A&I Diesel Fuels and Fuel Systems LEBW4976-11

Diesel Fuels
and Fuel Systems

Application & Installation Guide
LEBW4976-11
Caterpillar: Confidential Green
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Diesel Fuels & Fuel Systems
Table of Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6
1.1 References.............................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Changes since last revision..................................................................................... 6
2 Diesel Fuels ................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Grades of common diesel fuel................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Low grade ........................................................................................................ 7
2.1.2 High Grade ....................................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) ........................................ 8
2.2 Diesel fuel types ...................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Crude oil ........................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Residual oil or blended heavy fuel oil (HFO) .................................................... 8
2.2.3 Distillate Fuel .................................................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Marine diesel oil ............................................................................................... 9
2.3 Diesel fuel characteristics...................................................................................... 11
3 Diesel Fuel Selection ................................................................................................. 13
4 Diesel Fuel Systems .................................................................................................. 14
4.1 MUI fuel system .................................................................................................... 15
4.2 MEUI fuel system .................................................................................................. 15
4.3 HEUI fuel system .................................................................................................. 16
4.4 Common rail fuel system ....................................................................................... 16
4.5 ACERT technology................................................................................................ 17 TABLE OF CONTENTS
5 Diesel Fuel System Design Considerations................................................................ 18
5.1 Fuel storage systems ............................................................................................ 18
5.1.1 Main fuel tank ................................................................................................. 18
5.1.2 Auxiliary fuel tanks ......................................................................................... 19
5.1.3 Fuel service tank or day tank.......................................................................... 20
5.1.4 Fuel head limiting tank ................................................................................... 23
5.1.5 Base mounted tanks....................................................................................... 23
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5.2 Fuel tank design considerations ............................................................................ 23
5.2.1 Fuel tank sizing .............................................................................................. 23
5.2.2 Fuel tank material ........................................................................................... 23
5.2.3 Fuel tank installation....................................................................................... 23
5.2.4 Fuel tank drains .............................................................................................. 24
5.2.5 Fuel tank grounding........................................................................................ 24
5.2.6 Fuel tank maintenance ................................................................................... 24
5.3 Fuel transfer systems ............................................................................................ 25
5.3.1 Fuel transfer pumps – engine driven .............................................................. 25
5.3.2 Fuel transfer pumps – auxiliary ...................................................................... 26
5.3.3 Fuel transfer pumps – emergency .................................................................. 27
5.4 Fuel piping design considerations ......................................................................... 28
5.4.1 Fuel supply piping .......................................................................................... 28
5.4.2 Fuel return piping ........................................................................................... 28
5.4.3 Purging ........................................................................................................... 29
5.4.4 Siphoning and check valves ........................................................................... 29
5.4.5 Material .......................................................................................................... 29
5.4.6 Sizing ............................................................................................................. 29
5.4.7 Routing ........................................................................................................... 30
5.5 Fuel filtration systems ........................................................................................... 30
5.5.1 Filter micron ratings ........................................................................................ 31
5.5.2 Primary fuel filter element specification .......................................................... 32
5.5.3 Duplex fuel filters ............................................................................................ 32
5.6 Water separation ................................................................................................... 33
5.6.1 Centrifuges ..................................................................................................... 34
6 Miscellaneous Fuel System Considerations ............................................................... 37
6.1 Fuel temperature ................................................................................................... 37
6.2 Fuel coolers .......................................................................................................... 37
6.3 Fuel heaters .......................................................................................................... 38
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6.4 Partial load operation ............................................................................................ 39

6.5 Burning used crankcase oil ................................................................................... 39
6.6 Continuous blending ............................................................................................. 41
7 Fuel Conservation Practices ...................................................................................... 42
Appendix A – Day Tank Sizing (when day tank serves as a heat sink) ............................... 43
A.1 Day Tank Calculations .......................................................................................... 44
A.2 Day Tank Thermal Capacity Calculation ............................................................... 44
Appendix B – Crude Oil Fuel .............................................................................................. 55
B.1 Pretreatment of Crude Oils.................................................................................... 55
B.2 Crude Oil Maintenance Intervals ........................................................................... 57
B.3 Crude Oil Settling Tanks ....................................................................................... 57
Appendix C – C175 Emergency Standby Gen Set Start Assurance Requirements ............ 60
C.1 Supply and return line design ................................................................................ 60
C.2 Tank Design .......................................................................................................... 61
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction
This section of the Application and Installation Guides describes diesel fuels, their
characteristics and grades, and alternate fuels that may be used in a diesel engine. It also
describes various diesel fuel systems used on Cat® engines, plus information about storage
tanks, transfer systems, piping, and ancillary systems associated with the diesel fuel
system. Additional engine systems, components, and dynamics are addressed in other
sections of the Application and Installation Guides.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or applicable for
every engine. Consult the applicable engine model price list and/or parts reference guide
for information on specific model option availability or compatibility.
1.1 References
The following sources may provide additional information regarding subjects covered in this
guide.
▪ REHS4726 – Special Instruction
▪ SEBD0717 – Diesel Fuels and Your Engine
▪ SEBU6251 – Cat Commercial Diesel Engine Fluids Recommendations
▪ SEBU7003 – 3600/C280 Diesel Engine Fluids Recommendations for Lubricants,
Fuels, and Coolants
▪ REHS0104 – Guidelines for 3600/C280 Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) Engines
▪ SENR9620 – Improving Component Durability: Fuel Systems
1.2 Changes since last revision

▪ Edited Figure B.2 to correct wording on Kerosene spec.
INTRODUCTION

2 Diesel Fuels
Diesel fuel quality is an important factor in satisfactory engine life and performance. Fuels
must provide adequate combustion without producing excess contaminates that can harm
the engine. Additionally, fuel selection involves economic and environmental considerations.
The availability of certain grades of diesel fuels may be cost prohibitive or inappropriate for
various applications. This Application and Installation Guide provides information on the
various diesel fuel oil types and how they relate to Cat engine installations.
2.1 Grades of common diesel fuel

A variety of fuel oils, also known as middle distillates, is marketed for use in diesel engines.
Their properties and performance depend upon the refining practices employed and the
nature of the crude oils from which they are produced. Because of constituents in the oil,
some crude oils are naturally suited for refinement into high-grade fuels while others are
best used for lower-grade fuels. Similarly, high-grade fuels, low-grade fuels and the various
grades between them provide choices for the most suitable fuel for any given installation.
Note: The use of very high-grade or very low-grade fuel oils often requires modification to
the fuel system and special consideration of additional costs that may be encountered.
Contact your Cat dealer for information regarding the use of these fuel types.
2.1.1 Low grade

Low-grade fuels produce a higher heat value which translates into more engine power, but
they also produce more contaminates that could negatively impact engine-life. Additionally,
the use of low-grade fuel oil in diesel engines often produces darker exhaust and a more
pronounced odor. These attributes may be objectionable in hospital, office, commercial or
urban settings and require the use of a higher-grade fuel.
The high sulfur content often found in low-grade fuels causes corrosion, wear and deposits
in the engine. Fuels that are not volatile enough or don’t ignite rapidly may leave harmful
deposits in the engine and may cause poor starting or running under adverse operating
conditions. The use of low-grade fuels may require the use of high priced, higher detergent
DIESEL FUELS
lubricating oils and more frequent oil changes to yield appropriate performance and engine
life.
2.1.2 High Grade

High-grade fuels burn cleaner, but have a lower heat value, which yields slightly less power.
Aviation jet fuels and kerosene are considered high-grade fuels and seldom contribute to

the formation of harmful engine deposits and corrosion. Other attributes of high-grade fuels
include the benefits of faster engine starting and less frequent overhauls, and the drawback
of reduced lubricity.
2.1.3 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

Due to the different engine applications, designs, and sizes, standards for the limits of fuel
properties have been set by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
Utilizing the correct fuel for the engine will minimize wear of the injection system, allowing
easier starting and improve component service life.
Experience has proven that distillate fuels meeting basic specifications will result in optimum
engine performance and durability. Depending on fuel costs and availability, the proper use
of alternative fuels such as crude oil, blended oil, or residual oil can also provide cost
competitive engine operation.
2.2 Diesel fuel types

2.2.1 Crude oil
The term crude oil is used to describe petroleum-based oils/fuels that are not yet refined.
They are essentially in the same state as when they were pumped from the earth.
Certain types of crude oils can be burned in Cat engines. In some cases, crude oil is a
practical and economical fuel for diesel engines. Crude oils are evaluated individually and
special equipment may be needed to condition the fuel. Minimum guidelines have been
established to determine the suitability of crude oils as shown in Appendix 2.
2.2.2 Residual oil or blended heavy fuel oil (HFO)

Residual fuel (which resembles tar and contains abrasive and corrosive substances) is
composed of the remaining elements from crude oil after the crude has been refined into
diesel fuel, gasoline, or lubricating oil.
After the more desirable products have been refined, residual fuel can be combined or
diluted with a lighter fuel to produce a mixture that can flow. This mixture is called blended
DIESEL FUELS
or heavy fuel. Heavy fuels tend to create more combustion chamber deposit formations
which can cause increased cylinder and ring wear.
Blending may improve fuel density; however, adding alcohol (ethanol, methanol) or gasoline
causes an explosive atmosphere in the tank and is not recommended.

Cat 3600/C280 diesel engines, in general EPG applications only, can be modified to run on
blended fuels, but extreme PREVENTIVE MEASURES MUST BE TAKEN, including
following a thorough maintenance program and use of high quality fuel treatment
equipment. For any other applications including marine, petroleum, industrial, etc., that
require the burning of blended fuels, MaK Engines should be considered.
Blended fuel can lower fuel cost, but there are often significant tradeoffs. Fuel price must be
weighed against the following:
▪ Fuel containment effects
▪ Reduced engine component life
▪ Higher maintenance and personnel costs
▪ Reduced warranty
2.2.3 Distillate Fuel

Distillate fuels are refined from crude oil and are commonly referred to as diesel fuel,
furnace oil, gas oil, or kerosene.
2.2.4 Marine diesel oil

Many different names are used for marine diesel fuels, which can often cause a
misunderstanding. Four types of marine diesel fuel are generally recognized and available
at bunkering ports around the world. However, not all of the types are available at every
station.
2.2.4.1 Gas Oil
This is a light distillate fuel which does not contain any residual fuel. Gas oil is
approximately ASTM No. 1 diesel fuel.
2.2.4.2 Marine diesel
This is a distillate fuel that boils at a higher temperature than gas oil. The fuel varies from
ASTM No. 2 diesel fuel to ASTM No. 4 diesel fuel. The composition can vary within the
following range: ASTM No. 2 diesel fuel, No. 2 that is contaminated with heavier fuel in the
bottom of the tanker, and No. 2 that is blended with as much as 20 % residual fuel.
DIESEL FUELS
2.2.4.3 Blended fuel oil

This is a blend of distillate and residual fuel. This fuel is blended to the viscosity that is
requested by the operator or the engine manufacturer. Blended fuel is not recommended for
use in Cat engines that are configured to use distillate fuel.

2.2.4.4 Residual fuel

This is residue from the distillation of crude oil in a refinery. DO NOT use residual fuel in Cat
engines that are configured to use distillate fuel.
2.2.4.5 Aircraft jet fuels and kerosene-type fuels
Aircraft jet fuels and kerosene type fuels may be used as a diesel engine fuel provided they
meet acceptable limits. Adequate viscosity, particularly with kerosene type fuels is a major
concern. For Cat engine fuel systems, a minimum viscosity of 1.4 cSt at 38°C (100°F) is
required at the engine transfer pump to properly lubricate fuel system components.
Kerosene type fuels have lower energy content than diesel fuels and therefore will produce
less peak power output and/or will require more fuel volume to do an equivalent amount of
work.
2.2.4.6 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a fuel that can be made from a variety of sources. Soybean oil and rapeseed oil
are the primary sources, but alternate base stocks may include animal tallow, waste cooking
oil, or a variety of other feedstocks.
In original forms, these oils are not suitable for use as a fuel in compression engines; they
must first be esterified. Without esterification, these oils will gel in the crankcase and the fuel
tank.
2.2.4.7 Pyrolysis fuels
A particular family of renewable/alternative fuels, known as pyrolysis fuels, are typically
NOT suitable for use in in modern diesel engines. Pyrolysis fuels can be obtained from
various resources including wood, used tires, plastic, etc. Pyrolysis fuels in their raw form do
not meet all the requirements in Table 1, "ASTM D975" and/or "EN 590"specifications.
These fuels have to be upgraded in order to produce a hydrocarbon product that meets all
requirements defined in these specifications. Upgrading can include fractionation to remove
volatiles, hydro-desulfurization, hydrotreating etc.
Where the pyrolysis fuel is obtained from wood, our experience has been that the liquid
DIESEL FUELS
obtained contains high oxygen content (>10%), has high acidity (pH~1) and does not meet
distillation, lubricity, and cetane requirements.
Use of this fuel is likely to lead to severe impairment and wear in the fuel system. Suitable
upgrading would likely involve, at a minimum, hydro-deoxygenation, fractionation and other
hydrotreating.

Where the pyrolysis fuel is obtained from waste plastic, experience has shown the
distillation, lubricity, cetane, and sulfur requirements are not met. Use of this fuel is likely to
lead to impaired function of the fuel system and aftertreatment systems. Suitable upgrading
would likely involve, at a minimum, fractionation and desulfurization and other hydrotreating.
Upgraded pyrolysis fuels that meet Cat Diesel Fuel specification in Table 1, “ASTM D975”
and/or “EN 590” specifications can be considered for use in Cat diesel engines. Refer to this
special publication for guidelines and requirements for fuels acceptable in Cat engines.
Refer to your Cat dealer for questions.
2.2.4.8 Ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD)
Ultra low sulfur diesel represents distillate fuels with ≤15 ppm sulfur. It has been developed
to reduce particulate engine emissions.
2.3 Diesel fuel characteristics

The following information describes the basic fuel characteristics and their relation to engine
performance.
▪ Cetane Number: Index of ignition quality determined by comparing with fuels used as
standards for high and low cetane numbers. The higher the cetane number is the
shorter the ignition delay period which affects warm-up, combustion, cold start, and
exhaust smoke density.
▪ Sulfur: Sulfur is an element that occurs naturally in all crude oils, and when burned in
the combustion chamber, can form oxides of sulfur. These can react with water
vapor to create sulfuric acid, which can cause severe engine damage. High sulfur
content requires usage of high Total Base Number (TBN) oils or shortening of the oil
change periods.
▪ Gravity: An index of weight of a measured volume of fuel. Lower American
Petroleum Institute (API) ratings indicate heavier fuel containing greater heat
content.
▪ Viscosity: A time measure to resistance of flow. High viscosities cause poor fuel
atomization thereby decreasing combustion efficiency. Low viscosity may not provide
adequate lubrication to fuel system components.
DIESEL FUELS
▪ Distillation: This involves heating crude to relatively high temperatures. Vapor drawn
at various temperatures produce fuels of different types. Lighter fuels, such as
gasoline, are drawn off first and heavier fuels last. It has an influence on viscosity of
the fuel and the BTU content, which affects exhaust and smoke, starting and power
output.

▪ Flash Point: Lowest temperature at which fuel will give off sufficient vapor to ignite
when flame is applied.
▪ Pour Point: Is the temperature which is 3°C (5°F) above the temperature where the
fuel just fails to flow or turns solid.
▪ Cloud Point: The temperature at which a cloud or a haze appears in the fuel. This
will happen when the temperature falls below the melting point of waxes or paraffins
that occur naturally in petroleum products.
▪ Water and Sediment: Percentage by volume of water and foreign material removed
by centrifuging.
▪ Carbon Residue: Percentage by weight of dry carbon remaining when fuel is burned
until no liquid remains.
▪ Ash: Percentage by weight of dirt, dust, sand, and other foreign matter remaining
after combustion.
▪ Corrosion: A polished copper strip is immersed in fuel for three hours at 50°C
(122°F). Fuel imparting more than slight discoloration is rejected.
DIESEL FUELS

3 Diesel Fuel Selection

Fuel should always be selected based on the requirements set forth in the Engine specific
Operation and Maintenance Manual. The information and charts below are for reference
only. The fuels recommended for use in Cat diesel engines are normally No. 2-D diesel fuel
and No. 2 fuel oil, although No. 1 grades are also acceptable. The tables below list the
worldwide fuel standards which meet Caterpillar requirements.
Figure 3.1 Worldwide fuel standards accepted for Cat diesel engines
Standard Name Description

American ASTM D975 No. 1-D & No. 2-D diesel fuel oils
ASTM D396 No. 1 & No. 2 fuel oils
ASTM D2880 No. 1-GT & No. 2-GT gas turbine fuels
British BS 2869 Classes A1, A2, & B2 engine fuels
BS 2869 Classes C2 & D burner fuels
West German DIN 51601 Diesel fuel
DIN 51603 Heating oil EI
Australian AS 3570 Automotive diesel fuel
Japanese JIS K2204 Types 1(spl), 1, 2, 3, & 4(spl) gas oil
U.S. Government W-F-800C DF-1, DF-2 Conus, & DF-20 Conus diesel fuel
W-F-815C FS-1 & FS-2 burner fuel oil
U.S. Military MIL-L-16884G Marine oil
DIESEL FUEL SELECTION

Figure 3.2 Jet fuel and kerosene fuels accepted for Cat diesel engines
Name Description
ASTM D1655-80 Aviation turbine fuel (JET A-1)
MIL-T-5624L Aviation turbine fuel (JP-5)
NATO Code No. F-44
MILT-T-83133B Aviation turbine fuel (JP-8)
NATO Code No. F-34

4 Diesel Fuel Systems

The fuel system on a diesel engine is a highly specialized set of components which must
deliver the correct amount of fuel to the cylinder at the precise moment it is needed. A well-
designed fuel system enables the engine to produce maximum power at maximum
efficiency with a minimum of exhaust emissions.
Today’s diesel injectors must develop very high injection pressures to function with modern
high compression ratio engine designs. They must also control the start and duration of
injection within milliseconds to perform at the level demanded by engine customers. These
precision injectors require an adequate supply of clean, stable fuel for proper operation.
This requirement in turn demands careful attention to the fuel storage and handling systems
specified for each installation.
This section discusses the various fuel systems available on current Cat diesel engines,
details the numerous fuel storage and handling system options available for diesel fuels,
and outlines the advantages, disadvantages, and special considerations which accompany
each system.
The basic fuel system, common to all Cat diesel engines, includes an engine driven fuel
transfer pump, a secondary fuel filter, unit fuel injectors and a fuel pressure regulator.
Optional Caterpillar supplied fuel system components include flexible hoses, a manual fuel
priming pump, and a duplex primary fuel strainer.
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMs
Figure 4.1 Schematic of a basic diesel fuel system

The engine driven transfer pump delivers fuel to the unit injectors via the secondary fuel
filter. The pump is equipped with a pump-mounted safety valve and the fuel flow at rated
rpm is listed in the technical data and varies with engine speed.
The unit injector, either mechanically or hydraulically actuated, combines the functions of
pumping, metering, and injecting into a single unit. It is located near the center of the
combustion chamber in each cylinder head, between the rocker arms. External manifolds
supply fuel from the transfer pump to the injectors, eliminating the need for high pressure
fuel lines. Fuel continuously circulates through the injectors, and the excess fuel that is not
used for combustion cools the injectors and is returned to the fuel tank via the pressure
regulating valve. This excess fuel also aids in the purging of air from the system.
The fuel delivery pressure to the injectors is controlled by a pressure regulating valve. The
pressure regulator must be adjusted at the installation site in order to provide the proper fuel
pressure to the injectors.
The manual fuel priming pump is recommended if no electrical priming pump is available.
The manual pump helps to bleed air from the fuel piping before initial engine operation and
following engine maintenance such as filter element changes and injector replacement.
Caterpillar also recommends the use of a duplex primary fuel filter prior to the engine driven
fuel transfer pump. This filter is available from Caterpillar via custom quote. When used, the
duplex primary fuel filter is installed, remotely from the engine, in the fuel transfer pump
suction piping.
4.1 MUI fuel system

The mechanically actuated and controlled unit injectors (MUI) use the engine camshaft and
push rods to generate fuel injection pressure, and a mechanical linkage system to control
the amount of fuel injected into the cylinders. The mechanical linkage system connects the
governor to the fuel rack, which allows the fuel rate to the engine to be controlled in relation
to the varying engine loads. DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS
4.2 MEUI fuel system

The mechanically actuated electronically controlled unit injectors (MEUI), formerly known as
Electronic Unit Injectors (EUI), also use the engine camshaft and push rods to generate fuel
injection pressure, but use an electronic control module (ECM) to control the amount of fuel
injected into the cylinders. A solenoid on each injector receives voltage signals from the
ECM to become energized. The injectors will inject fuel only while the injector solenoid is
energized.

The ECM controls the amount of fuel that is injected by varying the signals that are sent to
the injectors. By controlling the timing and the duration of the voltage signal, the ECM can
control injection timing and the amount of fuel that is injected.
4.3 HEUI fuel system

The hydraulically actuated electronically controlled unit injectors (HEUI) use a hydraulic
pump and engine oil to generate fuel injection pressure, and an ECM to control the pressure
and amount of fuel injected into the cylinders.
The operation of the HEUI fuel system is completely different from any other type of fuel
system that is actuated mechanically. The HEUI fuel system is completely free of
adjustment. Changes in performance are made by installing different software in the ECM.
4.4 Common rail fuel system

Unlike the MEUI fuel system, in a common rail fuel system injection pressure is created
external to the unit injectors in a high-pressure fuel pump which is driven off the engine. The
pump pressurizes a high-pressure fuel manifold that runs along both sides of the engine,
feeding high pressure fuel to the injectors. The electronic fuel injectors at each cylinder
control the delivery and timing of the fuel injection(s). Similar to some other systems, the
common rail fuel system has capability of multiple injections for a given combustion event.
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMs
Figure 4.2 Schematic of a common rail diesel fuel system

The main components of a common rail system include the high-pressure pump, the high-
pressure lines and rail system, and the injectors. The low-pressure fuel system utilizes
similar components to the unit injector fuel system.
The common rail fuel system does not continually circulate fuel through the entire system
like the unit injector fuel system. Instead, small amounts of fuel are bypassed during the
injection event. Due to the very high pressure in the fuel manifold, more heat is put into the
fuel than on previous systems. Because of the additional heat added to the fuel, it is critical
that the fuel inlet temperature is maintained within guidelines provided for the engine model.
Recommended, and sometimes required, is the use of a fuel cooler to maintain the
appropriate inlet fuel temperature. Otherwise, the overheated fuel will have very low
viscosity and film strength which makes the fuel system components, especially the
injectors, more susceptible to damage from fuel contaminants and wear, hence the
importance of proper filtration practices on common rail engines.
4.5 ACERT technology

Caterpillar ACERT Technology improves diesel engine performance. This technology
provides precise control over a range of combustion variables, which can be regulated to
produce higher performance with fewer emissions. This technology works with the MEUI,
HEUI and Common Rail fuel systems.
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

5 Diesel Fuel System Design Considerations

Diesel fuel supply systems must ensure continuous and clean supply of fuel to the engine’s
fuel system. The recommended diesel fuel supply system typically has three major
components: a fuel storage system, a fuel transfer system, and a fuel filtration system. The
three component systems provide clean operating fuel to the engine.
5.1 Fuel storage systems

Bulk fuel is usually stored in large main storage tanks and transferred to smaller auxiliary
tanks (service tanks or day tanks) near engines by electric motor-driven pumps. If auxiliary
tanks are not necessary, the main fuel tank must provide a ready fuel supply to the engine-
mounted transfer pump.
Figure 5.1 Installation example with main and auxiliary fuel tanks
SYSTEM DESIGN
5.1.1 Main fuel tank

The main fuel tank represents the primary fuel reservoir in all applications, and must have
adequate capacity for the intended application. Rule of thumb for tank size is to find the fuel
consumption rate at 100% load factor (depending on application: prime, stand-by, etc.) and
multiply it with the number of hours between refills. Fuel consumption rates are shown on
the technical data sheets for the specific engine. Additionally, 10% should be added to the

result; 5% for expansion at the top of the tank, and 5% for sediment settlements at the
bottom.
Example:
A power plant with one (1) 3516B diesel generator set, rated for 1145 bkW (1560 bhp) at
100% load. The fuel rate for the engine is 284 L/hr (75 gal/hr) as found in TMI.
The time between tank refills is based on weekly fuel tanker truck deliveries, so refill time is
168 hours.
Solution:
Tank vol. = 284 x 168 x 1.1 = 52,583 L
Tank vol. = 75 x 168 x 1.1 = 12,600 gal
5.1.2 Auxiliary fuel tanks

Note: Additional clarification is needed for C175. Reference TMI and the Special Instruction
REHS4726.
Auxiliary fuel tanks, service tanks and day tanks are secondary fuel tanks located between
the main fuel tank and the engine. These tanks are required in the following situations.
▪ The main fuel tank is located on the same level but more than 15 m (50 ft) away.
▪ The main fuel tank is located 3.7 m (12 ft) or more below the engine.
▪ The main fuel tank is located above the engine fuel injectors.
Any of the above conditions can cause unsatisfactory engine starting and operation. The
purpose of an auxiliary tank is to relieve the fuel pressure “head” from the fuel transfer pump
and injection equipment for efficient fuel flow.
A manual fuel priming pump, offered as an attachment, or an electric motor-driver boost
pump may allow operation under conditions more severe than those previously described;
SYSTEM DESIGN
but where starting dependability is required, Caterpillar recommends the use of an auxiliary
fuel tank.
Auxiliary tanks offer convenient and ready fuel storage while providing a settling reservoir
for water, sediment, and sludge.

Figure 5.2 Typical auxiliary fuel tank
5.1.3 Fuel service tank or day tank

Auxiliary tanks such as fuel service tanks or day tanks can be quite simple. They usually
consist of a small metal tank, either floor or wall mounted, in the immediate vicinity of the
engine. The tank is usually sized to hold approximately eight hours of fuel, based on the
engine’s fuel consumption rate at full load.
SYSTEM DESIGN
Refilling can be accomplished by gravity, a hand pump, or with a motor-drive pump. Motor-
drive pumps can be either manually or automatically controlled. For convenience and
safety, automatic control is usually employed using a float-actuated electric motor driven
pump. The refilling pump can be positioned either at the auxiliary tank or at the main tank
outlet. The performance capability of the pump must be considered during placement.

Features of the auxiliary tank should include the following.

▪ Fill line - Located above the high fuel level, with outlet baffled to prevent agitation of
sediment in the tank.
▪ Delivery line - Located near the bottom but not so low as to pick up collected
sediment or condensation.
▪ Return line - To carry excess fuel back to the auxiliary tank. Should have its outlet
baffled for the reason described above.
▪ Overflow line - Allows excess fuel to return to the main tank in event of overfilling of
the auxiliary tank.
▪ Vent line - Allows air pressure to equalize as tank is drained or filled (vent cap should
be located away from open flame or sparks).
▪ Drain valve - Allows removal of condensate and sediment.
▪ Sight glass or float-type gauge - Provides a positive check on fuel level.
To prevent damage to the fuel filter housings, the return line should have no valves or
restrictions to allow dangerous pressure buildups.
Flexible rubber hoses, used as fuel return lines, should be supported to prevent closing off
over time due to weight of the hose and fuel. Hard fuel lines prevent this problem, but a
flexible connection is still required to isolate vibration between the line and the tank.
A nonflammable tank mounting will maximize fire protection.
The overflow line should be at least two pipe sizes larger than the fill line. To simplify engine
maintenance, a shut-off valve in the supply line is useful.
The delivery line, carrying the fuel to the engine-mounted fuel transfer pump, and the return
line, carrying excess fuel back to the tank, should be no smaller in size than the respective
fittings on the engine.
Larger fuel supply and return lines ensure adequate flow if the fuel tank supplies multiple
engines over 9 m (30 ft.) away from the tank or when temperatures are low. Consult general
dimension drawings for the sizes for each model.
SYSTEM DESIGN
It is important that the fuel return line is sloped down to the tank with no traps or
obstructions in the line. If this is not done, the fuel system is prone to air-lock with
consequent hard-starting.
The auxiliary tank should be located in a manner that places the level of the fuel (when the
tank is full) no higher than the injection valves. On electronic unit injector fuel systems,
excessive static pressure on the fuel system can cause fuel to leak from the injectors,

leading to fuel dilution of the engine oil. If the injection valves were to leak, this excessive
static pressure could also allow fuel to enter the combustion chambers. The capability of the
fuel transfer pump must be taken into account such that the total of the pumping effort to lift
the fuel (with the tank volume at the “low” level) plus the restriction losses in the transfer line
remains less than the fuel pump’s maximum suction lift capability. In fact, a lower total for
this (pumping work plus line restriction) will produce better starting, so a design goal would
be to minimize this total. Place a float valve or solenoid valve in this type of day tank to
regulate the fuel level to keep it below the level of the injectors.
Note: For C175 installations that are set up such that excess fuel from the engine returns to
the main tank and also require the fuel supply day tank to be located higher than the main
tank, a check valve may be required to be installed in the return line to prevent fuel drainage
and loss of prime. Reference REHS4726.
SYSTEM DESIGN
Figure 5.3 Typical fuel head limiting tank

5.1.4 Fuel head limiting tank

If overhead mounting is unavoidable, include an open/close solenoid shut off valve in the
supply line and a 3.45 kPa (0.5 psi) check valve in the return line. Be sure return restriction
does not exceed 350 kPa (51 psi) at speed and load.
5.1.5 Base mounted tanks

Base mounted day tanks are sometimes used to provide a convenient and close source of
fuel with adequate capacity for four to eight hours of operation. While minimizing the floor
space needed for fuel storage, the height of the engine will increase significantly with this
option designed to ease maintenance.
Fuel returning to the main tank may, because of its volume, aid with cooling, but returning to
the day tank is permissible.
5.2 Fuel tank design considerations

5.2.1 Fuel tank sizing
The fuel tank is typically one of the least expensive items in an installation, and it is wise to
provide too much, rather than too little, storage capacity. However, while the minimum
required capacities of fuel tanks can be estimated, as outlined in the previous discussion of
fuel tanks, some applications may need to meet the requirements of outside organizations,
such as the U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) or National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA).
5.2.2 Fuel tank material

Fuel tanks made from low carbon rolled steel are best.
Caution: Zinc, either in the form of plating or as a major alloying component, should not be
used with diesel fuels. Zinc is unstable in the presence of sulfur, particularly if moisture is
present in the fuel. The sludge formed by chemical action is extremely harmful to the
engine’s internal components.
SYSTEM DESIGN
5.2.3 Fuel tank installation

Large capacity storage tanks allow bulk purchases and minimize dirt contamination.
Maintaining full tanks reduces condensation, particularly if fuel is seldom used.
Tanks may be above or below ground level, but high fuel level generally should not exceed
the engine injector’s height. This prevents possible fuel leakage into cylinders.

Above ground tanks provide accessibility, allowing for easy draining of impurities and
reducing the danger of ground water contamination.
Underground tanks allow the earth to work as an insulator, limiting radical temperature
changes which can cause flow restrictions, condensation, and possible power loss.
Seasonal settlings are also avoided when burying the tank below frost line. In underground
tanks, the water must be removed by pumping through a tube placed down the fill pipe.
Regulations governing the installation and maintenance of both above and below ground
fuel tanks may apply.
Locate storage tank fill tubes for convenience and safety of filling operations. Vents are
necessary to relieve air pressure created by filling and prevent vacuum as fuel is consumed.
5.2.4 Fuel tank drains

All fuel tanks should have easily accessible drain connections. Water and sediment that
collects in the bottom of the tank must be eliminated regularly. Provide cleanout openings
for periodical removal of sediment and trash that settles out of fuel tanks. Well-designed
tanks have large enough clean-out openings so the lowest part of the fuel tank can be
accessed with cleaning equipment.
5.2.5 Fuel tank grounding

Fuel tanks, both bulk and auxiliary, need to be grounded. This is to improve personal safety
and reduce the fire hazard of sparks discharged from static electricity build-up during
refueling operations. If the auxiliary tank is mounted to the base of the engine, it will be
grounded at the same time as the engine. If the fuel tank is placed away from the engine,
the tank must be grounded separately.
5.2.6 Fuel tank maintenance

Fuel has a storage life of approximately one year. This period may vary widely depending
upon initial fuel quality, contaminant levels, and storage conditions. To remove water, scale,
and bacteria growth, periodic exchange of fuel and filtering/treating is recommended to
SYSTEM DESIGN
extend fuel life. Water contamination of fuel during long-term storage provides a medium
for bacterial growth, forming a dark slime which:
▪ Plugs filters
▪ Deposits on tank walls and pipes
▪ Swells rubber products that it contacts

Sulfur compounds are natural antioxidants, so low sulfur fuels (0.05 percent by weight)
degrade quicker in storage.
Diesel fuels oxidize and form gums and varnishes which can plug fuel filters and injectors.
Because microorganism growth occurs in the fuel/water layer, the tank should be designed
to minimize this interface, and water bottoms should be drained regularly. Microbiocide
additives, either water or fuel soluble, can be added to fresh fuel to inhibit microorganism
growth. Consult your local fuel supplier for recommended additives.
In warm climates, large bulk storage diesel fuel requires full filtering every six months to one
year. Every two years the fuel should be completely changed to remove water, scale,
bacteria growth, oxidized gums/resins, and minimize filter clogging due to fuel separation
into components such as asphaltenes.
5.3 Fuel transfer systems

Note: For C175 installations please review REHS4726.
The diesel engine fuel supply, delivery, and governing systems are designed to deliver
clean fuel in the precise quantity and time needed to produce the required engine
performance.
All connection lines, valves and tanks should be thoroughly cleaned before making final
connections to the engine. The entire fuel system external to the engine should be flushed
prior to connection to engine and startup.
Caterpillar supplies the engine with a transfer pump and the secondary filter. The customer
must provide the primary filter and, if needed, an auxiliary transfer pump. The auxiliary
transfer pump is required when the distance, vertically or horizontally, between the day tank
and engine exceeds the requirements discussed in Auxiliary Fuel Tanks.
5.3.1 Fuel transfer pumps – engine driven

Cat engine-mounted transfer pumps are positive displacement gear-type or piston-type
pumps, with a limited prime and lift capability.
SYSTEM DESIGN
The pump lifts the fuel by displacing air from the suction pipe to the discharge pipe. Low
pressure (vacuum) develops in the suction pipe and atmospheric pressure [101 kPa (14.5
psi) at sea level] moves the fuel into the vacuum. However, a perfect vacuum cannot be
maintained, and the maximum that a pump can lift is about 5 m (17 ft).

Cat fuel pumps’ prime and lift capability is 3.7 m (12 ft), but pipe size, routing, and ambient
temperature will impact this capability.
To determine if a pump can perform the required lift, the following items must be
considered.
1. The vertical distance from the tank to the pump. The distance should be measured
from the inlet pump port of the pump to the bottom of the tank.
2. Internal piping system losses reduce the lifting capability. This is based primarily on
the size and the total length of the pipes, but also includes the various fittings and
valves. As the temperature goes down the resistance goes up. The internal losses
can be estimated using the Piping System Basic Information section of the
Application & Installation Guide.
3. Elevation has a big impact on the pump’s lifting capability. As described above the
atmospheric pressure is helping the fuel into the vacuum, but as the elevation gets
greater, the atmospheric pressure decreases and the available lift will also decrease.
Refer to the table in Figure 5.4.
Note: This table does not apply to C175. Reference instructions in REHS4726.
Figure 5.4 Table of reference values for lift versus elevation
Elevation Atmospheric Pressure Available Lift

meters feet kPa Psi meters feet
0 0 101.3 14.7 5.18 17.0
305 1000 98.0 14.2 4.87 16.0
610 2000 93.8 13.6 4.70 15.5
915 3000 90.3 13.1 4.57 15.0
1220 4000 86.9 12.6 4.40 14.5
1525 5000 83.4 12.1 4.26 14.0
SYSTEM DESIGN
1830 6000 80.7 11.7 4.10 13.5
5.3.2 Fuel transfer pumps – auxiliary

An auxiliary transfer pump is required when the service tank or day tank is located further
away, horizontally or vertically, than the engine driven pump’s lift capability.

Special considerations must be given to the auxiliary transfer pump when dealing with
electronic engines and the 3500 engine family. Refer to technical data for the engine's fuel
pump capacity to determine sizing auxiliary fuel transfer pumps.
A primary filter must be installed before the auxiliary pump and as close as possible to the
tank.
Note: For C175, primary fuel filters are standard.
In many cases, the auxiliary pump will be driven by an electric motor and therefore needs a
regulator valve so that the fuel flow can match the engine speed.
Example:
A power plant with one (1) 3516B diesel generator set, rated for 1145 bkW (1560 bhp) at
100% load. The fuel rate for the engine is 284 L/hr (75 gal/hr) as found in TMI.
The time between tank refills is based on weekly fuel tanker truck deliveries, so refill time is
168 hours.
The fuel tank for this genset is located 22 m (72.2 ft) horizontally and 2.5 m (8.2 ft) vertically
(below) from the engine. This situation exceeds the fuel system requirements discussed in
Auxiliary Fuel Tanks, therefore, an auxiliary pump is needed.
Solution:
TMI indicates that the fuel flow at rated speed is 1260 L/hr (333 gal/hr) @ 1200 rpm.
The auxiliary transfer pump required for this sample installation must be able to deliver fuel
at 1260 L/hr (333 gal/hr) at a pressure of 34.5 kPa (5 psi).
5.3.3 Fuel transfer pumps – emergency

Many marine applications require the capability to connect an emergency fuel oil transfer
pump into the engine’s fuel oil system. Cat engines can be provided with these optional
connections when necessary.
SYSTEM DESIGN
This is a specific requirement of marine classification societies for seagoing single

propulsion engine applications. The purpose is to ensure fuel oil supply in the event of an
engine fuel oil pump failure. The emergency fuel oil pump allows the single propulsion
engine to operate and the ship to reach port for engine repairs.
Guidelines for emergency fuel oil system operation:
1. Keep pressure drops to a minimum by using short, low restriction lines.

2. Use a line size at least as large as the engine connection point.

3. Install a low-restriction strainer in front of the emergency oil pump.
4. Install a low-restriction check valve between the emergency pump discharge and the
engine inlet connection.
5. Use a pressure-limiting valve in the emergency system set at the maximum oil
pressure limit of the engine.
6. TMI contains flow rates and pressure limits to fulfill minimum engine requirements for
full power at rated speeds for Cat engines.
5.4 Fuel piping design considerations

5.4.1 Fuel supply piping
Using shutoff valves in the delivery line may pull air into the system during shutdown and
cause hard starting. The engine control system provides adequate shutdown options, but, if
a shutdown solenoid is specified in the supply line, it should be timed to close after the
engine stops rotating.
The pressure measured in the fuel supply line should be kept below the values shown in
TMI.
5.4.2 Fuel return piping

Fuel return piping should normally enter the tank at the top and extend downward, exiting
above the fuel level. Inlet and return lines should be separated in the tank as far apart as
possible to allow fuel warmed in the engine to dissipate excess heat. Fuel tanks can
function as a radiator of sorts, especially in engines that are not equipped with a fuel cooler
or engines that use fuel to cool the injectors. Placing return lines and suction lines as far
apart as possible provides the most opportunity for cooling. Return line placement is
particularly important on smaller tanks and day tanks where the fuel volume is allowed to
run down.
The fuel return line is under pressure, although not as high as the supply line.
SYSTEM DESIGN
Note: Shut-off valves should not be used in fuel return lines. Engine operation with the
valve closed will cause damaging pressures.
Engine fuel pressure measured in the fuel return line should be kept below 27 kPa (4 psi),
except for the 3300 engine family, which is 20 kPa (3 psi), C175 engine family, which is 60
kPa (8.7 psi) and the 3600 or C280 family, which is 350 kPa (51psi). The location of the day
tank and the design of the pipes should accommodate these requirements.

5.4.3 Purging
Purging should take place both in the supply and the return line.
5.4.4 Siphoning and check valves

Siphoning can occur in full fuel pipes when the one end of the pipe is placed in the fuel and
the other end is below the level of fuel. Siphoning is a flow of fuel in the pipe without the
help of pumps. It can occur in supply and return lines.
Siphoning is most likely to occur after a fuel line failure, which can be due to corrosion, fire
or a cut from foreign objects or collision force.
The consequences of fuel line siphoning are fuel loss and the creation of a fire hazard. If the
fuel ignites and the flow is not stopped, the fire will be more difficult to extinguish.
The fuel supply line has a fuel transfer pump. To avoid siphoning, the pump must be
equipped with a check valve. This is in case the pump has been deactivated and the fuel
supply line is breeched. For certain C175 installations, a check valve may be necessary.
Reference Figure 5.2.
5.4.5 Material
Black iron pipe is best suited for diesel fuel lines. Steel or cast iron valves and fittings are
preferred.
CAUTION: Copper and Zinc, either in the form of plating or as a major alloying component,
should not be used with diesel fuels. Zinc is unstable in the presence of sulfur, particularly if
moisture is present in the fuel. The sludge formed by chemical action is extremely harmful
to the engine’s internal components.
Pipes, hoses and fittings must be mechanically strong and resistant to deterioration due to
age or environmental conditions. They must also be airtight to avoid entry of air into the
suction side of the fuel system. A joint, which is leak-tight to fuel, can sometimes allow air to
enter the fuel system, causing erratic running and loss of power.
5.4.6 Sizing
SYSTEM DESIGN
Sizing of pipes, hoses and fittings must be adequate to minimize flow loss.
Sizing for a particular application is determined by the supply and return line restrictions.
This can be estimated with help from the Piping System Basic Information section of the
Application & Installation Guide. The maximum allowable restrictions are published in the
TMI.

Generally, the supply line carrying fuel to the fuel transfer pump and the return line carrying
excess fuel back to the tank should be no smaller in size than the connection fittings on the
engine. In addition, the return line should be at least as large as the supply line.
If the fuel tank supplies multiple engines over 9.14 m (30 ft) from the tank, or ambient
temperatures are low, larger fuel supply and return lines should be considered to ensure
adequate flow. The overflow line from the day tank (or, if no day tank is used, the engine
fuel return line) should be one size larger than the supply and return lines.
5.4.7 Routing
Fuel lines should be well routed and clipped with flexible hose connections where relative
motion is present. Lines should be routed away from hot surfaces, like manifolds and
turbochargers, to avoid fuel heating and potential hazard if a fuel line should fail.
Fuel lines should be routed to avoid formation of traps, which can catch sediments, or
pockets of water, which will freeze in cold weather.
Whenever possible, route fuel lines down low, so any potential leakage will be confined to
the fuel tank base or floor space. Leaks from overhead fuel system components may fall
onto hot machinery, increasing the likelihood of fire danger.
Route fuel lines to avoid crossing paths and walkways. Protect fuel lines from abrasion and
damage. Whenever possible, route fuel lines so they are visible for leak checking.
For electronic unit injector fuel systems, supply line pressure must decay to atmospheric
pressure after engine shut down. Any sustained static pressure on the fuel system when
the engine is not operating will cause excessive fuel to oil dilution.
5.5 Fuel filtration systems

Clean fuel that meets Caterpillar fuel recommendations provides outstanding engine service
life and performance. The use of lesser fuels is a compromise and the risk is the user’s
responsibility. Fuels not meeting Caterpillar's minimum specifications as described in SEBU
6251 will adversely affect:
SYSTEM DESIGN
▪ The perceived performance of the combustion system and fuel filters.

▪ The service life of the fuel injection system, valves, pistons, rings, liners, and
bearings.
Even when fuel is handled very carefully, foreign particles will find their way in during
handling or storage. Foreign particles could be paint flakes, dust, sand, rust, or
microbiologic particles.

Clean fuel is necessary for dependable engine performance. Engine filters protect the fuel
injection pumps and nozzles and should never be removed or bypassed. The comparison in
the figure below demonstrates the very tight clearance in the fuel system and the size of
visible particles.
Figure 5.5 Relative sizes of particles
Primary filters will extend engine filter and transfer pump life. Water and sediment traps can
be included upstream of the transfer pump, but pump flow must not be restricted.
5.5.1 Filter micron ratings

Caterpillar specifies actual filter capability, rupture strength, the capacity for holding dirt, flow
resistance, filter area, etc. Caterpillar does not specify filter or filter paper by micron rating.
Micron ratings are easily confused for the following reasons:
▪ The test for micron ratings is not repeatable at different labs. One manufacturer may
give a rating of 10 microns (0.00039 in.), another at 2 microns (0.000079 in.) and a
third may rate a particular filter media (paper) at 15 microns (0.00059 in.).
SYSTEM DESIGN
▪ There is no consistent relationship between micron rating and actual filtration

efficiency. The entire filter needs to be tested, not just the media (paper).
▪ The micron rating does not show what happens to a filter over time. The test
provides no information about how a filter will stand up under continual use.

Micron ratings are over-emphasized; a 10-micron filter will not always stop a 10-micron
particle. Many reputable filter manufacturing firms are drifting away from micron ratings to
more conclusive tests. Smaller micron ratings are not necessarily better.
If all other factors (area) were equal, a smaller micron number media (paper) has a severe
drawback: it has less capacity before plugging and needs to be replaced more often. The
size of the pores in the paper needs to be balanced against the costs of the filter
replacements.
Common questions are:
▪ What is the maximum particle size which can pass through Cat filters?
▪ What is the difference between nominal size and absolute size filters?
For example: A nominal 10 micron filter media (paper) will pass some particles up to about
50 microns in size. Theoretically, an absolute rating of 10 microns will stop all particles
larger than 10 microns. In fact, filters with absolute micron ratings of 10 will pass some
particles larger than 10 microns due to the irregularity of the paper weave. New filters may
pass larger particles than they will after only a few hours of use.
As a rule, Caterpillar fuel filter media (paper) is about 3 microns nominal, 20 microns
absolute. Oil filter media (paper) is about 10 microns nominal, 50 microns absolute. These
are approximate values only.
Filters are not effectively compared on the basis of micron rating alone. Evaluate filters on
the basis of their ability to collect foreign material as a whole.
5.5.2 Primary fuel filter element specification

The specs for primary fuel system elements are as below:
▪ 10 Micron Nominal Filtration
▪ For additional information see SENR9620 Fuel Systems Improving Component
Durability
5.5.3 Duplex fuel filters

SYSTEM DESIGN
Many Cat engines can be equipped with duplex fuel filters. These filters may be serviced
(change elements), without shutting off the engine. There are two types: the symmetrical
type, which has two identical filter sets and the main-auxiliary type, which has a main filter
set and a smaller capacity auxiliary filter set. A special valve connects the two sets of filters
in each type. The valve routes the fuel to be filtered through either or both sets of filters.
Both filter sets can be used simultaneously to extend running time in an emergency.

Figure 5.6 Example of duplex fuel filters
Duplex filters for fuel and lubricating oil allow extended operation without interruption.
▪ The main and auxiliary filter systems allow changing either the main or auxiliary filter
elements with the engine running under load.
▪ Generally, the same elements are used in both systems, and are capable of
providing adequate filtration for at least 100 hours full load running time with
reasonably clean fuel and oil.
▪ Use pressure gauges to determine when filters must be changed.
▪ Avoid mounting filters near the radiator fan, because a fuel or oil leak during
replacement could create a fire hazard. (As either substance passes through the fan
it can be atomized, and therefore easier to ignite.) Plus, coated radiator fins trap dirt
which can diminish cooling capability.
5.6 Water separation

Water in the diesel fuel is absolutely unwanted as it will cause damage to the engine and its
components. Water appears in the fuel because of condensation, handling, and
environmental conditions. Environmental conditions relate to the humidity of some climates.
Water in the fuel will be prevalent in humid climates.
Water can impact the fuel system in the following ways.
SYSTEM DESIGN
▪ If water appears in the injection system, the fuel will not be able to lubricate as it is
supposed to and it will lead to early wear.
▪ Water together with diesel fuel will form microbiological growth which will build up
sludge. Sludge will cause wear of the filter system and influence the injection
performance.

▪ Iron will oxidize when in contact with water and can infiltrate the fuel. The iron oxide
will cause injector wear.
Engines using high injection pressure fuel pumps must be protected from water and
sediment in the fuel. It is extremely important to maintain water and sediment levels at or
below 0.1%.
Note: Water and sediment collecting in fuel tanks may give the appearance that poor quality
fuel was delivered to the site.
Several methods can be used to remove excess water and sediment from the fuel system:
▪ A water and sediment separator can be installed in the supply line ahead of the
transfer pump. The separator must be sized to the handle the fuel being consumed
by the engine as well as fuel being returned to the tank.
▪ Coalescing filter systems work effectively to remove sediment and water. If the level
in the day tank is not maintained at a consistent level, install them between the main
tank and the day tank. If proper day tank levels are maintained, a smaller system can
be used between the main tank and the day tank to clean only the fuel being burned.
These filters can plug and careful attention must be given to fuel pressure levels at
the injectors to guard against misfiring.
▪ A centrifuge system can be used, particularly if the fuel quality consistently falls
below the defined limits discussed in this guide.
5.6.1 Centrifuges
The centrifuge represents the most expensive and complex method of water separation, but
it is the most effective. It is used extensively in marine, offshore and power generation
applications where a continuous power supply is essential, and the continuous supply of
clean fuel cannot be left to chance.
A centrifuge manufacturer should be consulted to determine the proper centrifuge type, size
and flow requirements for a specific application. While the figure shows a single centrifuge
schematic, many applications will require the use of two centrifuges, with one of the
SYSTEM DESIGN
centrifuges acting as a standby.

The required flow rate of a centrifuge can be approximated as follows:

𝑃 × 𝑏 × 24 × 1.15
𝑄=
𝑅×𝑡
Where:
Q= Flow required, L/hr or gal/hr
P= Total Engine Output, bkW or bhp
b= Fuel Consumption, g/bkW-hr or lb/bhp-hr
R= Density of fuel, kg/m3 or lb/gal
T= Daily separating time in automatic operation: 23 hr
SYSTEM DESIGN
Figure 5.7 Typical distillate fuel centrifuge system

Centrifuge seal water and control air requirements must be specified by the centrifuge
manufacturer.
5.6.1.1 Sample points
The centrifuge operating efficiency is checked by drawing samples from both sides of the
centrifuge.
5.6.1.2 Suction strainer
Install a simplex strainer ahead of the centrifuge supply pump and use a stainless steel
basket with perforations sized nominally at 0.8 mm (0.03125 in) to protect the pump. The
strainer body is normally manufactured from cast iron or bronze.
5.6.1.3 Centrifuge supply pump
Mount an electric motor driven supply pump separately from the centrifuge and size it
appropriately for the centrifuge flow. The following pump characteristics are provided for
guidance:
▪ Operating pressure - to suit conditions of piping system
▪ Operating fluid temperature 38°C (100°F)
▪ Viscosity for sizing pump motor - 500 cSt
5.6.1.4 Centrifuge fuel heater
The heater is sized using the pump capacity and the temperature rise required between the
settling tank and the final centrifuge. The heater should be thermostatically controlled and
set to maintain fuel temperature to the centrifuge within ± 2°C (± 4°F). The maximum
preheating temperature for distillate fuel is 40° to 50°C (104° to 122°F).
SYSTEM DESIGN

6 Miscellaneous Fuel System Considerations

6.1 Fuel temperature
The fuel temperature supplied to the engine can affect unit injector life and maximum power
capability. Reduced lubrication capability due to high temperature/low viscosity fuel may
result in component scuffing. The minimum allowable viscosity at the injectors is 1.4 cSt. A
maximum fuel temperature limit of 66°C (150°F) to the unit injectors, regardless of fuel
viscosity, prevents coking or gumming of the injectors. The maximum fuel viscosity to the
unit injectors of 20 cSt prevents overpressure damage to the injectors.
Maximum fuel temperature limits to the low-pressure fuel transfer pump for Common Rail
Fuel systems vary with engine model:
▪ C175 = 70°C (158°F)
▪ C7, C9, C15, C18 = 80°C (176°F)
The engines are power set at the factory, and higher fuel temperatures will reduce
maximum power capability. The fuel stop power reduction is 1% for each 6°C (10°F) fuel
supply temperature increase above the maximum fuel temperature limit. If the engine is
operating below the fuel stop limit, the governor will add fuel as required to maintain the
required engine speed and power.
6.2 Fuel coolers
MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS
As mentioned earlier in the Basic Fuel System description, Cat diesel engine fuel delivery
systems are designed to deliver more fuel to the engine than is required for combustion,
with the excess being returned to the fuel tanks. This excess fuel, on many engines, is used
for cooling and lubricating of the pumps and injection systems and in doing so picks up
engine heat and can raise the temperature of the fuel in the tanks.
As previously specified, engine power will be reduced if the fuel temperature exceeds the
maximum limit because of the expansion of the fuel (low viscosity). With very low viscosity,
the oil loses the capability to lubricate and damage to the injection components will occur.
Proper considerations regarding fuel tank location and size will help temperature control. If
the tank is properly located and sized so the accumulated heat will not be objectionable
when temperature stabilizes, then nothing more needs to be done. If the stabilized fuel tank
temperature is high, the returning fuel should be cooled.

The following factors affect the need for fuel cooling equipment.
▪ Length of periods of continuous operation; If the operating periods are short, the
amount of heat returned to the fuel tanks will be relatively small. Fuel coolers are not
generally required for engines used in applications requiring intermittent operation.
▪ Length of time between periods of operation; if the time between periods of operation
is long, the heat will have an opportunity to dissipate.
▪ Volume of the fuel tank; If the volume of the fuel tank is larger than 11 000 L (3,000
gal), it will accept a great deal of heat before the temperature of the fuel leaving the
tank increases significantly.
Note: Day tank sizing is critical to maintain the desired fuel supply temperature. Fuel
coolers may be required. For a more detailed discussion of required fuel tank
volume, see the Day Tank Sizing section in Appendix 1.
▪ Ability of the fuel tanks to dissipate heat. In marine applications for instance, fuel in
contact with the shell plating, where at least 10% of the inside surface area of the
tank is shell plating, the heat will be easily dissipated and the stored fuel temperature
will remain within a few degrees of the ambient water temperature.
A plate type heat exchanger may be used with titanium plates for seawater cooling or
stainless-steel plates for fresh water cooling. Refer to Sea Water Systems in the Cooling
Systems Application and Installation Guide for proper installation and maintenance
procedures of fuel cooler in sea water applications.
6.3 Fuel heaters

Just as the ability to remove excess heat from fuel is an important design consideration in
some applications, so is the ability to add heat to fuel in applications involving cold
environments. Diesel fuel must not be too warm or too cool. Both cases will reduce life.
With mid-distillate No. 1 or No. 2 diesel fuel, cold weather can cause wax crystals to form in
the fuel systems, partially or completely blocking fuel flow. The addition of a small amount of
heat to the fuel before it flows through the filter(s) can prevent wax problems. The fuel will
flow through pumps and lines but not through filters at temperature below the cloud point
(where a cloud or haze appears in the fuel).
At temperatures below the pour point (the lowest temperature that fuel will flow or pour), fuel
will not flow in lines or pumps. The use of fuel with a pour point above the minimum
expected ambient temperature is not recommended. Fuel heaters will often solve cloud
point problems but not pour point problems unless applied to the entire fuel storage volume.

Consider the following suggestions when applying fuel heaters to Cat engines:
▪ Fuel heaters should be used when the ambient temperature is below the fuel cloud
point. Many types of heaters can be used; however, the fuel should be heated before
the first filter in the fuel system. Fuel heaters should not be used when the ambient
temperature exceeds 15°C (60°F). Under no condition should the maximum fuel
temperature at the outlet of the fuel heater exceed the limit specified on the previous
page.
▪ Heaters used should be capable of handling the maximum fuel flow of the engine.
The restriction created should not exceed published levels of the engine (published
values for fuel flow and allowable restriction can be found in the TMI).
▪ Coolant may be taken from taps on the engine when using the engine as a heat
source. Care must be taken to assure that coolant shunting to one system does not
adversely affect another system, and that both have adequate flow.
CAUTION: Failed water sourced fuel heaters can introduce excessive water into the engine
fuel system and cause injector failure.
Maintenance responsibility of this type of heater must be clearly defined.
Fuel heaters offered by Caterpillar use engine coolant to heat the fuel and prevent the
development of solid wax particles.
When any fuel heater is used and ambient temperatures are below approximately 0°C
(32°F), the engine should be started and run at low idle until the engine temperature rises
slightly. This allows heat transfer to the fuel before high fuel flow rates at high power output
are experienced by the system. This will reduce the possibility of wax plugging the fuel filter
shortly after a cold start.
6.4 Partial load operation

Extended operation at low idle or at reduced load may cause increased oil consumption and
carbon buildup in the cylinders. Carbon buildup results in a loss of power and/or poor
performance. When possible, apply a full load at least on an hourly basis. This will burn
excess carbon from the cylinders.
6.5 Burning used crankcase oil

With legislation and ecological pressures, it is becoming increasingly difficult to dispose of
used oil. The burning of used crankcase oil in 3600/C280 engines is not recommended due
to the detrimental effects on exhaust emissions. However, if ancillary methods of reducing

exhaust emissions to acceptable limits are used, or if emissions are not a problem, burning
crankcase oil in 3600/C280 engines is possible with the following guidelines.
▪ It is necessary to collect, store, and dispose of used crankcase oil from engines
correctly. It is not acceptable to dump used crankcase oil into the oceans, rivers, and
harbors from vessels or offshore drilling and production platform installations. It may
be necessary for engine operators to consider burning crankcase oil in their Cat
engines. This can be done, providing the precautions below are carefully followed:
▪ Only diesel engine crankcase oils can be mixed with the diesel engine fuel supply.
The ratio of used oil to fuel must not exceed 5%. Premature filter plugging will occur
at higher ratios. Under no circumstances should gasoline engine crankcase oil,
transmission oils, special hydraulic oils not covered by Caterpillar recommendations,
grease, cleaning solvents, etc., be mixed with the diesel fuel. Do not use crankcase
oils containing water or antifreeze from engine coolant leaks or poor storage
practices.
▪ Adequate mixing is essential. Lube oil and fuel oil, once mixed, will combine and not
separate. Mix used filtered crankcase oil with an equal amount of fuel, then add the
50-50 blend to the supply tank before new fuel is added (maintaining the 5% used
oil-to-fuel ratio). This procedure should normally provide sufficient mixing. Failure to
achieve adequate mixing will result in premature filter plugging by slugs of undiluted
oil.
Note: Review SEBU6251 for fuel specifications
▪ Filter or centrifuge used oil before putting it in the fuel tanks to prevent premature
fuel filter plugging, accelerated wear, or plugging of fuel system parts. Soot, dirt,
metal, and residue particles larger than 5 microns (0.000197 in.) should be removed
by this process. If filtering or centrifuging is not used before adding the oil to the fuel,
primary filters with 5 microns (0.000197 in.) capability must be located between the
fuel supply and engine. These will require frequent servicing.
▪ Clean handling techniques of the used crankcase oils are essential to prevent
introducing contaminants from outside sources into the diesel fuel supply. Care must
be taken in collecting, storing and transporting the used crankcase oil to the diesel
fuel tanks. Diesel fuel day tank sight glasses may become blackened in time due to
the carbon content in the crankcase oil. Ash content of the lube oil added to the fuel
may also cause accumulation of turbocharger and valve deposits more rapidly than
normal.

6.6 Continuous blending

If the installation warrants, used lubricating oil can be blended and used in the engine in a
continuous manner. The normal method uses a centrifuge module similar to the one shown
earlier. The following information describes this system:
Centrifuge No. 1
Engine crankcase oil is continuously centrifuged except the clean waste oil tank is at which
time the dirty waste oil is centrifuged and directed to the clean waste oil tank.
Centrifuge No. 2
Distillate fuel/oil mixture day tank is continually centrifuged.
Metering Pump
Adds up to 5% clean waste oil to the distillate fuel (from the main supply tank) when the day
tank low level switch calls for more fuel.
Static Mixer
Runs when the metering pump is on to insure a proper homogeneous mixture of the fuel
and clean waste oil. The centrifuge module is electronically controlled and includes the
components within the dotted line as shown in the figure below. Size the system for
appropriate fuel delivery.
Figure 6.1 Example of a continuous blending system

7 Fuel Conservation Practices

Fuel costs typically represent the single highest operating cost associated with any diesel
engine application. This has promoted various fuel conservation practices that can usually
be applied to all applications.
▪ Avoid fuel spillage. Do not overfill the fuel tank. Fuel expands when warm and may
overflow, especially when tank is not designed correctly.
▪ Operate the engine with a good electrical system. One bad cell in a battery will
overwork the alternator, consuming more engine horsepower and fuel. A poor
electrical system can also lead to hard starting, which encourages excessive idling.
▪ Size the engine or generator set to the job. Engines operate more efficiently at
relatively high load factors.
▪ Do not increase fuel settings to obtain more power.
▪ Make sure all air hoses and connections do not leak. Leaks keep the compressor
working unnecessarily.
▪ Make sure the turbocharger is turning freely so that proper air-fuel ratio is
maintained. A clean burning exhaust should indicate these items are functioning
correctly.
▪ Operate the engine with a thermostat all year; cold engines consume more fuel and
wear out more quickly.
▪ Keep air cleaners clean. Use an air cleaner restriction indicator to avoid guessing at
air cleaner condition.
FUEL CONSERVATION

Appendix A – Day Tank Sizing (when day tank serves as

a heat sink)
The fuel supply temperature must be within specified limits for optimum injector life and
maximum power capability.
Fuel systems without fuel coolers rely on the day tank to dissipate the heat of fuel returning
from the engine. Day tank temperatures are affected by the following conditions:
▪ Day tank wetted surface area (including tank bottom)
▪ Engine(s) fuel consumption rate
▪ Day tank replenishing level
▪ Storage tank fuel temperature
▪ Ambient temperature
▪ Spaces contiguous to the day tank (void tanks, cofferdams, vessel shell plating, etc.)
▪ Return fuel temperature
Tank temperature calculation are performed in five steps. The first determines the fuel mass
in the tank at each time interval. The second step is based on a fuel mix temperature
resulting from the engine driven transfer pump flow rate to the engine and the return flow
rate to the day tank. The third step determines the day tank fuel height for each incremental
time element. Typically, the calculations will be based upon a 30-60 minute iterative time
function. The end point for the calculation is assumed to be when the day tank is refilled.
The fourth step approximates the heat transfer from the tank to the surrounding
environment due to the temperature difference between the fuel mix temperature and the
APPENDIX A - DAY TANK SIZING

ambient temperature. This convective heat transfer then determines the resultant tank
temperature. The fifth step evaluates the impact of the final fuel supply temperature on the
engine’s maximum power capability.
The included example calculations should only be used to provide general guidance. If the
day tank size is marginal, use a fuel cooler.
To simplify the following calculations, it is assumed the day tank walls are surrounded by
free moving air. If the tank walls are contiguous to the shell plating, heat transfer from the
day tank will be enhanced. Conversely, if the day tank is bounded by void spaces and
cofferdams, heat rejection from the day tank will be retarded. Typically, most day tanks are
located with various combinations of the preceding boundary elements. The individual
performing the evaluation must be familiar with the installation as well as the fundamental
engineering concepts of the formulas used in the calculations.

A.1 Day Tank Calculations

The following information is required to perform the calculations:
▪ Engine model
▪ Engine developed power (MCR or CSR)
▪ Engine speed
▪ Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
▪ Initial day tank fuel temperature
▪ Storage tank fuel temperature (Make-up)
▪ Ambient air temperature
▪ Day tank length, width, and height
▪ Typical full day tank fuel height (assume 95% of tank capacity)
▪ Engine fuel transfer pump flow rate (see TMI)
▪ Fuel heat rejection from the engine (see TMI)
▪ Incremental time element
A.2 Day Tank Thermal Capacity Calculation

Example:
Application: Single main engine
Engine Model: 3612
Rated Power: 4640 bhp (CSR)
Rated Speed: 900 rpm
BSFC: 0.326 lb/bhp-hr

Initial Day Tank Fuel Temperature = 85°F
Storage Tank Temperature = 85°F
Ambient Air Temperature = 95°F
Day Tank Dimensions:
o Length (L) = 12 ft.
o Width (W) = 8 ft.
o Height (H) = 8.42 ft.
Fuel Height (@ 95% of total Capacity) (H) = 8 ft.

Engine Fuel Oil Transfer Pump Flow Rate: qxfer = 19.0 gpm
Heat rejection from engine to fuel oil: Q = 1252 Btu/min
Incremental time element: t = 60 min.
Assume that the day tank will be replenished from the fuel storage tanks when the day tank
level falls to approximately 50-55% of normal operating capacity. Some of the data above
must be converted to other units prior to beginning calculations. The following formulas can
be used:
1. Engine driven transfer pump mass flow rate = Mxfer (lb/min)
Assume: #2 DO with an API gravity of 35 (7.1 lb/gal)
Mxfer = qxfer x 7.1 lb/gal = 19.0 gpm x 7.1 lb/gal = 134.9 lb/min
2. Engine burn rate under full load conditions:

a. Burn rate (gpm) = (BSFC x bhp x 1 hr) / (fuel density x 60 min)
= (0.326 lb/bhp-hr x 4640 bhp x 1 hr) / (7.1 lb/gal. x 60 min)
= 3.55 gpm
b. Fuel mass flow burn rate
= MBR (lb/min)
= 3.55 gpm x 7.1 lb/gal
= 25.21 lb/min
3. Engine fuel return rate under full load conditions:

a. Fuel return flow rate

= qrtn (gal/min)
= supply rate - burn rate
= 19.0 gpm - 3.55 gpm
= 15.45 gpm
b. Fuel return mass flow rate
= Mrtn (lb/min)
= 15.45 gpm x 7.1 lb/gal
= 109.70 lb/min
4. ∆TENG of fuel = (Tsupply - Trtn)

∆TENG = Q / (Mrtn x Cp)
= 1252 Btu/min / (109.70 lb/min x 0.5 Btu/lb-°F)
= 22.83°F

5. 95% capacity of diesel oil day tank, (lb)

Weight density (p) for #2 diesel oil = 52.42 lb/ft3
MDT = L x W x H x pDO
= 12 ft x 8 ft x 8 ft x 52.42 lb/ft3
= 40258.6 lb.
Step 1
Calculate the fuel mass in the day tank at specific time intervals:
Day Tank Fuel Quantity = MDT - (MBR x t)
Where:
MDT = Day tank contents at a specific time step (lbs)
MBR = Engine fuel consumption (lb/min)
t = Incremental time step (min)
Assume the day tank is replenished at 55% of initial quantity of fuel. Prepare a table of
volumes as shown below.
Figure A.1 Step 1 calculations table
Incremental Time (minutes) Tank Fuel Quantity (lb) Capacity (%)

0 40258.6 100.0
60 38746.0 96.2
120 37233.4 92.5
180 35720.8 88.7
240 34208.2 85.0
300 32695.6 81.2
360 31183.0 77.5
420 29670.4 73.7
480 28157.8 69.9
540 26645.2 66.2
600 25132.6 62.4
660 23620.0 58.7
720 22107.4 54.9
Refill 40258.6 100.0

Step 2
Calculate the fuel oil mix temperature (Tmix):
𝑀𝐷𝑇(𝑡−1) − (𝑀𝑥𝑓𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡) × 𝑇𝐷𝑇(𝑡−1) + (𝑀𝑅𝑇𝑁 × 𝑡) × (𝑇𝐷𝑇(𝑡−1) + ∆𝑇𝐸𝑁𝐺 )
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑀𝐷𝑇(𝑡−1) − (𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑡)
Where:
MDT = day tank contents at a specific time step (lb)
MDT(t-1) = day tank contents from previous time step (lb)
Mxfer = engine transfer pump mass flow rate (lb/min)
MRTN = engine return mass flow rate (lb/min)
t = incremental time step
TDT(t-1) = day tank temperature from previous time step
∆TENG = fuel temperature rise across the engine (°F)
MBR = engine fuel consumption (lb/min)
Values for the example calculation:
Mxfer = 134.9 lb/min
t = 60 min

TDT(t-1) = initial day tank temperature is used for first iteration = 85°F
MRTN = 109.70 lb/min
∆TENG = 22.83°F
MBR = 25.21 lb/min
40258.6 − (134.9)(60)(85) + (109.70)(60)(85 + 22.83)
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
40258.6 − (25.21)(60)
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 88.9°𝐹 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
This calculation is repeated for each increment (t).

Prepare a summary table for each increment as shown:
Incremental Time (minutes) Mix Temperature (°F)

0 85.0
60 88.9
120 92.9
180 97.1
240 101.5
300 106.1
360 110.9
420 116.0
480 121.3
540 126.9
600 132.9
660 139.3
720 146.1
Refill
Step 3
Calculate the height of fuel contained in the day tank at t = incremental time step.
H = MDT / (p x L x W)
Where:
H = Height of fuel in the tank
MDT = Fuel contained in the day tank at each incremental time step
p = Weight density of #2 DO (52.42 lb/ft3)
L = Length of day tank (12 ft)
W = Width of day tank (8 ft)

Prepare a summary table for each time increment (t) as shown.
Incremental Time (minutes) Height in Tank (ft)

0 8.0
60 7.7
120 7.4
180 7.1
240 6.8
300 6.5
360 6.2
420 5.9
480 5.6
540 5.3
600 5.0
660 4.7
720 4.4
Refill 8.0

Step 4
Calculate the heat transferred between the fuel in the day tank and the atmosphere, the ∆T
of the fuel in the day tank due to the heat transfer, and the resulting fuel day tank
temperature.
a. Heat transferred between the day tank and the atmosphere:
(𝑇𝑀𝐼𝑋 + 𝑇𝐷𝑇 )
𝑄𝑇𝐾 = {𝑈 × [𝐻 × (2𝐿 + 2𝑊) + (𝐿 × 𝑊)] × [𝑇𝐴𝑀𝐵 − ]} × 𝑡
2
Where:
QTK = Heat transfer to/from atmosphere (Btu) This considers 6mm (0.25 in) tank boundaries,
and the film coefficient for air and oil. The air side film coefficient is predominant when
compared to the oil side film. The tank thickness has a negligible effect.

U = Coefficient of heat transfer, (0.0424 Btu/min•ft2•°F)

L = day tank length (ft)
W = day tank width (ft)
TAMB = ambient temperature (°F)
TMIX = mix temperature of return fuel and fuel in tank (°F)
TDT = day tank temperature resulting from heat transfer to/from day tank (°F)
t = incremental time step (min)
H = fuel height for specific time step (ft)
b. Temperature change in the day tank resulting from heat to/from day tank:
∆ TDT = QTK / (MDT x Cp)
Where:
∆TDT = temperature change of fuel in the day tank (°F)
QTK = heat transfer to/from atmosphere (Btu)
MDT = mass of fuel in day tank (lb)
CP = specific heat of #2 MDO = 0.5 Btu/lb •°F
c. Day tank temperature resulting from heat transfer to/from day tank:
TDT = TMIX + ∆TDT
Where:
TDT = day tank temperature (°F)
TMIX = mix temperature of return fuel and tank fuel (°F)
∆TDT = temperature change of day tank (°F)

These three calculations are interdependent in nature. First, QTK is determined for the first
incremental time step. The resulting value for QTK is then used to compute the ∆TDT. ∆TDT is
then used to determine TTK. This process is then repeated for each incremental time step.
Example:
(𝑇𝑀𝐼𝑋 +𝑇𝐷𝑇 )
a: 𝑄𝑇𝐾 = {𝑈 × [𝐻 × (2𝐿 + 2𝑊) + (𝐿 × 𝑊)] × [𝑇𝐴𝑀𝐵 − ]} × 𝑡
2
(88.9 + 85)
𝑄𝑇𝐾 = {0.0424 × [7.7(40) + (96)] × [95 − ]} × 60
2
𝑄𝑇𝐾 = 8283.6 𝐵𝑡𝑢
b: ∆TDT = QTK / (MDT x Cp) = 8283.6 Btu / [(38746.0 lb)(0.5 Btu/lb °F)] = 0.43°F
This is the difference from atmosphere to day tank
c: TDT = TMIX + ∆TDT = 88.9°F + 0.43°F = 89.3°F
This series of calculations is then repeated for the subsequent incremental time steps.
Prepare a summary table for each time increment (t) as shown:

Incremental Time Heat Rejection to/from Temperature Change in Day Tank Temperature
(minutes) Day Tank (Btu) Day Tank (°F) (°F)
0 -- -- 85.0
60 8283.6 0.43 89.3

120 4069.7 0.22 93.2
180 -4.0 0.00 97.1
240 -4022.0 -0.24 101.3
300 -7966.3 -0.49 105.6
360 -11818.7 -0.76 110.2
420 -15561.4 -1.05 114..9
480 -19257.8 -1.37 120.0
540 -22802.6 -1.71 125.2
600 -26253.3 -2.09 130.8
660 -29655.5 -2.51 136.8
720 -32973.6 -2.98 143.1
Refill -- -- 116.9

The last part in Step 4 determine the day tank temperature after refilling (TDT refill):
[(𝑀𝐷𝑇 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 − 𝑀𝐷𝑇 𝑡𝑛 ) × 𝑇𝑀𝑈𝐹 ] + (𝑀𝐷𝑇 𝑡𝑛 × 𝑇𝑇𝐾 𝑛 )
𝑇𝐷𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 =
𝑀𝐷𝑇 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙
Where:
MDT full = capacity of day tank, (lb)
MDT tn = fuel in day tank prior to refilling, (lb)
TMUF = temperature of make-up fuel, (°F)
TTK n = temperature of tank fuel prior to refilling, (°F)
Example:
[(40258.6 − 22107.4) × 85] + (22107.4 × 143.1)
𝑇𝐷𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 =
40258.6
𝑇𝐷𝑇 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 116.9°𝐹
Step 5
The last step calculates the maximum power capability of the engine at the resultant day
tank temperature for each time interval.
Note: The engines are power set at the factory with 30 ±3°C (86 ±5°F) fuel to the engine
transfer pump. Higher fuel temperatures reduce maximum power capability. The fuel stop
power reduction is 1% for each 5.6°C (10° F) fuel supply temperature increase above 30°C.
If the engine is operating below the fuel stop limit, the governor will add fuel as required to
maintain the required engine speed and power.
(𝑇𝐷𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) 1
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 × {1 − [ × ]}
10°𝐹 100
Where:
Pcorr = corrected engine power, bhp
Prated = rated bhp
Tref = 86°F (power setting)
TDT = actual day tank fuel temperature, °F

Example:
For t = 60, the corrected power of the engine is:
(89.3°𝐹 − 86°𝐹) 1
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 4640 𝑏ℎ𝑝 × {1 − [ × ]}
10°𝐹 100
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 4625 𝑏ℎ𝑝
A summary table for each increment (t) is also prepared as shown:
Incremental Time (minutes) Day Tank Temperature (°F) Corrected Engine Power (bhp)
0 85.0 --
60 89.3 4625
120 93.2 4607
180 97.1 4588
240 101.3 4569
300 105.6 4549
360 110.2 4528
420 114.9 4506
480 120.0 4482
540 125.2 4458

600 130.8 4432
660 136.8 4405
720 143.1 4375
Refill 116.9 4497
Conclusion
The previous calculations indicate day tank fuel temperatures can have an effect on the
maximum power capability of the engine. The example was based upon a fixed pitch
propeller application. Typically, a fixed pitch propeller is selected and sized to absorb 85-
90% of the engine's name plate rating. In this example, this would equate to 3950-4175
bhp. The lowest calculated corrected power was determined to be 4375 bhp. This would
leave a 5-10% power margin and vessel performance would not be affected.

While vessel performance may not be affected in this example, the maximum fuel
temperature of 143.1°F will put the fuel viscosity near or below the minimum allowable
viscosity of 1.4 cSt at the injectors, depending on the type of distillate fuel being used. In
addition, the temperature of the fuel in the tank after refill is now 116.9°F instead of 85°F as
used at the beginning of the iteration. Therefore, continued operation at full load on this fuel
tank would cause the fuel temperature to rise even higher than the maximum temperature
shown in this iteration. To protect the fuel injectors a fuel cooler should be used in this
application, despite the fact that available engine power is still acceptable.
Aside from the impact on engine performance, maximum fuel tank temperatures are also
established by various marine classification societies and regulatory bodies. Their interest is
based upon the increased risks of fire that results from elevated fuel temperatures.
Useful Fuel Formulas and Data
The following information can be useful in sizing fuel coolers and heaters:
Specific Gravity (SG) and Density
API Gravity = (141.5/SG) - 131.5 SG = 141.5/(API Gravity + 131.5)
SG = Density / 998 kg/m3 Density (kg/m3) = SG x 998 kg/m3
Density (lbm/gal)= SG x 998 kg/m3 x (1 lbm/ft3 / 16.02 kg/m3) x (1 ft3 / 7.48 gal)
Mass Flow Rate
M (kg/sec) = Density (kg/m3) x (1 m3 / 1000 L) x [Flow Rate (L/min) / 60 sec/min]
M (lbm/min) = Density (lbm/gal) x Flow Rate (gal/min)

Specific Heat (cp) - Typical specific heat values, two different API gravity fuels (Btu/lbm-°F)
0.5461 Btu/lbm-°F = 4.186 kJ/kg-°C

Heat Rejection
Q (kW) = M (kg/sec) x cp (kJ/kg-°C) x ∆T (°C)
Q (Btu/min) = M (lbm/min) x cp (Btu/lbm-°F) x ∆T (°F)

Appendix B – Crude Oil Fuel

Note: Crude oils are not suitable for use as fuel in all engine applications. The suitability of
these fuels for use is determined on a case-by-case basis. A complete fuel analysis is
required.
NOTICE: Use of permissible crude oil fuels can result in higher maintenance costs and in
reduced engine service life.
NOTICE: Caterpillar does not recommend using any of the heavier fractions such as
residuals or bottoms in engines that are configured to use distillate diesel fuel. Failure to
follow this recommendation will result in severe wear of components and engine failure.
Residual fuels or blended fuels with residuals are unsuitable because they have a high
viscosity range, low ignition quality and high vanadium and sodium contents that shorten
engine life. Such fuels may cause high wear rates in the fuel system, on the piston rings,
cylinder liners, and exhaust valves. Also, filter problems and deposits in the piston ring belt
may be evidenced.
Special crude oil fuel pretreatment equipment may be required and is available from
suppliers of fuel treatment equipment. Also, it may be essential to start and stop the engine
on a better quality, ASTM No. 2-D type fuel to prevent plugging and sticking fuel system
components and to permit satisfactory starting capability.
The same diesel power ratings may not always apply for Cat engines burning crude oil.
Reasonable engine service life can be achieved when proper procedures are followed.
APPENDIX B – CRUDE OIL FUELS

However, the greater risks involved make it good practice to include slightly higher than
normal maintenance costs when figuring the overall economics to be gained.
A fuel analysis should be performed. Include a distillation curve. Operation at light load is
not recommended. On occasion, operation at 50% load has reportedly caused smoking.
Engines for crude oil fuel operation should be equipped with higher temperature
thermostats, bypass centrifugal oil filter, and fuel injector pushrod keepers.
B.1 Pretreatment of Crude Oils

The crude may contain excessive amounts of sediment and water that will require removal
before they get to the engine. This can usually be accomplished with a settling tank (see
figure below), a centrifuge, special filtering equipment, or a combination of these methods.
The crude may also contain solid particles of wax at ambient temperature that would plug

the filters rapidly. It is impractical to try to remove the wax, but the crude can be heated
sufficiently to dissolve it. The amount of heat needed will vary from one crude to another
and each situation requires an assessment. Jacket-water heated fuel filters, available from
fuel equipment suppliers, are often suitable for heating the crude. If this is not appropriate
for your application, an external heating system will be necessary.
The crude oil must not have too high a viscosity. For maximum life and minimum
maintenance of the fuel pumping and injection systems, the viscosity of the crude oil in
these systems should be within 1.4 to 20 cSt at 104°F (40°C). If the crude’s natural
viscosity is higher than this, it may be heated or diluted to reduce it. The degree of heating
required will vary from one crude oil to another and will have to be established in each case.
Another method of reducing viscosity is to blend the original crude with a sufficient amount
of lighter distillate material. Again, the blending proportions would have to be determined for
each crude oil.
The crude must have a cetane number of at least 40. This brings its distillation
characteristics into the picture. The cetane number should be determined by actual engine
test because calculated numbers of crude oils are unreliable. The cetane number of a crude
oil is a function of its composition. Crude is generally subdivided into fractions by boiling
temperatures. The combination of the gasoline and naphtha fractions, which have low
cetane numbers, should not exceed 30% of the total crude. The kerosene, distillate, and
gas oil fractions combined should make up at least 30% of the total because they have high
cetane numbers.
Another problem created by highly volatile crude oils (low initial boiling points) is vapor
APPENDIX B – CRUDE OIL FUEL
locking of the fuel system. This situation can be handled by an “air eliminator.” This, in some
cases, can be an ordinary float-type steam trap inverted, but it should be made of corrosion-
resistant materials. It should be located after the auxiliary filters. If the engine is stopped
occasionally and allowed to cool, coagulation may build up in this vapor trap and cause it to
be inoperative.
The proper oil change recommendation must be made in each case. Many crude oils
contain large amounts of material that accelerate lube oil deterioration. For this reason, the
standard change period with recommended oils should be reduced by one-half. From this
point, the length of change period with crude is determined by sulfur content the same as
with distillate fuels. With 0.4-1.0% sulfur, the change period should again be reduced by
one-half. When sulfur content exceeds 1.0%, still further reduction is recommended. In
many cases, it may be desirable to install a larger capacity lube oil system to avoid short oil
changes. The use of Cat S•O•SSM, is strongly recommended.

B.2 Crude Oil Maintenance Intervals

Engine inspection intervals should be reduced by 50% when using crude oil as fuel, and
maintenance routines should be modified based on the results of these increased
inspections.
B.3 Crude Oil Settling Tanks

A great deal of sludge can be removed from crude oil by proper settling. A recommended
settling system consists of two cone-bottomed tanks (see figure), each holding a little more
than four days usable supply of fuel.
Sludge in the bottom third is discarded before refilling. The tanks must be housed in a
heated building, and each fitted with heating coils.
Immediately after filling, hot water is circulated through the heating coil until the tank is
heated to 100°F (38°C). The heat is then shut off and the fuel allowed to settle undisturbed
for four days.
During this time, fuel is being used from a second tank. Temperature inside the settling tank
building should be maintained above 70°F (21°C), and the tanks must be vented outside
the building.
A two-day supply of diesel fuel should be maintained for emergency use. This supply can
also be used to start and stop engine when the crude oil fuel is highly viscous or heavy with
paraffins.
Figure B.1 Example of a crude oil settling tank system

Figure B.2 Crude Oil Specifications
Specification and ASTM Test Method Requirements

Cetane number (1) (ASTM D613) Minimum 40
(DI Engines)
Water and sediment % volume Maximum 0.5%

(ASTM D1796)
Pour point (ASTM D97) Minimum 10°F (6°C) below ambient temperature
Cloud point (ASTM D97) Maximum Not higher than lowest expected ambient temperature
Sulfur (ASTM D3605 or D1552) Maximum 3% - See reference to adjust oil TBN for sulfur content that is above 1%
Kinematic Viscosity (2) Minimum 1.4 cSt
Maximum 20cSt (as delivered to rotary fuel injection pumps)
20cSt (as delivered to other fuel injection pumps)
API gravity (ASTM D287) Maximum 45
Minimum 30
Specific gravity (via Standards tables) (3) Maximum 0.8017%
Minimum 0.8762%
Gasoline and naphtha fraction Maximum 30%
fractions boiled off below 392°F (200°C)
Kerosene and distillate fraction Minimum 30%
fractions boiled off between 392°F
(200°C) and cracking point
Carbon residue (on 10% bottoms) Maximum 3.5%
(ASTM D524)
Distillation - 10% Maximum 540°F (282°C)
- 90% Maximum 716°F (380°C)
- cracking Minimum 60%
- residue (ASTM D86) Maximum 10%
APPENDIX B – CRUDE OIL FUEL
Reid vapor pressure (ASTM D323) Maximum 20 psi (138 kPa)

Salt (ASTM D3230) Maximum 100 lb per 1,000 barrels (220 kg per 200 kL)
Gums and Resins (4) (ASTM D381) Maximum 5.8 grains per gallon (10 mg per 100 mL)
Copper strip corrosion (ASTM D130) Maximum No. 3
Flashpoint °F °C (ASTM D93) Minimum legal limit
Ash % weight (ASTM D482) Maximum 0.1%
Aromatics % (ASTM D1319) Maximum 35%
Vanadium PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 4 PPM
Sodium PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 10 PPM
Nickel PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Aluminum PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Silicon PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
PPM = parts per million

See notes below.
(1) The cetane number should be determined by actual engine test because calculated
numbers of crude oils are unreliable. A higher cetane number fuel may be required for
operation at high altitude or in cold weather.
(2) The values of the fuel viscosity are the values as the fuel is delivered to the fuel injection
pumps. For ease of comparison, fuels should also meet the minimum and maximum
viscosity requirements at 40°C (104°F) that are stated by the use of either the “ASTM
D445” test method of the “ISO 3104” test method. If a fuel with a low viscosity is used,
cooling of the fuel may be required to maintain 1.4 cSt or greater viscosity at the fuel
injection pump. Fuels with a high viscosity might require fuel heaters in order to bring down
the viscosity to either 4.5 cSt or less for rotary fuel injection pumps or 20 cSt viscosity or
less for other fuel injection pumps.
(3) Via Standards tables, the equivalent specific gravity using the “ASTM D287” test method
temperature of 15.56°C (60°F) for the minimum API gravity of 30 is 0.8762, and for the
maximum API gravity of 45 is 0.8017. The equivalent kg/m3 (kilograms per cubic meter)
using the “ASTM D287” test method temperature of 15.56°C (60°F) for the minimum API
gravity of 30 is 875.7 kg.m3, and for the maximum API gravity of 45 is 801.3 kg/m3.
(4) Follow the test conditions and procedures for gasoline (motor).

NOTICE: These recommendations are subject to change without notice. Contact your
local Cat dealer for the most up-to-date fluids recommendations.

Appendix C – C175 Emergency Standby Gen Set Start

Assurance Requirements
Note: Requirements and values stated in the document are C175 specific, refer to TMI for
safe source of engine specific requirements and information.
C.1 Supply and return line design

A constant horizontal or upwards slope must be maintained from the tank to the engine
connection. This practice aids in purging out any air that could get trapped in the lines by
allowing it to rise up to the engine filter where it can be purged out to the return section of
the on-engine fuel system.
The sizing must be adequate, and routing should minimize the number of fittings, adapters,
valves, etc. within the fuel lines routing.
▪ C175 EP fuel supply line internal diameters must be between 1.5”-2.0” to the engine.
Refer to REHS4726 for inlet fuel pressure calculation guidelines.
▪ Using 45-degree fittings instead of 90-degree fittings will help maintain proper fuel
flow velocities in transient situations like emergency load applications.
▪ An engine being able to maintain rated load is not direct indicator that the fuel supply
system is adequate, the engine could still have difficulty accepting large load
applications even if the system supports sustained rated load operation.
Pressure and Temperature Requirements
▪ Supply fuel pressure range as measured at the fuel transfer pump inlet at rated
APPENDIX C – C175 GEN SET
speed and power condition: -27kPa to 70kPa.

o With Caterpillar supplied primary filters, the minimum pressure at the engine
inlet fuel connection prior to the primary filters is -19kPa.
o If an installation proves difficult to meet the minimum pressure requirement, a
boost pump can be added to the system and regulated
▪ Fuel return to tank pressure range as measured at the HPFP out fitting at rated
speed and no-load condition: < 60kPa
▪ Fuel inlet temperature shall not exceed 70C
o If the bulk or day tanks aren’t sized large enough to dissipate the necessary
heat to keep the fuel below the alarm levels a fuel cooler may need to be
included in the system.

C.2 Tank Design

Standpipes for the fuel supply and return lines should end at the lowest level of the tank that
fuel should be taken from.
▪ Space from the bottom of the tank is required to keep from picking up loose debris
that settles on the bottom
▪ Return lines should be kept as far away from the supply line as possible to minimize
localized heat transfer to the supply fuel. Also, keeping the lines separate will
minimize the amount of debris picked up by the supply line from the return fuel
agitating debris in the tank.
▪ Return line standpipes below the fuel level will ensure that only fuel is introduced
back into the low-pressure fuel system in the event of leak down.
▪ Having baffles between supply and return allows for better heat dissipation between
return and supply and can also help with debris agitation getting into the supply.
Fuel supply inlet check valve (foot valve) should be used on the fuel supply line to minimize
the amount of fuel drain back out of the primed fuel lines.
▪ Drain down can cause air pockets in the fuel supply system that can cause the
engine start times to increase in the event of an emergency.
▪ Foot valves do add restriction to the system and need to be chosen appropriately to
maintain fuel transfer pump inlet requirements
▪ The lowest cracking pressure valve available ( >0 ) is recommended to maintain
system pressures within acceptable limits.
▪ Positioning closest to the supply inlet ensures the most amount of fuel remaining in
the system and can help reduce pulses from the engine mounted pumps affecting
APPENDIX C – C175 GEN SET

valve operation.
Tank placement and system design must ensure there is no head pressure from the tank to
engine while the engine is not running. This could lead to fuel draining into the oil circuit of
the engine.
▪ Ensure the fuel level in the tank that directly supplies fuel to the engine cannot be
above the high-pressure fuel pump. If this is unavoidable, valving needs to be in
place to block the flow of fuel from the tank to the engine when the engine is not in
operation.
▪ If a fuel boost pump is used, the control strategy must ensure that the pump cannot
be activated while the engine is not in operation.



Commissioning Guide
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential. Discretion is recommended when distributing.
Materials and specifications are subject to change without notice.
© 2022 Caterpillar. All Rights Reserved. CAT, CATERPILLAR, LET’S DO THE WORK, their respective logos,
"Caterpillar Corporate Yellow", the "Power Edge" and Cat “Modern Hex” trade dress as well as corporate and product
identity used herein, are trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
LEBW4976-11 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved 07-2022

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Diesel Fuels

and Fuel Systems

LEBW4976-11 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved 3

4 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved LEBW4976-11

6.4 Partial load operation ............................................................................................ 39

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1.2 Changes since last revision

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2.1 Grades of common diesel fuel

2.1.1 Low grade

2.1.2 High Grade

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2.1.3 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

2.2 Diesel fuel types

2.2.2 Residual oil or blended heavy fuel oil (HFO)

8 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved LEBW4976-11

2.2.3 Distillate Fuel

2.2.4 Marine diesel oil

2.2.4.3 Blended fuel oil

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2.2.4.4 Residual fuel

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2.3 Diesel fuel characteristics

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12 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved LEBW4976-11

3 Diesel Fuel Selection

Standard Name Description

DIESEL FUEL SELECTION

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4 Diesel Fuel Systems

Figure 4.1 Schematic of a basic diesel fuel system

14 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved LEBW4976-11

4.1 MUI fuel system

4.2 MEUI fuel system

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4.3 HEUI fuel system

4.4 Common rail fuel system

Figure 4.2 Schematic of a common rail diesel fuel system

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4.5 ACERT technology

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS

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5 Diesel Fuel System Design Considerations

5.1 Fuel storage systems

5.1.1 Main fuel tank

18 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved LEBW4976-11

5.1.2 Auxiliary fuel tanks

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Figure 5.2 Typical auxiliary fuel tank

5.1.3 Fuel service tank or day tank

20 ©2022 Caterpillar All rights reserved LEBW4976-11

Features of the auxiliary tank should include the following.

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Figure 5.3 Typical fuel head limiting tank

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5.1.4 Fuel head limiting tank

5.1.5 Base mounted tanks

5.2 Fuel tank design considerations

5.2.2 Fuel tank material

5.2.3 Fuel tank installation