UPCAT REVIEWER - BIOLOGY

❖ BIOMOLECULES

1) Carbohydrates – sugars and polymers of sugars, composed of a carbonyl

(C=O) and hydroxide group (-OH)
● Monosaccharide – single carbon skeleton (e.g., glucose, galactose, fructose)
● Disaccharide – two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond (e.g., maltose
[glucose + glucose], sucrose [glucose + fructose])
● Polysaccharide – several linked monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen,
cellulose)

2) Lipids – hydrophobic nonpolar hydrocarbon molecules

● Fats – consist of a glycerol connected to a fatty acid through an ester linkage
➢ Unsaturated Fat – contains a cis-double bond in the fatty acid,
liquid at room temperature
➢ Saturated Fat – no fatty acid double bonds, solid at room
temperature
➢ Trans Fat – contains a trans-double bond in the fatty acid
● Phospholipids – lipids with a phosphate group attached to the glycerol, has a
hydrophobic and hydrophilic end, compose the cell membrane
● Steroids – carbon skeleton is composed of four fused rings (e.g., cholesterol)

3) Proteins – consist of one or more chains of amino acids

● Amino acid – consists of an amino group and carboxyl group; there are 20 kinds
of amino acids

4) Nucleic Acids – polymers of nucleotides (e.g., DNA and RNA)

● Nucleotide – contains a nitrogenous base (Purines or Pyrimidines), five-carbon
sugar, and a phosphate group
➢ Pyrimidines – Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U)
➢ Purines – Adenine (A), Guanine(G)

❖ MODERN CELL THEORY

1. All living things are composed or made up of cells, which are the most basic unit
of life.
2. Cells are products of reproduction of pre-existing cells.
3. Cells pass hereditary information (DNA) to their offspring cells.
4. Cells have similar chemical compositions compared to other cells.
5. Cells are the sites of energy flow mechanisms such as respiration and
metabolism

❖ CELLS
PROKARYOTES vs. EUKARYOTES

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
DNA is helix-shaped and
DNA is round and flows
straight, found in the
Genetic information freely in cytoplasm
nucleus
DNA, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus and
membrane-bound
DNA, plasma membrane, organelles (ex:
nucleoid, cytoplasm mitochondria,
Organelles
chloroplasts(found only on
plant cells), Golgi body,
endoplasmic reticulum)
Can be found in plant and
fungal cells, but not
Present, composed of composed of
Cell wall
peptidoglycans peptidoglycans
Can’t be found in animal
cells
Size Small (1-5 µm) Larger (10-100 µm)
Animals, plants, fungi, and
Organisms Bacteria and archaea
protists
Can be unicellular or
Cell structure Unicellular
multicellular

PARTS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

PARTS CHARACTERISTICS
Nucleus control center; houses genetic material
Ribosome free-floating or attached; site of protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum site of lipid synthesis and carbohydrate
metabolism
Rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizer of membranes and proteins; has
attached ribosomes
Golgi apparatus modifier, sorter, and shipper of materials
throughout the cell
Lysosome digests cellular materials
Vacuoles storage sac for water and nutrients
Mitochondrion site of cellular respiration
Chloroplast site of photosynthesis
Peroxisome producer of hydrogen peroxide and other
enzymes involved in metabolic reactions
Cytoplasm gel-like substance that fills the cell; site of most
biochemical reactions
Plasmodesmata pores between cell walls that allow intercellular
communication
Cell membrane semi-permeable layer that surrounds the
cytoplasm
Cell wall surrounds and protects the cell membrane

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Features Plant Cell Animal Cell

Lysosome absent present
Centrosome with absent present
centriole
Chloroplast present absent
present present
Vacuole central and relatively
larger
Cell wall present absent
Plasmodesmata present absent

TYPES OF CELL TRANSPORT

1) Passive transport – adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is not required

 a. Diffusion – transfer of materials from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
b. Osmosis – transfer of water towards the side of the membrane with a higher
solute concentration. A solution, relative to the cell, can be:
● hypotonic (lower solute concentration)
● hypertonic (higher solute concentration), or
● isotonic (same solute concentration)

2) Active transport – use of ATP to move nutrients against a concentration

gradient
a. Exocytosis – vesicles stick to the cell membrane and expel their contents
b. Endocytosis – molecules enter the cell through phagocytosis (cell eating) or
pinocytosis (cell drinking)

❖ PHOTOSYNTHESIS & CELLULAR RESPIRATION

1) Photosynthesis
● Light Reactions

● Calvin Cycle
Carbon fixation and reduction of RuBP by CO2 converts it into G3P, which
can be further processed into glucose.

The fixed and reduced RuBP is then converted back to be ready for the
next cycle; the whole cycle consumes ATP and NADPH.
 2) Cellular Respiration
● Glycolysis
Breakdown of glucose and investment of 2 ATP to produce pyruvate, 4
ATP, and 2 NADH
● Pyruvate Oxidation
Pyruvate is oxidized into acetyl CoA, producing CO2 and transforming
NAD+ into NADH in the process.
● Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs Cycle
Acetyl CoA reacts with oxaloacetate, which undergoes another series of
reactions, reducing NAD+ into NADH, FAD+ into FADH2, ADP into ATP, and
producing CO2 ; 2 ATP is produced per molecule of glucose

Oxaloacetate is converted back to original form to be used in the next

cycle..
● Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Electron transport chain: electrons are transported from NADH and
passed on until it reaches O2, converting it into water.

Chemiosmosis: H+ ions travel through ATP synthase, allowing it to

synthesize ADP into ATP; 32 to 34 ATP is produced.
● Fermentation - occurs when there is no O2 present after glycolysis
Alcohol fermentation: pyruvate to ethanol
Lactic acid fermentation: pyruvate to lactic acid

❖ CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

1) Interphase – consists of G1, S, and G2 phase

G1, G2-phase – cell growth and metabolism phase
S-phase – DNA synthesis phase that occurs between
 G1 and G2, duplication of chromosomes occurs
2) MITOTIC PHASE (M) – consists of Prophase,
Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
3) Prophase
- nucleolus disappears
- mitotic spindle forms
- duplicated chromosomes appear as sister chromatids
- centrosomes move in opposite directions
4) Prometaphase
- nuclear envelope disappears
- chromosomes become condensed
- sister chromatids captured by kinetochore microtubules
- mitotic spindle attaches to kinetochore
5) Metaphase
- centrosomes now at opposite sides of cell
- chromosomes align at metaphase plate
6) Anaphase
- sister chromatids break apart from each other
- shortening of microtubules pulls chromatids toward opposite ends
- cell elongates
7) Telophase
- start of cytokinesis (C) and formation of cleavage furrow
- nuclear envelopes and nucleolus form
- chromosomes become less condensed
- mitotic spindles disappear
(I-P-M-A-T)

Centrosome
contains material that functions in organizing mitotic spindles

Centromere
attachment point of two sister chromatids

Kinetochore
site of attachment of mitotic spindle to chromosomes

Meiosis - Haploid: N number of chromosomes

Diploid: 2N number of chromosomes
In humans, N = 23
Meiosis I - similar to mitosis, produces 2 diploid daughter cells
Meiosis II - occurs right after meiosis I, produces 2 haploid daughter cells each
For 1 parent cell, meiosis produces 4 haploid daughter cells.

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

 I. Meiosis has synapsis (pairing of two homologous chromosomes) during
Prophase I.
II. Metaphase I aligns two chromatids at a time, compared to one for mitosis.
III. Meiosis produces 4 haploid daughter cells with different genetic material while
mitosis produces 2 diploid daughter cells with the same genetic material.
IV. Meiosis occurs only to produce egg and/or sperm cells.

Primary purposes of Mitosis

1. Asexual Reproduction – Mitosis is the method of reproduction of single-celled
asexual organisms.
2. Growth – Mitosis is involved in cell reproduction, which results in increased cell
number which adds more mass to the body.
3. Tissue Repair – Mitosis produces cells which replace damaged or dead cells.

Primary purposes of Meiosis

1. Sexual Reproduction – Meiosis of a single diploid germ cell involves DNA

replication followed by two rounds of division, resulting in haploid cells called
gametes. These haploid cells have half the number of chromosomes of the
original single diploid germ cell. This also results in genetic variation among the
haploid cells.
2. Spermatogenesis - Immature sperm cells undergo successive cell divisions
(spermatocytogenesis) and a change in cell form (spermiogenesis) to produce
mature sperm cells (spermatozoa).
3. Oogenesis - The formation of the ovum or egg. Oogenesis consists of two
events: the ovum precursor germ cell undergoes meiotic division and
accumulates a significant amount of cytoplasm.

❖ ORGAN SYSTEMS

1) Digestive System
- Food processing involves ingestion (eating), digestion (breakdown), absorption
(uptake of nutrients), and elimination (passage out of the body).

Mouth/Oral Cavity: site of ingestion (intake of food), mechanical digestion (chewing

of food), and chemical digestion (due to saliva)
Esophagus: moves bolus (mechanically ingested food) from mouth to stomach
Stomach: digests proteins and adds gastric juice, producing chyme
Small Intestine: site of most of enzymatic hydrolysis
Pancreas: produces an alkaline solution to stabilize acidic chyme
Liver: creates bile, which helps digest lipids
Gallbladder: stores bile
Large Intestine: reabsorbs water to solidify feces

2) Circulatory System
∙ 4 Heart Chambers: Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle,
Left Atrium, Right Atrium
∙ Blood Vessels

Arteries: transport blood away from the heart

Pulmonary Artery” artery that transports
deoxygenated blood from the heart’s right
ventricle to the lungs
Aorta: largest artery, transports blood from the
heart to other parts of the body
Veins: transport blood towards the heart
Pulmonary Vein: vein that transports
oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart’s
left atrium
Superior Vena Cava: largest vein, transports
oxygen-poor blood from the upper half of the
body to the heart’s right atrium
Inferior Vena Cava: transports oxygen-poor
blood from the lower half of the body to the
heart’s right atrium
Capillaries: site of exchange of oxygen and other
materials between cells and blood

3) Respiratory System
Lungs - main organ of the respiratory system;
houses the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
Air pathway:
Mouth/ Nose → Pharynx →Larynx → Trachea
→ Bronchi →Bronchioles → Alveoli
(where gas exchange takes place)
4) Immune System
includes lymphoid organs such as thymus,
spleen, tonsils, and bone marrow, the skin,
and specialized cells.

Innate Immunity - defense that is activated

immediately and is the same whether or not
the pathogen has been encountered
previously

Adaptive Immunity - receptors recognize

features of a certain pathogen and develop an
immunity against it

5) Excretory System
Kidney - carries out osmoregulation and
excretion of urea in mammals
Ureter - duct which transports urine from the
kidney to the bladder
Bladder - place where urine is stored before
excretion
Urethra - tube which urine from the bladder is
excreted

6) Reproductive System:
A. Male Reproductive System
Testes - male gonads, produce
sperm in the seminiferous tubules
Epididymis - site of sperm cell
storage and maturation
Vas Deferens - transports sperm
cells from the testes to the urethra
Seminal Vesicles - provide fluids
that constitute most of semen to
nourish the sperm cells
Prostate Gland - provides
 anti-coagulant enzymes to the
semen
Bulbourethral Glands - produces
fluids that lubricate and neutralize
the acidity of the urethra
Scrotum - sac of skin that protects
and regulates the temperature of
the testicles
Penis - a series of muscular
erectile tissues that aid in sexual
intercourse

B. Female Reproductive System

Labia Majora - protect female
external reproductive organs
Labia Minora - surround and
protect the vagina and urethra
Bartholin’s Glands - produce
mucus
Clitoris - meeting point of labia
minora, sensitive to stimulation
Ovaries - female gonads, site of
maturation of oocytes (which turn
into egg cells)
Fallopian Tube - passageway of an
egg cell from the ovary to the
uterus
Uterus - womb, site of fertilized egg
maturity
Cervix - uterus neck that separates
it from the vagina
Vagina -opening of the female
reproductive system to the
environment

C. Gametogenesis - production of gametes (sperm and egg cell), continuous and

prolific in males, only active in females up to the age of 50

D. Early Animal Development

• Sexual reproduction - fusion of two haploid cells from different individuals,
forming a zygote
• Asexual reproduction - generation of new individuals without the need of
fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg) (e.g., binary fission)
• Differentiation - assignment of divided cells into specialized functions
• Gastrula - group of cells from a divided zygote that shows first cell
differentiation into three germ layers:
Ectoderm – becomes future epidermis, nervous system, sensory organs

Mesoderm – becomes future skeletal, muscular, circulatory, excretory, and

reproductive systems
Endoderm – becomes future liver, thymus

7) Nervous System
• Central Nervous System (CNS) - site of processing
of nerve impulses
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - site of detection
and transmission of nerve impulses
• Neurons - nerve cells that carry impulses across the
body
Types of Neurons
Afferent Neurons - carry signals towards the CNS
Interneurons - present in CNS, pass signals from
afferent neurons to efferent neurons
Efferent Neurons - transmit signals from the CNS
towards the motor and sensory organs

Autonomic Nervous System - functions involuntarily, controls the smooth and

cardiac muscles, divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system, which do antagonistic/opposite effects from each other

Sympathetic Nervous System - manages the body’s stress response (fight or

flight)
 Parasympathetic Nervous System - manages the body at rest

8) Endocrine System
A. Anterior pituitary gland
Produces:
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – stimulates
thyroxin release from the thyroid gland
Luteinizing hormone (LH) – promotes estrogen
production, progesterone production, and
ovulation in females, promotes testosterone
release in males
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – promotes
hormone release by the adrenal cortex
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – promotes the
development of eggs and follicles in females,
promotes testosterone production in males
Growth hormone (GH) – promotes growth of the
bones and muscles
Prolactin – promotes milk production in breasts

B. Posterior pituitary gland

Releases:
• Vasopressin or anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – maintains blood pressure by
increasing kidney fluid retention
• Oxytocin – stimulates contractions of the uterus at birth, stimulates the release
of milk when a baby suckles

C. Thyroid gland
Produces:
• Thyroxine – increases energy expended during rest periods (basal metabolic
rate or BMR)
• Calcitonin – reduces blood calcium concentration levels

D. Hypothalamus
Produces:
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) – stimulates anterior pituitary gland
release of TSH
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) – stimulates anterior pituitary gland
release of FSH and LH
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) – s stimulates anterior pituitary
gland release of GH
 • Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) – stimulates anterior pituitary gland
release of ACTH
• Somatostatin – decreases the amount of released GH and TSH
• Dopamine – decreases the amount of released prolactin, activates “reward
centers” of brain

E. Parathyroid gland
Produces:
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) – increases calcium absorption in the small
intestine and increases calcium release rate from bones

F. Adrenal cortex
Produces:
• Cortisol – has anti-inflammatory properties, regulates the immune system
• Aldosterone – raises levels of sodium in the blood

G. Pancreas
Produces:
• Insulin – lowers blood sugar levels when necessary
• Glucagon – raises blood sugar levels when necessary

H. Adrenal medulla
Produces the stress hormones in a fight-or-flight situation:
• Adrenaline (epinephrine) – increases heart rate and blood sugar levels,
relaxes breathing muscles to improve breathing
• Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) – increases heart rate and blood sugar
levels, increases blood pressure by narrowing blood vessels

I. Pineal gland
Produces:
• Melatonin – regulates circadian rhythms or sleep cycles

J. Ovaries
Produces:
• Estrogen (e.g., estradiol) – primary female sex hormone; development of the
female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics.

K. Corpus luteum
Releases:
• Progesterone – regulates the menstrual cycle and crucial for pregnancy

L. Testes
Produces:
 • Androgens (e.g., testosterone) – causes development of secondary male
characteristics like sperm cell production

9) Musculoskeletal Systems
● Endoskeleton - internal skeleton of
chordates that consists of bones and
cartilage
● Tendons - attach the striated muscles to
bones
● Ligaments - connect bones together inside
joints

Types of muscles
Smooth Muscle - muscles found in internal organs,
involuntary action
Cardiac Muscle - muscles found in the heart,
involuntary action
Skeletal Muscle - muscles that aid in locomotion,
voluntary action

❖ GENETICS

1) Mendelian Genetics

● Law of Segregation and Mendel’s Genetic Model

a. Alternative/different versions of a gene are expressed as alleles, which may
be dominant or recessive.
b. If a dominant allele is present, it will determine the gene’s expression.
c. Each offspring inherits an allele from each parent.
d. The two alleles in a gene separate so that different gametes contain one of
each allele.

Phenotype – external appearance dictated by genotype (e.g., yellow seed, green

seed)
Genotype – genetic make-up of gene, shows the alleles present (e.g., YY seed, yy
seed)
Homozygous – genotypes that contain the same type of alleles (YY or yy)
Heterozygous – genotypes that contain different types of alleles (Yy)
Punnett Square – used to determine genotype and phenotype of offspring in a parent
test cross

GG x Gg
 G g

G GG Gg

G GG Gg
G = green seeds (dominant)
g = yellow seeds (recessive)

Phenotypic ratio of offspring:

4 green: 0 yellow
Genotypic ratio of offspring:
2 homozygous green:
2 heterozygous green:
0 recessive yellow

2) Non-Mendelian Genetics

Incomplete Dominance
Heterozygous offspring have phenotypes that appear as an intermediate
between dominant and recessive types (e.g., pink flowers as offspring of white
and red flowers).

Codominance
Heterozygous offspring has phenotypes where both dominant and recessive
types are expressed (e.g., Roan cows have white and red patches even if its
parents are pure white and pure red cows).

Multiple Alleles
A gene still contains two alleles, but there are more than two types of alleles, with
different degrees of dominance (e.g., Blood Type alleles may be A, B, or O; A
and B have the same degree of dominance, but O is recessive).

Pleiotropy
A single gene affects different phenotypes (e.g., there is only one gene that
determines pea flower color and pea seed color).

Epistasis
A single phenotype is affected by two different genes (e.g., two genes need to
have a dominant allele for a Labrador to have yellow fur).

Polygenic Inheritance
 A gene expression is not limited to two different traits but instead several degrees
of the trait (e.g., skin color is not just black or white, but different shades). Two or
more genes also contribute to the phenotype.

3) Chromosomes and DNA

A. Sex-linked genes
● genes that are found in the 23rd pair of chromosomes/sex chromosomes
● females have an XX chromosome, males have an XY chromosome
○ Examples of diseases with X-linked dominant inheritance are
vitamin D-resistant rickets, oral-facial-digital syndrome type I, and
Fragile X syndrome
○ Examples of diseases with X-linked recessive are inheritance are
red-green color blindness, hemophilia A and B, and Duchenne
muscular dystrophy

● if a gene is found in the Y chromosome, it will only be passed to male

offspring

X-linked recessive
XY = Healthy male XCY = Affected male
XX = Healthy female XCXC = Affected female XCX = Carrier female

B. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid

● double-helix structure, constitutes the chromosome

● complementary base pairing: only a purine can bind with a pyrimidine

Purine Pyrimidine
Adenine (A) Thymine (T)
Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

C. RNA: Ribonucleic Acid

 • single strand, only contains one chain of nucleotide bases (e.g., mRNA,
tRNA)
• contains A, C, G, and U (Uracil, instead of T)
• mRNA – messenger RNA, contains genetic information used to form a
polypeptide
• tRNA – transfer RNA, transports amino acids to ribosomes
• rRNA – ribosomal RNA, makes up the ribosomes

Applications of genetics
1. Paternity testing uses DNA to determine if a person is a parent of a child.
2. Mammalian gene expression is the production of genetic products (usually
proteins) from gene instructions.
3. Recombinant DNA technology involves joining DNA strands of two different
organisms to produce certain traits, such as parasitic resistance, in an organism.
4. Reproductive cloning involves creating an organism that is genetically identical to
a donor organism through somatic cell nuclear transfer.

❖ EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY

Evolution – descent with modification shaped through natural selection

∙ Natural Selection
1. Individual organisms have variations in traits.
2. Individuals organisms with traits that are more adapted to the environment
survive and pass on those traits to their offspring
3. Increases the match/harmony of the organism to its environment

Proofs of Evolution
1. Adaptive evolution (e.g., Bacteria become increasingly resistant to antibiotics
after long exposures.)
2. Homology – similarity due to common ancestry (e.g., All mammals have a large
bone connected to two smaller bones in their arms.)
3. Fossil records (e.g., Fossils found below the Earth are different from but related
to those that are living in the present.)
4. Molecular biology – DNA analysis show common DNA strands among
organisms
Binomial nomenclature – scientific way of naming organisms; each organism is given
a scientific name based on its genus and species
Phylogeny – study of the evolutionary histories of organisms
Systematics – discipline focused on determining the evolutionary relationships of
different organisms

Common name: Human

Scientific name: Homo sapiens
Genus: Homo
 Species: Homo sapiens
Species epithet: sapiens

Classification of Life

Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species

Organization of Life

Biosphere → Biome → Ecosystem → Community → Population → Organism → Organ

System → Organ → Tissue → Cell

Three Domain System of Classification

1. Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotic organisms,
2. Domain Archaea - prokaryotes that have no peptidoglycan in their cell walls
3. Domain Bacteria - prokaryotes that have peptidoglycan in their cell walls

Prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea)

• Have no true nucleus and mitochondria
• Have circular chromosomes
• Fast reproduction, allowing for quick adaptive evolution
• Multiple modes of nutrition
- (photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and heterotrophy)

Eukaryotes (Eukaryota)
A. Protists (Kingdom Protista)

1. Eukaryotic, single-celled organisms

2. Multiple modes of nutrition

Endosymbiosis – engulfing of unicellular cells by another cell, eventually becoming an

organelle of it

Animal-like protists: include amoeba and the common ancestors of animals

and fungi
Plant-like protists: photosynthetic protists that arose from endosymbiosis with
cyanobacteria, includes algae

B. Plants (Kingdom Plantae)

Name Vascular Seed-bearing? Seed
System? encasement
 Bryophytes No No --
Ferns Yes No (spore-bearing) --

Gymnosperms Yes Yes Cones

Angiosperms Yes Yes Fruits

• Bryophytes: land plants with no vascular system, consist of liverworts, hornworts, and
mosses
• Ferns: majority of plants during the Carboniferous Period (major source of fossil fuels),
reproduce using spores
• Gymnosperms: cone-bearing plants that have seeds with unenclosed ovaries
• Angiosperms: seeds grow inside a fruit (encasement that is the matured ovary of the
flower)
• Monocots: angiosperms that only have one cotyledon in the seed
• Dicots: angiosperms with two cotyledons in the seed

C. Fungi (Kingdom Fungi)

● Heterotrophs that feed through absorption of foodstuffs
● May reproduce sexually through spores, or asexually through budding,
fragmentation, or spores

D. Animals (Kingdom Animalia)

● ingest food and uses enzymes to digest it into smaller molecules
● multicellular eukaryotes containing collagen in their cells for structural support

a. Invertebrates
Phylum Characteristic Examples
Porifera No true tissues but have choanocytes Sponges
Cnidaria Have stinging structures, radially symmetric, Hydras, Jellyfish
gastrovascular cavity
Platyhelminthes Dorsoventrally flat, unsegmented, Flatworms
gastrovascular cavity
Mollusca Bilaterally symmetrical Snails, Mollusks
Annelida Segmented body wall and internal organs Earthworms

Nematoda Unsegmented, has pseudocoelom Roundworms

Arthropoda Segmented, Has coelom (body cavity) and Insects
exoskeleton
 Echinodermata Five-part body organization Sea stars

b. Chordates and Vertebrates

• Vertebrates – organisms with a backbone or vertebrae

• Fish – first organisms to develop jaws, live in aquatic environments
• Amphibians – first four-limbed organisms (tetrapods), live both in land and water
• Reptiles – lay terrestrial amniotic eggs, ectothermic (obtain heat from external
sources)
• Birds – lay eggs, have feathers, endothermic (maintains body temperature)
• Mammals – endothermic, have mammary glands which produce milk

❖ ECOLOGY

Population – group of organisms of the same species living in the same location

Population Ecology
● Population Density number of organisms divided by area
● Immigrants individuals arriving in the area
● Emigrants individuals leaving the area
● Carrying Capacity maximum population an area can support

Population Growth = (Births – Deaths) + (Immigrants – Emigrants)

Community – group of populations of different species living in the same area

Community Ecology
● Interspecific Interactions:
1. Commensalism - one species benefits from the interaction; the other is hardly
affected
2. Mutualism - both species benefit from the interaction
3. Parasitism - the parasite gets food and/or nourishment from the host; the host is
negatively affected
4. Predation - the predator eats and kills the prey

Competitive Exclusion- survival of only one between or among two or more species
competing for identical resources in a particular habitat

• Trophic structure- the structure of feeding relationships in a community

• Food Chain- shows energy exchange in a community as it goes up to different
trophic levels from plants (primary producers) to herbivores (primary consumers)to
carnivores (secondary, tertiary, and quaternary consumers)
• Food Web - shows the relationships and connectedness of different food chains in
a community
• Ecological Succession - sequence of community and ecosystem changes over
time
• Ecosystem - community of organisms in and area and the influence of abiotic
factors
• Biome - a mosaic of ecosystems that have the same climate
• Biosphere - the global ecosystem, the union of all of Earth’s biomes and ecosystems