – 530003, India

D. K. Ved
Centre of Repository of Medicinal Resources, School of Conservation of Natural Resources,
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Healthand Traditions, 74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Attur P.O.,
Via Yelahanka, Bangalore – 560106, India, E-mail: [email protected]

Vijay V. Wagh
Plant Diversity, Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR – National Botanical Research Institute,
Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow – 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India, E-mail: [email protected]
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science

AICRPE All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology
AIT Automated Identification Technology
ASU Ayurveda, Siddha, or Unani
AZ Azadirachtin
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CDER Centre for Drug Evaluation and Research
CDRI Central Drug Research Institute
CDSCO Central Drugs Standards Control Organization
CER comparative effectiveness research
CIMAP Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
CPI conservation priority index
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
DL Digital Library
DNTI drugs from nature targeting inflammation
EBKDL Ethnobotanical Knowledge Digital Library
EMA European Medicine Agency
EOLLS Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems
ESTs expressed sequence tags
Fic informant consensus factor
FL fidelity level
FSH follicle stimulating hormone
GAPs good agricultural practices
GC gas chromatography
GCP good clinical practice
GLP good laboratory practices
GMP good manufacturing practice
HTS high throughput screening
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
ISMs Indian Systems of Medicine
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
LC liquid chromatography
LCPI local conservation priority index
x List of Abbreviations

LH luteinizing hormone
MS mass spectrometry
NBA National Biodiversity Authority
NBRI National Botanical Research Institute
NCL National Chemical Laboratory
NGS next generation sequencing
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
NPM non-pesticidal management
PIC prior informed consent
PTGs particularly vulnerable tribal groups
RCT randomized clinical trials
RFC relative frequency of citation
RRL Regional Research Laboratories
SK scientific knowledge
ST scheduled tribals
TGA Therapeutic Goods Administration
TK traditional knowledge
TKDL Traditional Knowledge Digital Library
TKS traditional knowledge systems
UTs Union Territories
UV use value
WHO World Health Organization
PREFACE

Humans are dependent on plants for their food, medicines, clothes, fuel and
several other needs. Although the bond between plants and humans is very
intense in several ‘primitive’ cultures throughout the world, one should not
come to the sudden and wrong conclusion that post-industrial modern soci-
eties have broken this intimate bond and interrelationship between plants
and people. Rather than plants being dominant as in the ‘primitive’ societ-
ies, man has become more and more dominant over plants after the indus-
trial revolution, leading to over-exploitation of plants, and resulting in a
maladapted ecological relationship between the two. Hence a study of the
relationships between plants and people—ethnobotany—and, thus, between
plant sciences and social sciences, is central to correctly place humanity in
the earth’s environment. Because ethnobotany rightly bridges both of these
perspectives, it is always held as a synthetic scientific discipline that bridges
science and humanity.
Most people tend to think that ethnobotany, a word introduced by
Harshberger in 1896, is a study of plants used by ‘primitive’ cultures in
‘exotic’ locations of the world, far removed from the mainstream. People
also think wrongly that ethnobotany deals only with non-industrialized, non-
urbanized and ‘non-cultured’ societies of the world. Ethnobotany, in fact,
studies plant-human interrelationships among all peoples. However, since
indigenous non-Westernized societies form the vast majority of people now
as well as in the past a study of their interrelationships with people becomes
important. Tens of thousands of human cultures have existed in the past and
a number of them persist even today. They contain the knowledge system
and wisdom about the adaptations with nature, particularly with plants, for
their successful sustenance. Thus, ethnobotanical information is vital for the
successful continuance of human life on this planet.
Ethnobotany is of instant use in two very important respects: (i) provid-
ing vital ecological knowledge, and (ii) acting as a source for economically
useful plants. The first will help us to find solutions to the increasing environ-
mental degradation and the consequent threat to our biodiversity. In indig-
enous societies, biodiversity is related to cultural diversity and, hence, any
threat to biodiversity would lead to erosion of cultural diversity. Indigenous
xii Preface

cultures are not only repositories of past experiences and knowledge but
also form the frameworks for future adaptations. Ethnic knowledge on eco-
nomically useful plants has resulted in detailed studies on bioprospection for
newer sources of food, nutraceuticals, medicines and other novel materials
of human use. Bioprospecting has resulted in intense research on reverse
pharmacology and pharmacognosy. This has given rise to attendant prob-
lems relating to intellectual property rights, patenting and the sharing of the
benefits with the traditional societies who owned the knowledge. This has
also resulted in efforts to seriously document all types of traditional knowl-
edge of the different cultures of the world and to formalize the methods and
terms of sharing this traditional knowledge. It has also made us to know not
only what plants people in different cultures use and how they use them,
but also why they use them. In addition it helps us to know the biological,
sociological and cultural roles of plants important in human adaptations to
particular environmental conditions that prevailed in the past, and may pre-
vail in future.
This series of the five edited volumes on ethnobotany of different regions
of India tries to bring together all the available ethnobotanical knowledge
in one place. India is one of the most important regions of the Old World
which has some of the very ancient and culturally rich diverse knowledge
systems in the world. Competent authors have been selected to summarize
information on the various aspects of ethnobotany of India, such as eth-
noecology, traditional agriculture, cognitive ethnobotany, material sources,
traditional pharmacognosy, ethnoconservation strategies, bioprospection of
ethnodirected knowledge, and documentation and protection of ethnobotani-
cal knowledge.
The first volume was on Eastern Ghats and Adjacent Deccan Region of
Peninsular India, while the second one is on Western Ghats and Western
Peninsular India. Third volume is on North-East India and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, one of the hot spots of biodiversity. The fourth volume is
on Western and Central Himalayas. And the fifth volume is on The Indo-
Gangetic Region and Central India. Published information is summarized
on different aspects. We have added seven general chapters on ethnobotany
of neem, skin diseases, hepatoprotective plants, plant contraceptives, trade
in medicinal plants, ethnogenomics, ethnobotany of post-genomic horizons.
Our intention is that the information contained in this volume may lead in
the future to discovery many new drugs, nutraceuticals, novel molecules,
and other useful products for the benefit of mankind.
Preface xiii

Since it is a voluminous subject we might have not covered the entire

gamut but we have tried to put together as much information as possible.
Readers are requested to give their suggestions for improvement of future
volumes in this series.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our grateful thanks to all the authors who have contrib-
uted their chapters. We thank them for their cooperation and erudition. We
also thank several colleagues for their help in many ways and for their sug-
gestions from time to time during the evolution of this volume.
We wish to express our appreciation and help rendered by Ms. Sandra
Jones Sickels and her staff at Apple Academic Press. Above all, their profes-
sionalism that has made this book a reality is greatly appreciated.
We thank Mr. John Adams, Senior Research Fellow of Prof. K. V.
Krishnamurthy for his help in many ways.
We wish to express our grateful thanks to our respective family members
for their cooperation.
We hope that this book will help our fellow teachers and researchers
who enter the world of the fascinating subject of ethnobotany in India with
confidence.
—Editors
Ethnobotany of India 5-volume Series
Editors: T. Pullaiah, PhD, K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD, and Bir Bahadur, PhD

Volume 1: Eastern Ghats and Deccan

Volume 2: Western Ghats and West Coast of Peninsular India
Volume 3: North-East India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Volume 4: Western and Central Himalayas
Volume 5: The Indo-Gangetic Region and Central India
ABOUT THE EDITORS

T. Pullaiah, PhD
Former Professor, Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Andhra Pradesh, India

T. Pullaiah, PhD, is a former Professor at the Department of Botany at

Sri Krishnadevaraya University in Andhra Pradesh, India, where he has
taught for more than 35 years. He has held several positions at the univer-
sity, including Dean, Faculty of Biosciences, Head of the Department of
Botany, Head of the Department of Biotechnology, and Member, Academic
Senate. He was President of the Indian Botanical Society (2014), President
of the Indian Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy (2013), and Fellow of
the Andhra Pradesh Akademi of Sciences. He was awarded the Panchanan
Maheswari Gold Medal, the Dr. G. Panigrahi Memorial Lecture Award of
the Indian Botanical Society, the Prof. Y. D. Tyagi Gold Medal of the Indian
Association for Angiosperm Taxonomy, and a Best Teacher Award from
Government of Andhra Pradesh. He has authored 45 books, edited 15 books,
and published over 300 research papers, including reviews and book chap-
ters. His books include Flora of Eastern Ghats (4 volumes), Flora of Andhra
Pradesh (5 volumes), Flora of Telangana (3 volumes), Encyclopedia of World
Medicinal Plants (5 volumes), and Encyclopedia of Herbal Antioxidants (3
volumes). He was also a member of the Species Survival Commission of the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Professor Pullaiah
received his PhD from Andhra University, India, attended Moscow State
University, Russia, and worked as postdoctoral fellow during 1976–78.

K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD
Former Professor, Department of Plant Sciences,
Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli, India

K. V. Krishnamurthy, PhD, is a former Professor and Head of Department,

Plant Sciences at Bharathidasan University in Tiruchirappalli, India, and is
at present a consultant at Sami Labs Ltd., Bangalore. He obtained his PhD
xviii About the Editors

degree from Madras University, India, and has taught many undergraduate,
postgraduate, MPhil, and PhD students. He has over 48 years of teaching
and research experience, and his major research areas include plant mor-
phology and morphogenesis, biodiversity, floristic and reproductive ecol-
ogy, and cytochemistry. He has published more than 170 research papers and
21 books, operated 16 major research projects funded by various agencies,
and guided 32 PhD and more than 50 MPhil scholars. His important books
include Methods in Cell Wall Cytochemistry, Textbook of Biodiversity, and
From Flower to Fruit. One of his important research projects pertains to a
detailed study of the Shervaroy Hills, which form a major hill region in the
southern Eastern Ghats, and seven of his PhD scholars have done research
work on various aspects of Eastern Ghats. He has won several awards
and honors that include the Hira Lal Chakravarthy Award (1984) from the
Indian Science Congress; Fulbright Visiting Professorship at the University
of Colorado, USA (1993); Best Environmental Scientist Award of Tamil
Nadu state (1998); the V. V. Sivarajan Award of the Indian Association for
Angiosperm Taxonomy (1998); and the Prof. V. Puri Award from the Indian
Botanical Society (2006). He is a fellow of the Linnaean Society, London;
National Academy of Sciences, India; and Indian Association of Angiosperm
Taxonomy.

Bir Bahadur, PhD

Former Professor, Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal,
Telangana, India

Bir Bahadur, PhD, was Chairman and Head of the Department, and Dean
of the Faculty of Science at Kakatiya University in Warangal, India, and
has also taught at Osmania University in Hyderabad, India. During his long
academic career, he was honored with the Best Teacher Award by Andhra
Pradesh State Government for mentoring thousands of graduates and post-
graduate students, including 30 PhDs, most of whom went onto occupy
high positions at various universities and research organizations in India
and abroad. Dr. Bahadur has been the recipient of many awards and honors,
including the Vishwambhar Puri Medal from the Indian Botanical Society
for his research contributions in various aspects of plant Sciences. He has
published over 200 research papers and reviews and has authored or edited
dozen books, including Plant Biology and Biotechnology and Jatropha,
About the Editors xix

Challenges for New Energy Crop, both published in two volumes each by
Springer Publishers. Dr. Bahadur is listed as an Eminent Botanist of India,
the Bharath Jyoti Award, New Delhi, for his sustained academic and research
career at New Delhi and elsewhere. Long active in his field, he is a member
of over dozen professional bodies in India and abroad, including Fellow of
the Linnean Society (London); Chartered Biologist Fellow of the Institute of
Biology (London); Member of the New York Academy of Sciences; and a
Royal Society Bursar. He was also honored with an Honorary Fellowship of
Birmingham University (UK). Presently he is an Independent Director of Sri
Biotech Laboratories India Ltd, Hyderabad, India.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY,1 T. PULLAIAH,2 BIR BAHADUR,3
and S. JOHN ADAMS1
1
R&D – Phytochemistry and Pharmacognosy, Sami Labs Ltd,
Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
2
Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur –
515003, India, E-mail: [email protected]
3
Department of Botany, Kakatiya University, Warangal – 505009,
India, E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

Abstract..........................................................................................................2
1.1 Physical Features of the Study Region.................................................2
1.2 Climate and Ecology.............................................................................4
1.3 Land Use Patterns, Vegetation and Flora..............................................5
1.4 Ethnic Diversity....................................................................................6
1.5 Traditional Knowledge of Plants..........................................................7
1.6 Genomic and Post-Genomic Aspects of Ethnobotany........................12
1.7 Present Status and Future Prospects of Ethnobotany in India............13
References....................................................................................................16
2 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 5

ABSTRACT

The present chapter introduces the articles that form the content of volume
5 of Ethnobotany of India. This volume relates to the Indo-Gangetic plains
which form a vast area in northern India. This study region and its physical
features, land use patterns, vegetations and floristics are introduced first.
This is followed by an introduction to ethnic diversity of the region, Indus
valley civilization, one of the oldest civilizations of the world that saw the
emergence of great traditional knowledge on plants and utilitarian traditional
knowledge (on food, medicine, veterinary medicine and other useful items).
These are followed by introductions to chapters on plant contraceptives,
Ethnomedicinal plants of skin diseases, and liver diseases as well as on the
ethnobotany of neem. The importance of ethnogenomics and the develop-
ments that happened during the post –genomic period on ethnobotanical
research is also introduced. Finally the future aspects that need to be taken
on Indian ethnobotany are also discussed.

1.1 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE STUDY REGION

The Himalayas girdling the northern border, the flat Indo-Gangetic plains in
the middle, the peninsular India along with its hills and plateaus in the south
and the narrow coastal plains forming the seaboard are the major provinces
of India (Valdiya, 2010). The Indo-Gangetic plains are separated from the
Himalayas by the Siwalik or outer Himalayas and are one of the world’s
largest alluvial plains. These plains were built in the Holocene times by
the Brahmaputra, Ganges and Indus river systems and their tributaries and
extend 3,200 km from the southern limit of Brahmaputra-Ganges delta in
the east to the terminus of the Indus delta and the Rann of Kutch in the west.
The width of the plains varies from 90 km (in Assam) to 550 km (in Punjab).
In the Indus basin the alluvial gives way southeastwards to the Thar
Desert (with several sand dunes) that extends in Rajasthan and adjoining
Sindh region. The desert region is believed to represent the basin of the leg-
endary Saraswati River that got lost in the Later Holocene period. It is now
represented by the dry flood water-channels of the Ghaggar-Hakra-Nara
River. The average elevation of the Indo-Gangetic plains range from 150
m to 290 m. The underground extension of the Aravallis towards Haridwar
forms the boundary between Indus and Ganga plains. The Indus plain is
Introduction 3

predominantly the Khaddar expanse that is known as Chung in the Punjab.

This plain is fringed in the west by Piedmont Belt, which is 16–24 km wide.
Within the Indus plain the rivers and streams are confined the Luni river
forms an alluvial plain in the Arid part of long and 300 km wide, on the
foot of Aravalli hills, there are many saline lakes like Sambhar, Dadwana,
Degana, Lunkaransar, etc. (which turn into water bodies during rainy days)
(Valdiya, 2010).
The Ganges plain exhibits little variation in landscape or relief for sev-
eral hundred kilometers but may be relieved in some areas by bluffs, leaves
and abandoned channels, oxbow lakes and ravines, with occasional forma-
tions of Chars (Uplands) and Bhils or Jheels (Marshes and lakes). The main
Ganges Domain is in Uttar Pradesh with two distinct physiographic regions:
Older Alluvium comprising the Banda, Varanasi and Bhangar units of Coarse
sedimentary deposits and newer Alluvium comprising the Khaddar, Bhaur
and the Bhabhar units of gravelly sediments. The fans of rivers like Ganga,
Sharada, Gandak and Kosi continue to grow in size and thickness (Valdiya,
2010).
The central India has some important mountain ranges. The Aravalli
Range extends for more than 800 km from Palanpur in Gujarat to Delhi. This
is made up of the Proterozoic metasedimentary rocks intruded extensively
by granites. The general height is 400 to 600 m, although in the southwestern
segment it is more than 1,000 m. The highest peaks are Gurushikhar (1,722
m) near Mount Abu, Jaga (1431 m) and Bhorat (1,225 m), north-west of
Udaipur. Southwest of Udaipur the Aravalli bends in the southeast direction
and appears to link with the Satpura Hill range (Valdiya, 2010).
The Satpuras have similar rock types and belongs to the same age as that
of Aravallis. The average height of Satpura range is around 900 to 1,000 m.
It has seven hills: Rajpipla hills, Mahadeo hills, Maikal hills, Ranchi hills,
Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya hills and Malaygiri hills. The highest peaks are
Amarkantak in Maikal hills, (1,127 m), Dhungarp in Mahadev hills (1,350
m) and Astambatongar (1,127 m). The rivers associated with this hill range
are Narmada (flowing west), Son (flowing north) and Mahanadi (flowing
southeast). The Vindhya hill in Madhya Pradesh has a several elevation of
300 to 650 m. The most important are Kaimur in the north the Bhainu in the
south. It is made up of Proterozeric sedimentary rocks. The rivers associated
with the hills are Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken (Valdiya, 2010).
The narrow seaboard on the western side of the study region comprises
of the Makran coast, where the margin of the Indus deltaic plain is made up
4 Ethnobotany of India, Volume 5

of an arcuate zone of older tidal deposits (Valdiya, 2010). The Rann of Kutch
is located on the east-southwest of this deltaic plain; this is a salt-impreg-
nated and encrusted tidal flat (350 km long and 150 km wide) that remains
inundated by sea waters during the monsoon months. It was once connected
to the Gulf of Khambhat through the Nalsarovara shallow, brackish water
lake east of Saurastra. The estuaries in this coast cover an area of 3,76,000
hectares (Valdiya, 2010).
The seaboard on the east is characterized dominantly by Sundarban delta,
a combined product of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. This delta forms
the head of the Bengal Basin. It is just about 3–20 m m.s.l. The delta is
characterized by abandoned channels, lakes and swamps and tidal flats. The
Arakan coast is a narrow rocky belt and is characterized by a steep rocky
shore overlooking the 600 m high Arakan Yoma. Many rocky bays and small
beaches are found here. Very small rivers like Mayor, Kaladam, and Lemro
are found and these make a 70 km wide coastal plain in the Akyab region.
The total area of estuaries in the West Bengal coast is around 4,05,000 hect-
ares (Valdiya, 2010).

1.2 CLIMATE AND ECOLOGY

The present-day ecology of the Indo-Gangetic plain is dominated to a very

large extent by the influence of the Himalayas located on its northern side,
as well as by the increasing pressure of the growing human population, par-
ticularly due to rapid urbanization and industrialization (Mani, 1974). This
is also the region which has been under intensive and continuous agricultural
activity for the last five to six thousand years and hence deforestation has
been complete, at least in the plains. Even during the Moghul period Uttar
Pradesh was fairly densely forested (up to 16th Century CE) and was used for
hunting wild animals in the doabs of Yamuna and Ganges rivers. Whatever
secondary vegetation that occupied the cleared forested regions, it was
markedly xeromorphic and scrub-savanna-like with many thorny elements.
Of the 11 biogeographical zones recognized in India, this region con-
tains four: desert, semi-arid, plains and coasts. The plain is somewhat more
humid and receives more rainfall in its eastern part than in its western part.
The average rainfall ranges from >500 mm to <3000 mm depending upon
the region (Sudhakar Reddy et al., 2015). However, in the last 50 years arid
conditions are extending eastwards. Ecologically and biogeographically the
Another random document with
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 By half-past seven the Tecumseh was well up with the fort, and
drawing slowly by the Tennessee, having her on the port beam,
when she suddenly reeled to port and went down, with almost every
soul on board, destroyed by a torpedo. Commander Craven, in his
eagerness to engage the ram, had passed to the west of the fatal
buoy. If he had gone but the breadth of his beam to the eastward of
it, he would have been safe, so far as the torpedoes were
concerned.
This very appalling disaster was not immediately realized by the
fleet. Some supposed the Tennessee had been sunk, or some signal
advantage gained over the enemy, and cheers from the Hartford
were taken up and echoed along the line. But the Admiral, from his
lofty perch, saw the true state of things, and his anxiety was not
decreased when the leading ship, the Brooklyn, just ahead of him,
suddenly stopped. Hailing the top, above him, he asked Freeman,
the pilot, “What is the matter with the Brooklyn? She must have
plenty of water there.” “Plenty, and to spare, Admiral,” the pilot
replied. Alden had seen the Tecumseh suddenly engulfed, and the
heavy line of torpedoes across the channel made him pause.
The Brooklyn then began to back; the vessels in the rear pressing
on those in the van soon created confusion, and disaster seemed
imminent. “The batteries of our ships were almost silent,” says an
eye-witness, “while the whole of Mobile Point was a living flame.
 Farragut Entering Mobile Bay.

“What’s the trouble?” was shouted, through a trumpet, from the

flag-ship to the Brooklyn. “Torpedoes!” was shouted back, in reply.
“Damn the torpedoes!” said Farragut “Four bells! Captain Drayton,
go ahead! Jouett, full speed!” And the Hartford passed the Brooklyn,
assumed the head of the line, and led the fleet to victory. It was the
one only way out of the difficulty, and any hesitation would have
closed even this escape from a frightful disaster. Nor did the Admiral
forget the few poor fellows who were struggling in the water when
the Tecumseh went down, but ordered Jouett, of the Metacomet, to
lower a boat and pick them up. This was done, the boat being
commanded by a mere boy, an Acting Master’s mate, by the name of
Henry Clay Nields, a native of Chester County, Pennsylvania, who
lately died, a Lieutenant-Commander. This gallant fellow and his
small boat’s crew pulled coolly into a perfect flurry of shot and shell,
and while doing so (remembering the standing orders about boats
showing flags), he coolly got his out and hoisted it, and then took his
seat again, and steered for the struggling survivors of the Tecumseh.
This was as conspicuous an act of gallantry as was performed on
that eventful day.
A Confederate officer, who was stationed in the water battery at
Fort Morgan, says the manœuvring of the vessels at this critical
juncture was a magnificent sight. At first they appeared to be in
inextricable confusion, and at the mercy of their guns, and when the
Hartford dashed forward, they realized that a grand tactical
movement had been accomplished.
The Hartford had passed nearly a mile ahead before the line could
be straightened, but the vessels were soon able to pour in a storm of
shell, shrapnel and grape, that completely silenced the batteries; not,
however, before they had all suffered more or less. The Oneida,
having the most exposed position, at the rear of the column, was
severely handled. The wisdom of lashing the vessels two-and-two
was now manifest; for this ship, though in a helpless condition, was
easily towed along by her consort, the Galena, with the flood-tide.
The Admiral’s theory, “that the safest way to prevent injury from an
enemy is to strike hard yourself,” was exemplified in his warning to
his captains, to run close to Fort Morgan, and use shell, shrapnel
and grape freely. It is said that the Richmond and Brooklyn were
saved from destruction at the time the line was being straightened,
by the rapid broadsides of shrapnel which those ships poured into
the water battery. The aim of the artillerists on shore was
disconcerted by the dense smoke which enveloped the ships, and
they were driven from their guns by the rapid firing. An officer who
was in the engagement remarks, that it was “painfully apparent,
judging from the number of shot that passed over the rail of my ship,
that a few yards to the west would have increased the damage and
casualties.”
As soon as the Hartford had crossed the torpedo-ground and was
steaming rapidly up the channel, Buchanan, on the Tennessee, saw
the blue flag of Farragut. He made a dash to ram the latter’s flag-
ship, but failed to do so, the ships merely exchanging shots. By this
time the Brooklyn and Richmond had passed safely over the
obstructions, and were following in the wake of the Hartford. The
Tennessee now turned her attention to the Brooklyn, making for her
starboard bow; but when within about one hundred yards of that
ship, she starboarded her helm and passed within two hundred feet
of her, pouring in a broadside which went through and through her,
doing great damage. Passing on, she attempted the same
manœuvre with the Richmond, the next in line, apparently first
attempting to ram, and then sheering off. Captain Jenkins saw her
approaching, and placed marines on the forecastle, with orders to
fire into the great ram’s ports whenever the iron shutters opened, at
the same time giving orders to use solid shot in his heavy guns, and
to aim at the Tennessee’s water-line. The two vessels passed each
other at their best speed.
Whether from the rapidity of the movement or the precaution taken
by Captain Jenkins to disconcert the aim of the gunners, the
Tennessee’s shot passed over the Richmond.
She also missed the Lackawanna, but the fire from her heavy
guns created sad havoc when they struck, while the shot from the
Union fleet failed to make any impression on her mailed sides.
Captain Strong, in the Monongahela, now attempted to ram her,
but she avoided the blow, and the two vessels collided at an acute
angle, the ram swinging alongside of the Monongahela’s consort, the
Kennebec, whose sharp cutwater sheared her barge in two. A shell
from the Tennessee exploded on the Kennebec’s berth-deck, and
came near setting her dangerously on fire; but, by the cool conduct
of the officers, confidence was quickly restored.
The ram then attacked the crippled Oneida, running under her
stern and delivering two broadsides in rapid succession, destroying
her boats and dismounting a twelve-pound howitzer upon her poop.
Captain Mullany was severely wounded at this time, after having
escaped injury off the forts, where he had borne so heavy a fire.
The Tennessee then returned to her anchorage under the guns of
Fort Morgan.
As soon as he was clear of the fire of the forts, Farragut had
turned his attention to the enemy’s gun-boats. Their heavy raking fire
had been a source of great annoyance. One shot from the Selma,
alone, had killed ten men and wounded five. After the fleet had
passed the obstructions these vessels had continued the contest,
keeping up with the leading ships and exchanging shots, thus
separating themselves widely from the Tennessee.
 Soon the Gaines was in a sinking condition, and her commander
ran her aground, under the guns of Fort Morgan, where she was
afterwards set on fire.
A few minutes after she had quitted the fight, the Selma and
Morgan, seeing the hopelessness of the encounter, also retreated,
the former up the bay, and the latter down towards Navy Cove, some
distance to the eastward.
It was then that the Admiral made the signal, “Gunboats chase
enemy’s gunboats.” In a moment the Metacomet had cut the
lashings which confined her to the flagship, and was off.
The Metacomet was the fastest of all the smaller vessels, and so it
came that she engaged the Morgan. Just then firing was interrupted
by a thick rain-squall. During the squall the Morgan, as was learned
afterwards, grounded upon a long spit which runs out for about a
mile from Navy Cove.
In the meantime the Metacomet, Port Royal, Kennebec, and Itasca
had started after the Selma, and the Metacomet captured her, three
or four miles up the bay. The Morgan backed off the shoal, and
proceeded to Fort Morgan; and that same night, under a starlit sky,
her captain, Harrison, made a hazardous but successful retreat up to
Mobile, being pursued and fired at by several of the Union gun-
boats.
Farragut’s fleet now came to anchor about three miles up the bay,
with anchors hove short. They had scarcely done so when they saw
the ram Tennessee steering directly for the flag-ship. Buchanan had
anticipated Admiral Farragut, for the latter had intended to attack the
ram the moment it was dark enough for the smoke to prevent Page,
the commander of the fort, from distinguishing friend from foe. He
had already made a plan to go in with the three monitors, himself in
the Manhattan, and board her, if it was found feasible. He now
accepted the situation, and signalled the fleet to “attack the ram, not
only with their guns, but bows on, at full speed.”
The Monongahela was under way at the time, and Strong
immediately dashed off for the ram at full speed; but the Tennessee
paid no attention to her, merely putting her helm aport, which caused
the Monongahela to strike her obliquely. The ram also fired two shots
at the Monongahela, which pierced her through and through, while
Strong’s shot glanced harmlessly from her sloping sides.
The Chickasaw at this time hit the ram with a solid bolt, which
merely penetrated her armor, without doing serious damage.
The next vessel to bear down on the Tennessee was the
Lackawanna, and she suffered more than the ram. She had a fair
stroke at her, and stove her bow in for some feet above and below
the water-line, while the shock to the Tennessee was slight, and she
quickly righted, and moved steadily for the Hartford. The latter now
took the aggressive, and, following in the wake of the Lackawanna,
struck the ram a fearful blow, and then poured in a broadside, but all
without effect.
The ram had one great advantage. She was surrounded by
enemies, and could fire continually, while the Union vessels had to
use the utmost care not to fire into or collide with one another. This
did happen to the flag-ship, just as she was preparing to attack a
second time, for the Lackawanna ran into her, and cut her down
nearly to the water’s edge.
In the meantime the monitors, Manhattan, Winnebago and
Chickasaw, had been pounding the ram with their heavy shot, and
her steering apparatus and smoke-stack were shot away, and her
port-shutters jammed, while one 15-inch shot had found a weak
spot, and penetrated her armor. Admiral Buchanan was wounded,
and the Tennessee showed a white flag and surrendered.
The success was complete, but had cost the Union fleet three
hundred and thirty-five men.
Of one hundred and thirty souls in the Tecumseh, seventeen were
saved, and one hundred and thirteen drowned. The other casualties,
fifty-two killed and one hundred and seventy wounded, were
distributed as follows: Hartford, twenty-five killed, twenty-eight
wounded; Brooklyn, eleven killed, forty-three wounded; Lackawanna,
four killed, thirty-five wounded; Oneida, eight killed, thirty wounded;
Monongahela, six wounded; Metacomet, one killed, two wounded;
Ossipee, one killed, seven wounded; Richmond, two slightly
wounded; Galena, one wounded; Octorara, one killed, ten wounded;
Kennebec, one killed, six wounded.
 Knowles, the Signal Quartermaster already mentioned, says that
the Admiral came on deck just as the poor fellows who had been
killed were being laid out on the port side of the quarter-deck. He
says, “It was the only time I ever saw the old gentleman cry, but the
tears came in his eyes, like a little child.”
The losses among the enemy’s vessels were confined to the
Tennessee and Selma—ten killed and sixteen wounded. The loss in
the forts is not known.
Next morning Farragut published the following:—

(GENERAL ORDER No. 12.)

United States Flag-ship Hartford,
Mobile Bay, August 6, 1864.
“The Admiral returns thanks to the officers and crews of the
vessels of the fleet for their gallant conduct during the fight of
yesterday.
“It has never been his good fortune to see men do their duty with
more courage and cheerfulness; for, although they knew that the
enemy was prepared with all devilish means for our destruction, and
though they witnessed the almost instantaneous annihilation of our
gallant companions in the Tecumseh by a torpedo, and the slaughter
of their friends, messmates and gun-mates on our decks, still there
were no evidences of hesitation in following their Commander-in-
chief through the line of torpedoes and obstructions, of which we
knew nothing, except from the exaggerations of the enemy, who had
given out, ‘that we should all be blown up as certainly as we
attempted to enter.’
“For this noble and implicit confidence in their leader, he heartily
thanks them.
“D. G. Farragut,
“Rear-Admiral Commanding W. G. B. Squadron.”
The gallantry of Acting Ensign Nields, in going to the rescue of the
survivors of the Tecumseh has been alluded to. In connection with
that lamentable event it is related that when the monitor was going
down, Commander Craven and the pilot, whose name was Collins,
met at the foot of the ladder leading to the top of the turret; Craven,
knowing that it was through no fault of the pilot, but by his own order,
that the course had been changed to the other side of the buoy,
stepped back, saying, “After you, Pilot.” “There was nothing after
me,” said Mr. Collins, in relating the event, “for when I reached the
top round of the ladder the vessel seemed to drop from under me.”
Among those who went down with Craven was Chief Engineer
Faron, who rose from a sick bed, in the hospital at Pensacola, to go
on board the Tecumseh.
Admiral Farragut highly complimented Fleet-Surgeon Palmer, for
certain extra service. It happened that the Admiral’s steam barge
came into the bay, under the port side of the Seminole. Fleet-
Surgeon Palmer, having attended to the wounded on board the flag-
ship, and leaving them in the hands of his assistants, wished to visit
the wounded of the other vessels, and the Admiral gave him the
steam barge. He had just shoved off when the Tennessee was seen
steaming for the Hartford. The Admiral beckoned to Palmer, just
before he made the general signal, and desired him to “go to all the
monitors, and tell them to attack that Tennessee.” Afterwards he
wrote to Dr. Palmer, and expressing some opinions in regard to war
duty, says, * * * “I am happy to say that, from my own experience,
war is the time when I have always found the medical officers ready
and willing to do their duty without regard to personal risk.” * * *
When a shot perforated the starboard boiler of the Oneida,
scalding thirteen men, one gun’s crew wavered for a moment as the
steam rushed out, but, at the order of Commander Mullany, “Back to
your quarters, men!” they instantly returned to their gun. Mullany
soon after lost his arm, and was wounded in several other places.
The incident of Farragut’s being lashed aloft has created much
controversy. The fact of his being lashed in the futtock shrouds was
shown in a picture by Page, which was afterwards presented to the
Emperor of Russia. The fact was, that the Admiral did not remain
long anywhere. While the fleet was entering the bay, he was in the
port main rigging, where he was secured by Knowles, the
Quartermaster, as has been mentioned. But when the ram made her
attack he had come down on deck, and, as the Hartford was about to
ram the Tennessee, he got into the port mizzen rigging, where, as
his Flag-Lieutenant, J. Crittenden Watson, says, “I secured him by a
lashing passed with my own hands, having first begged him not to
stand in such an exposed place.”
Surgeon General Palmer writes: “The Richmond waved to me as I
passed in the Loyall (the steam-barge), and told me that Admiral
Farragut had partly signalled for me to return, which I did
immediately. When I got near enough to the Hartford, the Admiral
himself hailed, and directed me to go on board the captured ram and
look after Admiral Buchanan, who was wounded. It was difficult,
even from a boat, to get on board the Tennessee, and I had to make
a long leap, assisted by a strong man’s hand. I literally scrambled
through the iron port, and threaded my way among the piles of
confusion, to a ladder, by which I mounted to where Admiral
Buchanan was lying, in a place like the top of a truncated pyramid.
Somebody announced me, and he answered (tone polite, but
savage) ‘I know Dr. Palmer;’ but he gave me his hand. I told him I
was sorry to see him so badly hurt, but that I should be glad to know
his wishes. He answered, ‘I only wish to be treated kindly, as a
prisoner of war.’ My reply was, ‘Admiral Buchanan, you know
perfectly well you will be treated kindly.’ Then he said, ‘I am a
Southern man, and an enemy, and a rebel.’ I felt a little offended at
his tone, but rejoined carefully that he was at that moment a
wounded person and disabled, and that I would engage to have his
wishes fulfilled. As to the present disposal of his person, that Admiral
Farragut would take him on board the Hartford, or send him to any
other ship he might prefer. He said he didn’t pretend to be Admiral
Farragut’s friend, and had no right to ask favors of him, but that he
would be satisfied with any decision that might be come to. Dr.
Conrad, lately an assistant Surgeon in our Navy, told me he was
Fleet-Surgeon, and desired to accompany Buchanan wherever he
might go. (It had been proposed by Dr. Conrad to amputate the
injured leg of the Confederate Admiral, but Palmer dissented from
his opinion, and declined to have the operation performed, and for
his skillful management of the case received grateful
acknowledgments, in after life, from Buchanan.) “I promised that he
should, and returned to the Hartford, and reported to Admiral
Farragut, circumstantially. This generous man seemed hurt at
Buchanan’s irritated feeling, and said he (Buchanan) had formerly
professed friendship for him. I saw there must be some
embarrassment in bringing them together, and therefore proposed
that I should have a steamer to take all the wounded to Pensacola,
and another one to send all ordinary invalids to New Orleans.”
To carry out this suggestion Farragut addressed a note to
Brigadier-General R. L. Page, commanding Fort Morgan (formerly of
the United States Navy), informing him that Admiral Buchanan and
others of the Tennessee had been wounded, and desiring to know
whether he would permit one of our vessels, under a flag of truce, to
convey them, with or without our wounded, to Pensacola, on the
understanding that the vessel should take out none but the
wounded, and bring nothing back that she did not take out. This was
acceded to, and all the wounded sent.
In his official report to the Navy Department, Admiral Farragut,
after awarding praise to many of the officers, mentioning them by
name, says, “The last of my staff to whom I would call the attention
of the Department is not the least in importance. I mean Pilot Martin
Freeman. He has been my great reliance in all difficulties, in his line
of duty. During the action he was in the main-top, piloting the ships
into the bay. He was cool and brave throughout, never losing his
self-possession. This man was captured, early in the war, in a fine
fishing-smack, which he owned, and though he protested he had no
interest in the war, and only asked for the privilege of fishing for the
fleet, yet his services were too valuable to the captors, as a pilot, not
to be secured. He was appointed a first-class pilot, and has served
us with zeal and fidelity, and has lost his vessel, which went to
pieces on Ship Island. I commend him to the Department.”
The importance of Farragut’s success was fully appreciated, both
North and South, while an English Service paper named him as “the
first naval officer of the day, as far as actual reputation, won by skill,
courage and hard fighting, goes.”
General Granger’s troops, after Forts Gaines and Powell had
surrendered, had been transferred to the rear of Fort Morgan, and
that work was invested on August 9th.
Page was summoned to surrender, but firmly refused, and seemed
disposed to hold out stubbornly. It then became a question of time.
Troops were poured in, heavy siege guns placed in position, and the
investing lines drawn closer and closer. Even the captured
Tennessee’s formidable battery was turned against the fort. A battery
of four nine-inch Dahlgren guns, manned by seamen from the fleet,
and under the command of Lieutenant Tyson, of the Navy, also took
part in the siege. General Granger, in his report of the operations,
compliments them highly, not only for their faithful work “in getting
their guns into the difficult position selected for their batteries,” but
for “their distinguished skill and accuracy during the bombardment.”
After a furious cannonade, on August 22d, which was gallantly
responded to by Morgan, that fort surrendered unconditionally on the
23d.
The total number of prisoners captured in the defences of Mobile
was one thousand four hundred and sixty-four, with one hundred and
four guns.
Mobile forts being once secured, Farragut next turned his attention
to the dangerous work of taking up torpedoes, twenty-one of which
were picked up in the main ship channel, from which many beside
had been swept away, and many had sunk.
On September 1st despatches arrived from the North, marked
‘Important.’ These proved to be from the Navy Department, warning
him not to attempt an attack upon the Mobile defences unless he
was sure that he had a sufficient force, as powerful reinforcements
would be sent to him as soon as possible. We can imagine his
satisfaction in looking round him, and feeling that the work was done.
In his congratulatory letter to Admiral Farragut, Secretary Welles
said: “In the success which has attended your operations, you have
illustrated the efficiency and irresistible power of a naval force led by
a bold and vigorous mind, and the insufficiency of any batteries to
prevent the passage of a fleet thus led and commanded.
“You have, first on the Mississippi, and recently in the bay of
Mobile, demonstrated what had been previously doubted, the ability
of naval vessels, properly manned and commanded, to set at
defiance the best constructed and most heavily armed fortifications.
In these successive victories you have encountered great risks, but
the results have vindicated the wisdom of your policy and the daring
valor of your officers and seamen.”
 The further operations about the City of Mobile need not be gone
into.
Farragut’s health had somewhat failed, with the strain of the
previous two years’ work and a long stay in the Gulf climate, and he
was ordered home in November, 1864. Upon his arrival in New York
great preparations were made for his reception, and formal
congratulations were presented to him from the City of New York; the
Chamber of Commerce, and other bodies.
On December 22d a bill creating the rank of Vice-Admiral was
introduced into Congress, and passed both houses. On the 23d the
President signed it, and named Farragut for the office, which
nomination was immediately confirmed by the Senate.
On July 25th, 1866, Congress passed a law creating the grade of
Admiral, which had never before existed in our Navy, and, as a
matter of course, the office was immediately conferred upon
Farragut.

LE SOLFERINO (à Eperon), 1865.

(First-class French Ironclad, with Ram.)
 Thus was gratified his most legitimate ambition. When there was a
talk of making him a candidate for the Presidency he said, “I am
greatly obliged to my friends, but am thankful that I have no ambition
for anything but what I am, an Admiral.”
 CUSHING AND THE ALBEMARLE. OCTOBER,
1864.

he Sounds and waters of North Carolina were early

the scenes of important enterprises by the
combined Army and Navy of the United States.
The Hatteras forts, Roanoke Island, Newbern,
Plymouth and other places were early captured,
some of them after regular actions. A position was
gained from which the important inland
communication was threatened, which was vital to
the Confederacy, while the commerce of the
Sounds was entirely put a stop to.
It was important for them to regain what they had
lost, and to this end they put forth every effort.
Among other means they commenced and
hastened to completion a formidable iron-clad vessel. In June, 1863,
Lieutenant-Commander C. W. Flusser, an excellent and thoroughly
reliable officer, had reported that a battery was building at Edward’s
Ferry, near Weldon, on the Roanoke River, to be cased with pine
sills, fourteen inches square, and plated with railroad iron. The
slanting roof was to be made of five inches of pine, five inches of
oak, and railroad iron over that.
Unfortunately, the light-draught monitors, which should have been
on hand to meet this vessel, turned out failures, and the light wooden
gun-boats and “double enders” employed in the Sounds had to
encounter her. She was accompanied by a ram, which the Union
fleet had no vessel fit to meet.
In April, 1864, the Albemarle being completed, the Confederates
were ready to carry out their plan of attack, which was first to
recapture Plymouth, by the assistance of the ram, and then send her
into Albemarle Sound, to capture or disperse our fleet. A force of ten
thousand men, which they had collected, made an advance, and
gained possession of the town.
Lieutenant-Commander Flusser was then at Plymouth, with four
vessels, the Miami, a “double-ender,” and three ferry-boats, armed
with nine-inch guns, and exceedingly frail in structure, called the
Southfield, Ceres and Whitehead. At half-past nine, on the evening
of April 18th, he wrote to Admiral Lee that there had been fighting
there all day, and he feared the enemy had had the best of it. “The
ram will be down to-night or to-morrow. * * * I shall have to abandon
my plan of fighting the ram lashed to the Southfield. * * * I think I
have force enough to whip the ram, but not sufficient to assist in
holding the town, as I should like.”
Six hours after writing this, Flusser lay dead upon the deck of his
ship.
Very early on the morning of the 19th of April the Whitehead,
which had been stationed up the river, reported that the ram was
coming down.
The Whitehead was in a critical position when she discovered the
ram, for she was between her and a rebel battery. Some
obstructions had been placed to stop the Albemarle, but she passed
them easily. A narrow passage or “thoroughfare” led down to
Plymouth beside the main channel, and the Whitehead managed to
run into this, unperceived by the ram, and so got down ahead of the
Confederate vessel, which did not attack until half-past three in the
morning. When the ironclad was seen coming down, the Miami and
Southfield were lashed together, and Flusser, from the Miami,
ordered them to meet her, at full speed.
The Albemarle came on silently, with closed ports, and struck the
Miami a glancing blow on her port bow, doing some damage, but
causing no leak. She then crushed the side of the Southfield, so that
she at once began to sink. As she passed between the two vessels,
the forward lashings parted, and the Miami swung round. The after
lashings were cut, and, after a number of the Southfield’s men had
succeeded in reaching the Miami that vessel steamed off down the
river, leaving her consort to sink. The officer left in command by
Flusser’s death thus speaks of this unfortunate affair:—
 “As soon as the battery could be brought to bear upon the ram,
both steamers, the Southfield and Miami, commenced firing solid
shot from the 100-pound Parrott rifles and 11-inch Dahlgren guns,
they making no perceptible indentations in her armor. Commander
Flusser fired the first three shots from the Miami personally, the third
being a ten-second Dahlgren shell, 11-inch. It was directly after that
fire that he was killed by pieces of shell; several of the gun’s crew
were wounded at the same time. Our bow hawser being stranded,
the Miami then swung round to starboard, giving the ram a chance to
pierce us. Necessity then required the engine to be reversed in
motion, to straighten the vessel in the river, to prevent going on the
bank of the river, and to bring the rifle-gun to bear upon the ram.
During the time of straightening the steamer the ram had also
straightened, and was making for us. From the fatal effects of her
prow upon the Southfield, and of our sustaining injury, I deemed it
useless to sacrifice the Miami in the same way.”
 LIEUT. CUSHING’S TORPEDO BOAT SINKING THE ALBEMARLE ON
ROANOKE RIVER, N. C.

The gun-boats being driven off, the Confederates captured

Plymouth on April 20th. As it was expected that the Albemarle would
at once enter the Sound, and attack the squadron there, all possible
preparations were made to meet her.
Four of the squadron were “double enders,” the Miami,
Mattabesett, Sassacus and Wyalusing. The smaller vessels were the
Ceres, Commodore Hull, Seymour and Whitehead. They were all
armed with 9-inch guns and 100-pound rifles.
The Senior Officer in the Sounds, Captain M. Smith, ordered the
large vessels to pass as close as possible to the ram, delivering their
fire, and rounding to immediately for a second discharge. He also
suggested the vulnerable points of the ram, and recommended that
an endeavor be made to foul her propeller, if possible.
He also directed, among other things, that a blow of the ram
should be received as near the stern as possible, and the vessel
rammed was to go ahead fast, to prevent her from withdrawing it,
while the others attacked the propeller. If armed launches
accompanied the ram they were to be met by the smaller vessels,
with shrapnel, when approaching, and hand grenades when near. He
leaves the question of ramming to each commander, on account of
the peculiar construction of the “double-enders.”
Small steamers were placed on picket, at the mouth of the
Roanoke, and on the 5th of May the ram made its appearance, and
chased the picket boats in. Signals were made, and the vessels got
under way, and stood up to engage the ironclad. The Albemarle was
accompanied by a small steamer which she had captured not long
before. At about half-past four in the afternoon the Albemarle opened
the battle by a shot which destroyed a boat and wounded several
men on board the Mattabesett. The second shot damaged the same
vessel’s rigging. By this time the Mattabesett was very near the little
steamer, which immediately surrendered. The Mattabesett then gave
the ram a broadside, at about one hundred and fifty yards, then
rounded to under her stern, and came up on the other side. Her shot
either broke, or glanced off the ram’s armor, without any effect. She
had the muzzle knocked off of one of her two guns, by a shot from
the ram, but continued to use it during the remainder of the action.
The Sassacus came gallantly on, in like manner, delivering her fire
at the Albemarle. The latter then attempted to ram the Sassacus, but
the latter crossed her bows, by superior speed.
At this time the ram had partially turned, and exposed her side to
the Sassacus, when the wooden double-ender rushed at her, under
full steam, in hope of either crushing in her side, or of bearing her
down until she should sink. The Sassacus struck the ironclad fairly,
and received, at the same moment, a 100-pounder rifle shot, which
went through and through her. She struck the Albemarle a heavy
blow, careening her, and bearing her down till the water washed
across her deck.
The Sassacus kept her engines going, in the attempt to push the
ram down, while many efforts were made to throw hand grenades
down her deck hatch, and powder down her smoke stack, but
without success, as there was a cap upon the stack.
 Soon the ram swung round, and as soon as her guns would bear,
another 100-pound rifle shot went through the side of the Sassacus,
through her coal bunker, and crashed into her starboard boiler.
Instantly the whole ship was filled with steam, which scalded and
suffocated her crew. All her firemen were scalded, and one was
killed; and twenty-one men were instantly placed hors de combat.
She was forced to withdraw from action.
The other gun-boats continued the fight, and the Miami
endeavored to explode against the ram a torpedo which she carried.
But the Albemarle was skillfully handled, and succeeded, each time,
in avoiding the blow. Two of the other gun-boats endeavored to foul
the propeller of the ram by laying out seines in her track. Although
the nets seemed all about her, she escaped them. An observer from
the shore has likened this curious scene to a number of wasps
attacking a large horny beetle.
In fine, the Albemarle proved invulnerable to the guns of the gun-
boats, even when discharged almost in contact with her sides.
The action lasted for three hours, or until night came on.
Everything that brave men could do to destroy the enemy it was their
duty to encounter was done by the gun-boats, but the ironclad went
back to Plymouth without serious damage, and without the loss of a
man, after being the target, at short range, for more than two
hundred shot from 11-inch and 9-inch guns, and more than one
hundred shot from 100-pounder rifles.
The gun-boats, other than the Sassacus, were very much
damaged, and it was plain that they were unfit to meet the
Albemarle, however ably handled or gallantly fought.
The ram came out again on the 24th of May, but did not enter the
Sound, apparently fearing torpedoes. The next day a party left the
Wyalusing in a boat, with two torpedoes, to endeavor to destroy the
Albemarle, as she lay at Plymouth.
They carried the torpedoes across the swamps on a stretcher, and
then two of the party swam across the river with a line, and hauled
the torpedoes over to the Plymouth shore. These were then
connected by a bridle, so that they should float down and strike on
each side of the ram’s bows. Unfortunately, they were discovered,
and the plan failed.
 Lines of torpedoes were then placed at the mouth of the Roanoke,
to destroy the ram if she should come down again, and as this
proceeding could not be kept secret, the ironclad did not again
venture down. She lay quietly at Plymouth until the latter part of
October, a constant threat to our fleet in the Sounds, and preventing
any attempt to recapture the town. She was very securely moored to
a wharf, and a guard of soldiers was placed on board, in addition to
her crew.
Every night fires were made on shore, to prevent the approach of
an enemy unseen. More than this, she was surrounded by large
logs, moored some thirty feet from her hull, all round, to keep off any
boat which might approach with a torpedo. From the mouth of the
Roanoke to where the Albemarle lay is about eight miles, and the
stream there about two hundred yards wide.
The banks were well picketed by the enemy.
About a mile below Plymouth was the sunken wreck of the
Southfield, and about her were some schooners, which also formed
a picket-station in mid-stream.
It seemed impossible for a boat to get up the river and not be
discovered, and yet Lieutenant William B. Cushing, of the United
States Navy, not only undertook to do so, but succeeded in
destroying this formidable craft, “the terror of the Sounds.”
Admiral Ammen, of the Navy, has given a capital sketch of
Cushing, in the United Service Magazine, from which we shall
borrow freely.
“William B. Cushing was born in Wisconsin, in November, 1842,
and entered the Naval Academy in 1857, but resigned in March,
1861, entering the naval service afloat, as an Acting Master’s Mate.
His disposition and temperament would not permit him to remain at a
naval school in time of war, as he would not have been able to give a
single thought to theoretical study.
“In October, 1861, he was restored to his rank as Midshipman, and
on the 16th of July following he was, with many other young officers,
made a Lieutenant, owing to the exigencies of the service growing
out of the civil war.
“Henceforth, for nearly three years, his career was singularly
conspicuous in deeds of daring, in a service where a lack of gallantry