Forensic Photography (FORENSIC 1)

REYMARK DAQUIGAN
CHAPTER I – Historical- Background

Introduction to Photography, Personalities, Important Dates, Landmark Cases and Types of
Photography
A. Introduction to Photography
Photography is derived from Greek words, “photo or phos” which means light and “graphy or graphos or
graphien”, which means to draw or writing. Thus literally, photography means “to draw with light”.
Photograph refers to the chemical, mechanical or electronic product of photography.
In technical aspect Photography is defined as follows:
1. As an Art; Photography is the art of taking pictures.
2. As a Science; Photography is the study concerning the duplication of images through the action of light,
upon sensitized materials (photographic paper or film) with the aid of mechanical device (camera) and its
accessories, and the chemical processes (film developing and printing) involved therein.
3. As a Technology; Photography is the technology geared towards the reproduction of images by using the
action of light on a sensitive surface (photographic film) with the help of an image forming device (camera) and
the chemical process (developing and printing) involved therein.
4. As a Process; Photography is the method of using light to produce identical image of an object that can be
preserved permanently by employing:
a. Camera – to RAF (regulate, absorb and filter) light;
b. Film (sensitized material) – to record light.
Technical Photography and Forensic Photography.
1. Technicalities of Photography refers to technical concepts and principles which includes:

a. characteristics of photographic rays;
b. the use of camera;
c. lenses;
d. filters;
e. structure of film and photographic papers;
f. chemical processing and;
g. others. (Pallista, 2019)
2. Police Photography refers to:

a. The study of general practices, methods or techniques of taking pictures of the crime scene, physical
evidences and other circumstances that can be used as evidences or for law enforcement purposes.
b. The field that deals with systematic crime scene photography and mug file preparation, including
scientific techniques of photography physical evidences and other objects and images that need to be
reproduced and preserved for law enforcement purpose.
3. Forensic Photography refers to the field covering the legal application of photography in criminal
jurisprudence and criminal investigation. It is the branch of forensic science, sometimes called criminalistics,
dealing with the:
a. Study of fundamental but pragmatic principles of photography.

b. Application of photography in law enforcement; and
c. Preparation of photographic evidences needed by prosecutors and courts of law.
Objectives of Police Photography
1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he find thing.
3. To help in securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the case.
CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 1

Importance of Forensic Photography
1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of examination by
the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph
2. A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available especially in court
presentation, in court proceedings, fiscals and defense lawyers have generally never visited the scene of the
crime.
3. As a general rule, take many photograph of the crime scene and select the best.
4. Used as an aid by the investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene they have
investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
5. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve crimes.
Significance of Photography in Law Enforcement and Criminal Investigation
1. Photographs are necessary to preserve:

a. Space – the where of the crime (locus criminis)
b. Time – the when of the crime
c. Event – the what of the crime (what is the nature or character of the crime)
2. Pictures allow police investigators to understand the element of the clarifying and revealing what is not seen
and understood upon the discovery of the crime.
3. Photograph is a great help in preserving the visual appearance of the crime. It provides a permanent record of
the facts of the crime.
Application of Photography in Police Work
1. Identification – this is the very first use of photography in police work. It is used to identify criminals,
missing persons, lost property, licenses, anonymous letters, bank checks, laundry marks, and the civilian or
personnel fingerprint identification.
2. Communication and Microfilm files – investigative report files, accident files, transmission of photos
(wire photos) photographic supplements to reports with modern day electro – photography machines.
3. Evidence – crime scenes, traffic accidents, homicides, suicides, fires, objects of evidence, latent
fingerprints, evidential traces can frequently be improved by contrast control (lighting, film, and paper
filters), by magnification (photomicrography) or by invisible radiation (infra – red, ultraviolet, x – rays)
4. Offender detection – surveillance, burglar traps, confessions, re – enactments of crime.
5. Court exhibits – demonstration enlargements, individual photos, projection slides, motion pictures.
6. Reproduction or copying – questionable checks and documents, evidential papers, photographs, official
records and notices.
7. Personnel Training – photographs and films relating to police tactics, investigation techniques, mob
control, and catastrophe situation.
8. Crime and Fire Prevention Hazard – lectures, security clearance detection devices, photos of hazardous
fire conditions made when prevention inspections are made.
9. Public relations – film pertaining to safety programs, juvenile delinquency, traffic education, public
cooperation and civil defense.
B. Personalities in Photography
Personalities Contribution/s
1. Mozi “Mo – ti” (470 – A Chinese Philisopher who is mention in the first
391 BC) surviving principles behind the pinhole camera or
camera obscura who referred to a device as a
collecting plate or locked treasure room. (Delizo, 2015)
2. Aristotle (347 – 322 A famous Greek Philosopher who invented the first
BC) pinhole camera that was known later as Camera
Obscura (Italian word for darkroom chamber) which
is literally translated as Darkened Box. He is an
Artist or painter, in order to get accurate perspective
of natural scene and scale of their subjects he used
the camera obscura. He was the one who succeeded

in recording the principle that light entering through
a small hole produces an inverted image or figure.
(Tad – awan, 2013)
3. Alhazen “Ibn Al – An Arabian scholar who found out that light entering
Haytham” (965 – 1039 a small hole on the wall or shuttered window of a
AD) darkened room cast an upside down picture of the
scene outside onto the opposite wall. He used this in
observing the solar eclipse by entering a darkroom
with a pinhole opening to avoid harming the eye. (Tad
– awan, 2013)
4. Daniele Matteo Alvise He wrote a book entitled “La pratica della perspettiva”
Barbaro (1568) on perspective for artists and architects. This work
describes how to use a lens with a camera obscura.
He introduced the use of the lens in the camera.
(Pallista, 2019)
5. Sir Isaac Newton An English Philosopher, Mathematician, and
(1666) Physicist who discovered and proved that the
strongest light is white light. He defended his theory
by allowing a white light (sunlight) to pass through a
prism thus refracting and diffracting the light onto
different colors. (Pallista, 2019)
6. Johann Heinrich A German Scientist (Anatomist) discovered the Silver
Schulze (1727) Nitrate when he exposed it to light it turns purple.
He got interesting in his finding and that fair later, he
discovered that the evening action was not due to the
heat but light. He finally concluded that silver nitrate
is sensitive to light and capable of producing images.
(Pallista, 2019)
7. Jean Baptiste Forta An artist and scientist who in his Pseudo Science
(1748 – 1796) Magic had made use of the Camera Obscura and
replaced the hole with a lens which made the image
brighter and sharper. He was the first one who
introduced the lens. (Pallista, 2019)
8. Thomas Wedgwood He discovered that Silver Chloride is more sensitive
(1802) than silver nitrate and thus, more capable of
recording and producing images. (Pallista, 2019)
9. Joseph Nicéphore He was able to obtain camera images on papers
Niépce (1816) sensitized with silver chloride solution in 1816.
However, the image required eight hours of light
exposure and later faded. He invented a photographic
process which he called heliography meaning writing
of the sun. (Pallista, 2019)
10. Hercules Florence He coined the term photographie. (Delizo, 2015)
(1834)
11. Louis – Jacques – He invented Daguerreotype, an early photograph
Mande Daguerre (1837) produced on a silver or silver – covered copper plate.
It formed an image directly on the silver surface of a
metal plate. It was a positive process, thus, it
yielded one of a kind images. (Pallista, 2019)
12. William Henry Fox He succeeded in contact printings made in his
Talbot (1839) miniature cameras (mouse – trap cameras) through a
process called photogenic drawing. He invented a
process called Calotype, a photographic process by
which a large number of prints could be produced
from a paper negative. Calotype use paper with
surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive
compounds. He also discovered the latent image, the
invisible product of a short exposure which could be
chemically developed. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
13. John Frederick He coined the term Photography and applied the
William Herschel (1839) terms negative and positive to photography. He made
improvements in photographic processes,
particularly in inventing the Cyanotype process using
Ferric Ammonium Citrate and Potassium
Ferricyanide, the precursors of the modern blueprint
process. Father of Photography. (Pallista, 2019)
14. Samuel Finley An American artist and inventor. He is the reason
Breese Morse (1839) why Photography arrived in the United States. Morse
visited Daguerre in Paris in March 1839 and
observed a demonstration of the daguerreotype
process. Morse returned to the United States to
spread the news. (Pallista, 2019)
15. Abel Niepce de Saint He introduced a process of negatives on glass using
– Victor (1848) albumen as a binding medium. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
16. Louis Désiré He introduced a printing paper coated with albumen
Blanquart – Evrard to achieve a glossy surface. Albumen print is also
(1850) called albumen silver print. Albumen is found in egg
whites to bind the photographic chemicals to the
paper and became the dominant form of

photographic positives from 1855 to the start of the
20th century, with a peak in the 1860 – 90 periods.
(Tad – awan, 2013)
17. Sir David Brewster A Scottish scientist who developed stereoscopic
(1850 – 1860) photography involved in making pairs of negatives
and prints to replicate the process of human vision.
(Sarmiento, n.d.)
18. Frederick Scott He invented the photographic collodion process
Archer (1851) which preceded the modern gelatin emulsion.
Collodion is a wound dressing material made of
nitrated cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol and
other chemicals on sheet of glass. (Pallista, 2019)
19. André Adolphe – He popularized the small cheap portrait. Anyone who
Eugène Disdéri (1854) could afford a picture of himself or herself. (Pallista,
2019)
20. David A. Woodward He first constructed an enlarger. It was cumbersome
(1857) object. The sun was collected by means of a convex
lens and the camera has to be turned with the sun.
This design became the model for a number of solar
cameras. (Tad – awan, 2013)
21. Gaspard – Felix He took the first aerial photographs of Paris from a
Tournachon AKA Nadar free balloon in 1858. Father of aerial photography
(1858) (Pallista, 2019)
22. Mathew B. Brady He is considered the Father of photojournalism.
(1861) When the American Civil War broke out, he was able
to preserve the scene with the use of a camera.
(Pallista, 2019)
23. James Clerk He produced the earliest color photograph, an image
Maxwell (1861) of a tartan ribbon by having it photographed three
times through red, blue, and yellow filters, then
recombining the images into one color composite,
because of this photograph Maxwell is credited as the
founder of the theory of additive color. (Jeremy Norman’s
HistoryofInformation.com, 2020)
24. Louis Jules Duboscq He made an apparatus for enlarging by electric light
(1851) and showed it ti the Paris Photographic Society in
1861. (Tad – awan, 2013)
25. Odelbrecht (1864) He first advocated the use of photography for the
identification of criminals and the documentation of
evidence and crime scenes. Early photography of
accused and arrested persons were beautifully posed
as example of the Victorian photographers at 20 to
30 years. Later, every major police force in England
and United States has Rogues Gallery which became
integral part in almost all police departments. (Tad –
awan, 2013)
26. William de Wiveleslie He discovered the use of Hydroquinone as a
Abney (1880) developing agent in 1880, England. (Pallista, 2019)
27. Richard Leach He successfully introduced the plate with gelatine.
Maddox (1884) The roll film came and new brands of cameras with
different lenses and mechanism were placed in the
market. (Pallista, 2019)
28. John Carbutt (1888) He marketed the first negative film to use celluloid,
transparent and flexible as the support for his
gelatine emulsion. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
29. Wilhelm Conrad He discovered x-ray photography which later become
Rontgen or Wilhelm the basis of Radiograph used by the doctors in
Konrad Roentgen (1895) measuring the heartbeat and see the other structure
of the body. (Pallista, 2019)
30. George Eastman He founded the Eastman Kodak company and
(1990) invented roll film, helping bring photography to the
mainstream. Mr. Eastman developed in 1900 the
Kodak Brownie box roll-film camera. (Pallista, 2019)
31. Dr. Rudolphe A German scientist who contributed heavily to the
Archibald Reiss (1902) use of photography in forensic science and
established the world’s earliest crime laboratory that
serviced the academic community and the Swiss
Police. (Tad – awan, 2013)
32. Jonas Ferdinand He won the Nobel Laureate in Physics for his method
Gabriel Lippmann of reproducing colors photographically based on the
(1908) phenomenon of interference, also known as
Lippmann Plate. (Tad – awan, 2013)
33. Victor Baltazard He developed a method of photographic comparison
(1910) of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early
foundation of the field of ballistics. (Tad – awan, 2013)
34. Edwin H. Land He introduced Polaroid – one step photography. (Tad –
(1947) awan, 2013)
35. Dennis Gabor (1960) He invented LASER, making holography possible in
1947. (Demetria, 2019)

36. Steven J. Sasson He developed the first prototype for a digital camera;
(1975) it was eight pounds and about the size of a toaster.
He received a patent for it in 1978, and continued to
work in the emerging field, finding ways to store,
transmit, and manipulate digital images. Today, a
majority of Americans own digital cameras, many as
close as their mobile phones. (Rensselaer, n.d.)
(Note: Calotype vs. Daguerre – fixation in calotype was only partial while images in daguerreotype were made
permanent with the use of hypo (short for hyposulfite thiosulfate, sodium thiosulfate or a solution of
thiosulfate).
Sodium thiosulfate or hypo – a hygroscopic (readily taken up and retaining moisture) crystalline salt used
especially as a photographic fixing agent and a reducing or bleaching agent.)
C. Important Dates in the Development of Photography
Significant Dates Event

1. 16th century Italian scholars used the camera as a drawing apparatus.
Instead of using a darkroom, they used box with a leans
and placed a mirrors. (Tad – awan, 2013)
2. 17th century Camera Obscura was built – in with convex lens. (Tad –
awan, 2013)
3. 1800 Thomas Wedgwood and Humphey Davy produced
photograms. (Tad – awan, 2013)
4. 1839 The birth year of modern photography, the year when the
Science of Photography became a public knowledge. (Tad –
awan, 2013)
5. 1841 French Police used daguerreotypes for personal
identification of known criminals. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
6. 1843 – 1844 The earliest evidence of photographic documentation of
prison inmates in Belgium and in 1851 in Denmark. (Miller,
n.d.)
7. 1850 The year when photography was already well – developed.
It was used as an art concerned with landscape,
portraiture and architectural presentation. (Tad-awan, 2013)
8. 1859 In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic
Science was in photography. It was used to demonstrate
evidence in a California Case. Enlarged photographs of a
signature were presented in a court case involving forgery.
(Tad – awan, 2013)
9. 1875 The first recorded use of accident photography which was
admitted as evidence regarding an injured horse and a
buggy. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
10. 1890 Full corrected lens were introduced. (Tad – awan, 2013)
11. 1900 The first mass – marketed camera (The Brownie). (Delizo,
2015)
12. 1903 Will West case of Leavenworth highlight the value of
fingerprints. It proves it worth in personal identification
and showing the fallibility of the three systems; The name,
Bertillon system and photographs. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
13. 1906 A plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all
colors in equivalent shades of gray. (Tad – awan, 2013)
14. 1907 In Denver, Colorado, all intoxicated persons were
photographed at the Police station. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
15. 1910 The State of Massachusetts approved the use of
photographic speed recorders to detect speeding motorists.
(Miller, n.d.)
16. 1913 – 1914 The first 35mm still camera was developed. (Delizo, 2015)
17. 1930 Photoflash bulbs were used and readily accepted by the
public. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
18. 1935 Eastman Kodak Company markets Kodachrome film and
in 1941 they introduce Kodacolor negative film. Later in
1954, They introduce high speed Tri-X film. (Delizo, 2015)
19. 1960 Underwater camera for US Navy was developed. (Claro, n.d.)
20. 1960 LASER was invented making possible holograms
tridimensional pictures. (Tad – awan, 2013)
21. 1963 Polaroid Company introduced their Polacolor film makin it
possible to take finished color pictures in less than a
minute. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
22. 1965 The introduction of the fully automatic electronic flash.
(Sarmiento, n.d.)
23. 1967 The beginning of the use of video tapes as legal evidence.
(Sarmiento, n.d.)
24. 1968 Photograph of the Earth from the moon was done. (Claro,
n.d.)
25. 1970 Colored photography has matured as an artistic medium.
(Tad – awan, 2013)
26. 1973 Polaroid introduces one-step instant photography with the
SX – 70 camera. (Delizo, 2015)

27. 1977 George Eastman and Edwin Land were introduced into the
National Inventor Hall of Fame. (Claro, n.d.)
28. 1978 Konica introduces first point – and – shoot autofocus
camera. (Delizo, 2015)
29. 1980 Sony demonstrates first digital electronic still camera.
(Delizo, 2015)
30. 1985 Pixar introduces digital imaging processor. (Delizo, 2015)
31. 1990 Eastman Kodak Company announces Photo CD as a digital
image storage medium. (Delizo, 2015)
32. 1998 Arrival of true digital cameras. (Pallista, 2019)
D. Landmark Cases in Photography
Case Facts of the Case

1. Luco vs. US (1859) Photograph was used to prove that title
was in fact a forgery. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
2. Lock vs. The Sioux City and P.R.R. Photographs were admitted as
(1877) evidence in a civil suit involving a train
wreck. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
3. Redden vs. Gates (1879) One of the first cases to hold that a
relevant photograph of an injured
person on auto accidents was
admissible as evidence. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
4. Commonwealth vs. Best (1902) One of the early uses of firearms
identification is recorded, photographs
of a bullet taken from a murdered man
was put in evidence along with a
photograph of a test bullet. (Sarmiento,
n.d.)
5. People vs. Jennings (1911) Use of fingerprint photographs for
identification purposes was approved,
although 1882 was the year in which
fingerprint were officially used in US.
(Sarmiento, n.d.)
6. State vs. Thorp (1934) Ultraviolet photography was approved
in a decision handed down, picture
showed footprints in a linoleum floor
and brought out distinctive marks of
the soles of the shoes worn by a
defendant. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
7. Green vs. County of Denver (1943) Historic event in police photography in
the passing upon the admissibility of
colored photography. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
8. Cabangis vs. City of Manila (1967) Beginning of the use of video tapes as
legal evidence in the Philippines.
(Demetria, 2019)
Steps are taken to ensure proper photographic documentation:
1. Secure the scene - In all forensic investigations, the first step is to secure the crime scene.
2. Evaluate conditions - Next, the photographer should evaluate the available light and weather conditions
and adjust camera settings appropriately. Crime scenes can be indoors, outside or both; they can be vehicles,
include multiple rooms, or any combination of locations, therefore no single camera setting will work for all
crime scenes.
3. Shoot the scene - The photographer should take photographs before anything is disturbed, progressively
working through the scene from outside to close-up pictures. Many shots should be taken, from the entire
scene, to medium shots to show the relationship of evidence to the overall scene.
4. Photograph the victims - The next series of shots should include victims (if present) to show locations,
injuries and condition.
5. Photograph the evidence - Then each piece of evidence should be photographed to illustrate where it
was found. This establishes the relationships of the evidence to the victim, the victim to the room and so on.
These photographs should be taken from straight above or straight on at right angles, eliminating potential
distance distortions. Each piece of evidence should be photographed with a scale to indicate size and
without a scale.
6. Evidence markers - Photographs should be taken before evidence markers are placed, then again after.
These initial shots are important to prove that no one has tampered with the crime scene.

7. Re-shoot for new evidence – If investigators mark new evidence, the whole series of shots should be
repeated, including all evidence shots. These photos should include the entire piece of evidence and a scale
to indicate size.
Types of Photography
1. Forensic Photography - This refers to recording crime scene or any other objects for court presentation.
2. Photomicrography - This refers to the process of taking photographs through a microscope, a camera is
mounted directly above the microscope's eyepiece.
3. Microphotography - This refers to the technique of duplicating and reducing a picture or a document to
a miniature size for storage.
4. Photo macrography - This is the direct enlarging to the negative and magnified from 1 9 times.
5. Macro photography - This refers to close up phot that produces images on the film that are life - size.
6. Ultraviolet photography - This refers to an ultraviolet light source that is used to illuminate the object
and the camera lens is provided with a filter that permits only the passage of ultraviolet light. The second
method makes use of fluorescence caused by ultraviolet light; a filter used on the camera absorbs ultraviolet
light and allows the passage of the fluorescent light.
7. Infrared photography - This is with special dyes, photographic emulsions can be made sensitive to light
in the invisible infrared portion of the spectrum. Infrared light cuts through atmospheric haze and enables
clear photographs to be taken from long distances or high altitudes because any objects radiates in infrared
light, it can be photographed in complete darkness. Infrared photographic techniques are used whenever
small differences in temperatures or in absorption or reflection capabilities for infrared light have to be
detected.
8. X – ray photography - This refers to photographic recording of X-ray pictures called radiography has
become an important diagnostic tool in medicine. Radiography, using very energetic X -rays or gamma rays
is also employed to detect welding - defects and structural defects in pressure vessels, pipes and mechanical
parts especially those that are critical for safety reasons as in nuclear power plants, airplanes and
submarines.
9. Flash photography - This refers to taking of photographs with light burst photography that illuminates
its subject with a brief flash of artificial light.
10. Streak photography - This refers to photography that traces movement by either the camera or the
subject being move during exposure.
11. Night-time photography - This refers to photography without flash which is now possible with many
modern cameras, but the long exposure time requires to used fast film.
12. High-speed photography and Cinematography - This refers to photography using modern cameras
that allow exposure with shutter speeds of up to 1/1,000 second. Shorter exposure times can be attained by
illuminating the object with a short light flash. In 1913 the American engineer Harold E. Edgerton
developed an electronic strobe light with which he produced flashed of 1/500,000 second enabling him to
photograph a bullet in flight. By the use of a series of flashes, the progressive stages of objects in motion,
such as a flying bird can be recorded on the same piece of film.
13. Aerial photography - This refers to photography using special cameras that are often equipped with
several lenses and large film magazines and set in vibrating - free mountings on aero planes. Cameras
mounted in satellites are also used for such photography. A special application of aerial photography is
military surveillance and reconnaissance; some reconnaissance satellites are equipped with cameras having
objectives of long focal lengths that produce image of very high resolution on which cars or even smaller
objects can be recognized.
14. Underwater photography - This refers to special underwater cameras in pressure - resistant housings
are also used in deep-sea exploration.
15. Astronomical photography - This refers photography that places the photographic plate in the focal
plane of a telescope. Astronomers can obtain precise records of the location and brightness of celestial
bodies.

16. Microfilming - This refers to photography that consists of photographically reducing images to a very
small size. An early application was the photographing of bank cheques in the 1920s; now the technique is
widely used to store information that would otherwise require too much space.
17. Mug shot Photography - This refers usually for personal identification which is the first use of
photography in police work.
18. Thermo Photography - This refers to a kind of photography wherein we use laser beam radiation using
laser beam film.
19. Telephotography - This refers to the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long
focus and Telephoto lens.
Chapter II– Principles of Photography

Basic Principles and Elements of Photography
A. Basic Principles of Photography
A.1. Light – This refers to:
1. Electromagnetic radiation within the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be perceived by the
human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400 – 700 nanometers (nm),
or 4.00 × 10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter
wavelengths). This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430 – 750 terahertz (THz).
Qualities of Light
1. Intensity - The amount of light reflected by the performer and the background. Also referred to as quantity of
light and it refers to how bright or dim the light source is.
2. Color - The color or also known as the temperature of the light reflected by the performer and the background.
3. Direction - The direction (or angle) of the light determines the length and location of the shadows cast by the
performer and the three-dimensional props around him.
4. Quality - The quality of light is not something we can measure. It is, instead, something we describe based upon
visual perception; light is either soft or hard. Also, may referred to as the Hardness of the light.
5. Contrast - refers to the difference in brightness between the brightest and darkest parts of the image which is
the contrast between highlight and shadow areas. Highlights are the brightest parts of the image and shadows
are the darker regions of an image.
Sources of Light
Natural Light Source
1. Moon and Stars - It is when the sun sets, day turns into night and it becomes dark. The night sky has the moon and
innumerable stars. However, despite their brightness the moon and the stars can hardly keep the darkness away. The
moon actually has no light of its own, it reflects the light.
2. Sunlight - The most popular and mostly used light source of photographers. It is free and no need to be transported.
But it is not always there where we want it. It is uncontrollable but can be controlled using the camera controls (shutter
speed & aperture opening).
3. Bioluminescence - It is the effect of certain chemical reactions within the organism. Fireflies, jellyfish, glow worm,
certain deep sea plants and microorganisms can be cited as examples.
4. Certain other natural phenomena such as Lightning and Volcanic Eruptions also emit light.
Classification of LIGHT According to its Intensity
1. Bright sunlight/Distinct sun - This is the direct sunlight striking the subject. It is the brightest of all, it is highly
directional, images taken with distinct sun is characterized by extreme highlights and deep shadows and it
provides the highest contrast in a picture.

2. Hazy Sunlight - It is a hazy sunlight when the sun is covered by thin clouds but still clearly visible and it is
illuminating your subject, it produces soft shadows and moderate highlight and contrast is also moderate, while
rays are directional.
3. Dull Sunlight/Cloudy - Objects in open space cast no shadow. It is cloudy when the sun is shining bright but
covered with thick moving clouds, other parts of the sky maybe clear, lighting is even throughout and not
directional, it does not cast practical shadows on your subject and contrast is relatively fair.
4. Overcast Sky/Cloudy Bright - Sun is bright but not visible, light is soft and not directional, skies may be covered
with stationary clouds and it provides no shadows and low contrast.
5. Heavy Overcast/Cloudy Dull - This is practically the same as overcast sky but generally darker and light is dull. It
provides very poor contrast and static cloud is so thick where one cannot tell the overhead position of the sun.
Light Angles
1. Front Lighting - Distinct sun is used as front lighting when it comes from behind the photographer. It is a common
belief that photographs taken at early in the morning or late in the afternoon is better compared to photos taken in any
other time of day. The light, when the sun is low, is oftentimes described as magical. Colors are warm, shadows are long,
and subject glow with razor sharp clarity.
2. Side Lighting - This type of lighting happens mostly in the morning and afternoon when the sunlight hits the subject
from either the right or left flank of the photographer. It brings out textures, patterns, and shapes of objects.
3. Back Lighting - This type of lighting happens when the sun strikes the subject from behind or when the sun is directly
in front of the photographer. Light coming straight from the back of the subject in portrait produces a bright edged
outlined around it. Backlighting also brings out shapes and good profile as well as silhouettes of your subjects.
4. Overhead Lighting - This normally occurs at noontime where sun is directly above your subject. This angle of lighting
is generally not recommended for taking portraits. Strong dark shadows are cast at the subjects' eyes. However, it can
be corrected with a fill-in flash
Characteristics of Light
Theories of Light
1. Wavelength Theory
• The wavelength of the light is the most pertinent, particularly in the design of lenses.
• It is best illustrated by the dropping of stone in a pond of still water.
• The series of wave which travels outward from the center point are just like wave that travels in all direction
from a source with equal velocity.
• This theory maybe used to illustrate reflection, interference, refraction, diffraction and polarization.
2. Quantum Theory
• Max Plank theorized in 1900 that light might be made up of little bundles of energy named quanta
• A quantum of light is called photon, when photon strikes a light sensitive surface, it gives energy of electrons
within the metal explain the photoelectric current.
• It is used to explain X -radiation and photo - electricity.
• The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum are the following: cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, UV
rays, visible light, infra - red rays, heat rays, hertzian waves, and the alternating current oscillation.
The RAT Law
1. Reflection
It occurs whenever an object changes the direction of a light wave but does not allow the wave
to pass through it
Reflected light maybe Specular or Diffused.
2. Refraction
It is the change in direction of a wave due to a change in its speed. This is most commonly
observed when a wave passes from one medium to another.

3. Diffraction
It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out
of waves past small openings.
Mediums of Light
1. Transparent objects
It allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side may be
clearly seen.
It transmits 90% or more of the incident light.
2. Translucent objects
It allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be
clearly distinguished
In some cases the objects on the other side may be recognizable but sharp detail and outlines are
obscured.
It transmits 50% or less of the incident light.
3. Opaque objects
It is so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if not
impossible.
It diverts or absorb light.
SPEED OF LIGHT
• 299,792,458 meters per second

• 186,000 miles per second
Invisible Radiation with wavelength shorter than 400 mμ
1. Ultraviolet Light
• The ultraviolet light is divided into the near and far ultraviolet and ranges from about 200 –
400 millimicrons wavelength.
• It is used to photograph fingerprints on multi – colored background, documents that are
altered chemically or over writings and detection of secret writings.
2. X–ray
• X – rays are electromagnetic energy having a wavelength that ranges between 10 - 30
millimicrons.
• Objects which are opaque as seen by the naked eye can be penetrated by x –rays.
• To produce a shadow photograph of an internal structure of solid objects, x – rays is suitable.
3. Gamma rays
• Used in recording or photographing objects hidden by opaque mediums.
4. Cosmic Rays
• Cosmic rays are high energy charged particles, originating in outer space, that travel at nearly
the speed of light and strike the Earth from all directions.
• Most cosmic rays are the nuclei of atoms, ranging from the lightest to the heaviest elements in
the periodic table.
• Cosmic rays also include high energy electrons, positrons, and other subatomic particles.
• The term "cosmic rays" usually refers to galactic cosmic rays, which originate in sources
outside the solar system, distributed throughout our Milky Way galaxy.
Invisible Radiation with wavelength longer than 400 mμ
1. Infrared Light
• Infrared light are lights having wave length greater than 700 millimicrons. It wavelength ranges
from 700 – 800 millimicrons.
• Infrared is not a color or any kind of red. It is an invisible rays and it is only detected by the
human skin as heat.
• Used in taking photographs of obliterated writing, burnt or dirty documents. Also known as
“Blackout photography”.
2. Radio Waves
• These light waves have the longest wavelength of all lights.
• Used for communicating through the modification and amplification of sound waves.
3. Microwaves
• Microwaves excite the water molecules in food, heat them up, and pass the heat throughout the
food.
• It can harm the body because it can heat the water molecules in deep tissues.

4. Hertzian Waves
• An electromagnetic wave produced by the oscillation of electricity in a conductor (as a radio
antenna) and of a length ranging from a few millimeters to many kilometers.
Colors of Lights Found in the Visible Spectrum and Coloring Matters
a. Light Rays
Primary Colors of Light Rays

1. Red 685 to 605 nm
2. Green 560 to 475 nm
3. Blue 475 to 455 nm
Secondary/Complementary Colors of Light Rays

1. Yellow 585 to 560 nm
2. Cyan 500 nm
3. Magenta 400 nm
Color Mixing of Lights
Color Addition
1. Magenta + Yellow = White
2. Magenta + Cyan = White
3. Yellow + Cyan = White
4. Red + Green + Blue = White
5. Red + Blue = Magenta
6. Red + Green = Yellow
7. Blue + Green = Cyan
Color Subtraction
1. White - Magenta = Green
2. Cyan - Green = Blue
3. Yellow - Green = Red
4. Yellow - Red = Green
5. White - Red = Cyan
6. White - Blue = Yellow
7. White - Green = Magenta
8. White - Cyan = Red
9. White - Yellow = Blue
Coloring Matters
Primary Colors of Coloring Matters

1. Red
2. Yellow
3. Blue
Secondary Colors of Coloring Matters

1. Orange
2. Green
3. Violet
Tertiary Colors of Coloring Matters

1. Yellow – Orange
2. Yellow – Green
3. Blue – Green
4. Blue – Violet
5. Red – Violet
6. Red – Orange
Color Mixing of Coloring Matters

1. Red + Yellow = Orange
2. Blue + Yellow = Green
3. Blue + Red = Violet
4. Yellow + Orange = Yellow – Orange
5. Yellow + Green = Yellow – Green
6. Blue + Green = Blue – Green
7. Blue + Violet = Blue –Violet
8. Red + Violet = Red – Violet
9. Red + Orange = Red – Orange
Neutral Colors
1. Gray
2. Black

Chapter III – Camera
Types of Camera, Accessories and Important Controls
Camera – This refers to:

1. A light – tight box chambered to the aperture enclosed in a shutter at the opposite end of which is the place
where the sensitized material is located. (Delizo, 2015)
2. A mechanical device that is used to form and record the rays of light (as reflected by the object) on the film
inside the light tight box. (Pallista, 2019)
3. A light tight (proof) box with a means of forming the image (Lens or Pinhole), with a means of holding
sensitized material at one end (Film Holder); and with a means of controlling the amount of light needed to
affect the film at the other end (Shutter). (Pallista, 2019)
A. Early Forms of Camera (Delizo, 2015)

1. Pinhole Camera – This refers to a simple design and construction, usually home – made consisting of a box
having a small aperture functioning as a lens at one end, the image being projected on the film at the other
end.
2. Box Camera – This refers to a simple camera that is little more than a pinhole camera, the pinhole is
replaced by the lens to enable the photographer gather lighter to be recorded.
3. Camera Obscura – This refers to a darkened chamber or small building in which images of outside objects
are projected onto a flat surface by a convex lens in aperture. Later, the term referred to a darkened boxlike
device in which images of external objects, received through an aperture, as with a convex lens, are exhibited
in their natural colors on a surface.
B. Other Types of Camera (Delizo, 2015)

1. Roll Film Camera – This refers to the cheapest and simplest to use.
a. Box Camera – This refers to camera that is capable of turning out good results without too much
effort.
b. Folding Camera – This refers to camera’s lens is incorporated into the bellows, which is slid back
and forth along a rail to change focus. The dark cloth covering the photographer and the box body of the
camera blocks out undesirable light, which might otherwise interfere with the picture.
c. Reflex Camera – This refers to camera that is used by professional including investigators because
of their vast capabilities and very high performance.
c.1. Single Lens Reflex (SLR) 35mm – The term “single lends” means that only lens is used for both the scene
and taking photographs of it, thereby, preventing parallax. Parallax is the difference between what is seen
through the view finder and what is actually recorded on the film.
c.2. Twin Lens Reflex (TLR) – Two cameras in one. The upper half consists of a lens, mirrors and ground glass
that show the full image of the scene almost exactly as it will appear in the final contact print.
c.3. Miniature Camera – This refers to a precise instrument designed for small objects. This is best known as
the 35mm camera which has an optical and mechanical standard which exceeds larger cameras.
c.3.1. German Leica – This refers to the first 35mm camera; it was designed to use motion picture film.
The kinds of German Leica:
a. Range Finder (Leica and Contax) – This refers to the most famous brand of ranger finder camera.
b. Single Lens Reflex
(Note: Ultra – miniature – This refers to the MINOA, the first and became popular during WWII as spy camera.
It was designed to copy documents. It is expensive as a good press camera and not as nearly useful.)
Single Lens Reflex
(Source: butkus.org, n.d.)

Digital Single Lens Reflex
(Source: archiewcphotography, n.d.)

2. Press Camera – This refers to camera that is used in commercial and news photography. The bellows can
extend two to three times their normal length.
3. View Camera – This refers to camera that is built somewhat like an accordion, with a lens at the front, a
ground – glass viewing screen at the back, and a flexible bellows in between.
4. Studio Camera – This refers to camera that is constructed similar to the view camera but is used primarily
for portraiture, copy work, small photography and the indoor photography.
5. Graphic Camera – This refers to view camera but smaller and designed to be folded up when not is used.
6. Camera Still Picture Special Purpose – This refers to camera that contains items adequate for general
purposes.
B.1. Types of Camera Based on Format (Pallista, 2019)
1. Small format – 35mm SLR Camera.
2. Medium Format Camera – Twin lens reflex (TLR). It has an advantage of producing larger negatives and
transparencies. This is intended for publication. Publishers prefer medium format image than 35mm with a
maximum of 10 shots (6x7 cm).
3. Large Format – View camera. Use 4 X 5 inches or large film. These cameras are most frequently used for
commercial, architectural, or landscape photography.
C. Main Parts of a Camera (Pallista, 2019)

1. Lens – A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two special surfaces capable of forming an image.
2. Shutter – An adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the film by varying the
length of time. This is a control by which you can determine how long in time the lens will remain open for
light to be recorded on the film.
C.1. Types of Shutter
a. Blade or Between the Lens Shutter – It is made up of overlapping blades powered by a spring. Located
between the aperture and the lens or in between the lens. They will give speed up to 1/500 th of a second.
b. Focal Plane Shutter – It consists of two metal blinds that open progressively or made of a black cloth and
generally located very near the focal plane. These shutters are pre-set; it has to be cocked before release. It
can be set and synchronize at all speed.
D. Basic Parts of the Modern Camera (Sarmiento, n.d.)

1. Body or Light Tight Box – This refers to an enclosure devoid of light.
2. Lens or Pinhole – This refers to basic parts of camera necessary to focus rays of light that is reflected by the
subject unto the film.
3. Film Holder – This refers to basic parts of camera that is located at the opposite side/end of the lens of a
camera, necessary to hold firmly the sensitized material in the correct plane during exposure intervals.
4. Shutter – This refers to basic parts of camera that is often known to be the door of the camera; it controls,
when and how long will the light fall on the film.
5. Viewing System or Viewfinder – This refers to basic parts of camera that is used to determine what will be
included or covered in the picture serves as the viewing of all cameras. This will show the entire scene
coverage that can be recorded in the film inside the camera. It is usually attached on the top or side of the
camera of the viewing lens.
E. Essential Camera Accessories (Sarmiento, n.d.)

1. Tripod – This refers to a tripled leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension. This can be
used in holding the camera when the camera is bulky or when using a shutter speed lower than one twenty
five of a second (1/25), to prevent the movement that will produce a blurred image in the photograph.
2. Cable Release – This refers to camera accessories that is attached to the shutter release of the camera and
used in releasing and closing the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the camera during the exposure
period especially when longer exposure is made.
3. Flash Units – This refers to flash bulbs or electric flash which synchronizes with the opening and closing of
shutter. This is very effective to augment the adverse lighting condition of the object(s) being photographed.
4. Light Meter – This refers to a device used in determining the intensity of light that strike the subject and
affect the film inside the camera.
5. Extension Tube – This refers to a device used in photographing a minute object. It is attached to the lens
board of the camera and the lens is attached to it when close – up photography is necessary.
6. Filter – This refers to a transparent medium which transmits and absorbs different wavelength of lights
usually made of glass or gelatine material placed in front of the camera lens.
7. Camera Grip – This refers to a device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or
movement of the camera during the exposure period. It is attached to the body of the camera and sometimes
the flash unit is attached to it.

8. Lens Hood – This refers to a device used to eliminate some reflections of light which might destroy the
image cast of the object(s) especially when the light is coming from the top or side position of the camera. It is
usually mounted in front of the lens barrel.
F. Other Types of Camera (According to Film and/or Uses) (Pallista, 2019)

1. Press Camera – This refers to a camera loaded with sheet film. They are traditional of folding bellows
designed with a lens standard in an extendable baseboard. It can also be loaded with a roll film and 70 mm
film magazines and often coupled with range finders.
2. Underwater Camera – This refers to camera that is designed for underwater photography.
3. Wide View Angle Camera – This refers to a camera with a very wide angle lens which produces a
rectangular image that is designed for landscape photography and architectural photography.
4. Panoramic Camera – This refers to camera that is used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by
encompassing a 120°, 180° or 360° view of one exposure.
5. Still Video Camera – This refers to camera used for images that can be stored on video tapes equipment
with a floppy disc, a disc that can hold 50 images or more.
G. Important Controls in the Camera (Delizo, 2015)

Four Important Controls in the Camera
1. Focusing Control
2. Focusing Ring
3. Aperture or Diaphragm Control
4. Shutter Speed Control
(Source: Falcons Fly, n.d.)

1. Focusing Control
a. Focus – This refers to the object distance that is estimated or calculated to form sharp or clear images.
b. Focusing – This refers to the adjustment or change of the distance between the focal plane and the length.
2. Focusing Ring
✓ A large knurled ring around the barrel of this lens, when turned the lens will either move away or toward
the camera body, depending upon the direction of rotation until ring cannot be turned further.
✓ At this stopping point, all distant objects are in focus regarding of difference in their distance, is termed
infinity focus or simply infinity.
✓ When the lens is set in infinity, the lens – to – film distance is at the shortest distance to bring the most
distant object into focus.
✓ Stamped on the surface around the focusing ring are series of number called distance scales.
✓ It indicates distances that the camera is focused.
2 2.25 2.5 3 2.5 4 5 7 10 15 30 Ft

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.5 2 3 5 10 M
Types of Focus (Pallista, 2019)

a. Scale Bed Type or Focusing Scale
✓ These distances correspond to the distance from the camera to the subject.
✓ Use measuring device and actually measure the distance from the lens of the camera to the subject.
✓ Whatever distance was measured will be the setting of the marker or pointer of focus.
b. Micro Prism or Range Finder Type
✓ These are finely etched prisms which break up the image; they are brought together as you focus.
✓ Split image – This refers to two prisms that splits the image in half as you focus both halves re-joins to
form a clear image.
✓ Co – incident image – This refers to usually to compact a camera that is using a fixed lens.
c. Ground Glass Type
✓ A ground glass is a matt glass. The whole of the image on this screen will progressively become sharp.
✓ It is found at the back of the camera or in the case of modern, also coupled with the view finder.
✓ The point of focus is where the image is sharpest.
d. Depth of Field – the distance between the nearest object and farthest object that appears to be focus
when the lens is focus on infinity.
Three Factors that Affect Depth of Field
1. Focal Length of the Lens – This refers to long lenses having less depth than short lenses. The shorter
the focal length of lens, the greater the depth of field.
2. Distance from the Camera to the Object – This refers to the depth of field that is directly proportional
to distance. A subject at a greater distance will have greater of field than close up subject. The closer the
object focused on, the fuzzler everything else will be or the less your depth of field will be.

3. Aperture Setting or F – step – A wider aperture results in a shallow depth of field. It can use this to
keep either the foreground or the background out of focus while maintaining the subject in focus. When
changing the aperture setting, there will be in need to adjust the shutter to maintain the correct exposure.
e. Depth of Focus/Focal Range – the maximum permissible within which the film may be without
exceeding the circle of confusion in order to produce the image sharp.
f. Film Speed Control – this control is utilized by manipulating the ASA/ISO or DIN dial of the camera.
Basically, the shutter and the f/numbers are both controlling the system of the rays of light that enters.
However, the effects in making photographs are different. In an automatic setting camera, the camera has
a sensor that reads or determines the ASA number of the film loaded.
g. Circle of Confusion – overlapping circle patches of light representing each patch of light on the subject.
This circle of confusion represents unsharp images, but the human eyes see them as acceptably sharp.
h. Hyperfocal Distance – this is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.
i. Relative Aperture – the speed or light gathering power of lens equal to the duration of the focal length to
the diameter of its lens pupil or the relative brightness of the image produced by the lens as compared
with the brightness of the object
j. Angle of View – the view of the subject subtended by two lines emerging the corners of the film extending
to the center of the lens.
3. Aperture (Delizo, 2015)
✓ Aperture is a device that controls the quantity of light that passes through the lens.
✓ It is an iris type mechanism, which shrinks or grows in order to let in less or more light.
The Aperture Size
✓ Aperture size is usually calibrated in f-numbers or f-stops. i.e. those little numbers engraved on the lens
barrel like f22 (f/22),f16 (f/16), f/11, f/8.0, f/5.6, f/4.0, f/2.8, f/2.0, f/1.8 etc.
✓ Each of this value represents one time the amount of light either more or less in quantity.
✓ The flow of light into a camera can be controlled by aperture size just as the flow of water into a glass can
be controlled by the faucet setting.
Functions of the Aperture
✓ As a Controller of Light
✓ As a Controller of Depth Of Field
Aperture as a Controller of Light
✓ The smaller the lens opening (bigger f number), the lesser the light that will enter the camera.
✓ The bigger the lens opening (smaller f number), the more light that will enter the camera.
Aperture as a Controller of Depth of Field
✓ Depth of field is the amount of distance between the nearest and farthest objects that appear in
acceptably sharp focus in a photograph.
Depth of field (DOF) is governed by three factors;
a. The smaller the aperture opening, the deeper the DOF; the bigger the aperture opening, the shallow the
DOF.
b. The shorter the lens focal length, the deeper the DOF. The Longer the Lens Focal Length, the shallow the
DOF.
c. The longer the shooting distance, the deeper the DOF; the shorter the shooting distance, the shallow the
DOF.
Example
If the subject is photographed from three and then from seven meters away, the zone of sharpness in
the foreground and background is greater at seven meters.
Example of Shallow Depth of Field
A typical example of a photo with shallow DOF control. (Only the main subject of interest is enhanced
by throwing other elements out of focus.
Example of Deep Depth of Field
Maximum DOF is required to show the details of the scene. If you want to show the entire scope of the
scene from NEAR too FAR in sharp focus, you will use smaller aperture opening.
4. Shutter – This refers to the time the shutter is opened, allowing light to reach the film (how long light is
allowed through the lens). A device that allows the light through the lens and closes at a given time. It is
measured in a faction of a second. 125 mean 1/125 of a second. A shutter setting for a bright sunlight (using
an aperture of f/11) might be 1/125. A cloudy day might use 1/60 with the same aperture. (Delizo, 2015)
Aperture F22 F16 F11 F8 F5.6
Shutter 1/8 1/6 1/125 1/250 1/500
Shutter Speed – This refers to the time for which the shutter is held open during the taking of a photograph
to allow light to reach the film or imaging sensor (in a digital camera). It regulates the amount of time that
reaches the film. It is controlled by the shutter speed dial.
Basic Principles of Shutter Speed
✓ Fast Shutter speed will allow less light to reach the film.
✓ Slow shutter speed will allow more light to reach the film.
✓ The amount of light that enters a camera, just like the amount of water that pours from an open faucet into
a glass, depends on HOW LONG the flow of light continues.
Effects of Shutter Speed on the Photograph
✓ Selection of FAST or SLOW shutter speeds may yield different visual effect in a photograph.
✓ Fast Shutter Speed = Used to freeze motion.
✓ Slow Shutter Speed = Used to emphasize motion.
Shutter Speed
B 4 250 = simple human motion
8 8 500
4 13 1000 = droplet of milk
2 30 2000 = wings of bird
1 60 = handheld 4000 = flying bullet
2 125 6400

Kinds of Shutter (Delizo, 2015)
1. Those Placed Before the Lens – This refers to filter on a box camera usually made of thin metallic
disc with an open slot which is made to pass in front of the lens by spring.
2. Those Placed Behind the Lens – This refers to professional or portrait cameras; consist of three
metallic leaves which are kept by a spring.
3. Between the Lens Shutter – This refers to a number of metals that overlaps and arranged in a
circle; these blades are opened and closed by pins on movable ring.
4. Focal Plane Shutter – This refers to light tight overlapping curtains containing a narrow slit which
passes across the focal plane in front of the film. Driven by a spring, this window moves across the film as it
moves. The amount of light is controlled by the speed of the curtain and the width of the slit. The amount
itself – just in front of the lens of the film, of focal plane rather than in the lens.
Basic Exposure Guide (Delizo, 2015)
Exposure Index 50 Shutter Speed 1/50 second
Subject Type Bright Sun Hazy Sun Cloudy Bright Cloudy Dull
Brilliant f/22 f/16 f/11 f/8
Bright f/16 f/11 f/8 f/5.6
Average f/11 f/8 f/5.6 f/4
Shaded f/8 f/5.6 f/4 f/2.8
Characteristics of Subjects: (Delizo, 2015)
1. Brilliant – This refers to beach, marine and snow scenes; landscapes and mountains without
prominent dark object in the foreground.
2. Bright – This refers to people in marine, beach or snow scenes with foreground objects.
3. Average – This refers to nearby people, gardens, houses and scenes not in shades.
4. Shaded – This refers to subjects in the open (not under trees, porch, roof, etc.).
Minimum Shutter Speed at Various Angle of Approach (Delizo, 2015)
Condition of the Object Distance from the Camera Head – on 450 900
Showing moving 10 1/100 1/200 1/400
activities 25 1/500 1/100 1/200
Sport and fast bodily 10 1/400 1/800 1/800
movement 25 1/200 1/400
Fast cars and other 25 1/800 1/800 1/800

vehicles 50 1/400
Shutter Speed Control – This refers to length of time needed by the light ray to reach and affect the film
inside the camera that is restricted by the shutter speed control of the camera. The common shutter speeds
are:
(T/B) 1 ½ ¼ 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/500 1/1000 1/2000 1/4000 1/8000
“T” – This stands for instantaneous – when the shutter release button is press, the shutter opens up for a
period of approximately 1/50 seconds.
“B” – This stands for bulb – the shutter remains open as long as the shutter is press down. For long exposure,
this is usually required in dim places to permit enough light to accumulate to make satisfactory pictures.
Chapter IV – Lens
Lenses
A. Lens refers to: (Delizo, 2015)
1. A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two spherical surfaces capable of transforming an image.
2. The eye of the camera is also the heart of the camera.
3. A piece of transparent material made of glass or plastic with 2 opposite symmetrical surfaces or at least one curved
surface
How a Lens Work?

The basic function of a camera lens is to “gather” light rays from a subject, form and focus those rays into an image,
and project this image onto film inside the camera.

B. Typology of Lenses (Pallista, 2019)
General Classification
1. Simple Lenses – composed of 1 lens

a. Convex Lens (converging lens/ positive lens)
A lens that is thicker at the middle than at the edge.
It gathers light rays and refracts them to meet in a certain point.
b. Concave Lens (diverging/negative lens)

It is thicker at the edges than at the center; light rays passing through a diverging lens are vent outward.
2. Compound Lenses
It consists of two or more simple lenses fitted together.
Simple lenses generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images which can be corrected using compound lenses .
C. Lens Speed (Delizo, 2015)

Lens Speed is the largest opening of the diaphragm that the light can pass through.
Lens speed is important in taking pictures in dim light.
Types of lenses based on Lens Speed
1. Fast Lens
A lens with larger maximum aperture (that is, a smaller f-number) is a fast lens because it delivers more light
intensity to the focal plane, allowing a faster shutter speed. (e.g. f1.2, f2.8)
2. Slow Lens
A smaller maximum aperture (larger maximum f – number) is slow lens because it delivers less light intensity and
requires a slower shutter speed. (e.g. f3.5, f5.6)
Image Size – This refers to the size of the image produced by lens depend upon factors – camera – to – subject and focal
length. The lens collects the rays reflection from each point and brings them into focus at the focal plane. The lens, however,
does not focus the rays into an exact point representing the original, but a small circle or blur called circle of confusion.
Depth of Focus – This refers to good lenses that are capable of reproducing circles of confusion much smaller than 1/1000
of an inch. This permits the focal plane to be moved forward or backward form the plane of critical focus to the point where
the circles reach 1/1000 inch in diameter and the image begins to blur. This allowable movement of the focal plane is called
depth distance.
Hyperfocal Distance – This refers to the lens that is focused on an object at infinity, the distance from the lens to the nearest
object in sharp focus is called Hyperfocal distance.
Focal Plane – This refers to the distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal plane, when the lens is focused on
infinity.
Infinity – This refers to the distance so far away that rays are considered parallel when they reach the camera.
To find the lens speed divides the diameter of the lens into the focal length.
FL/Lens Diameter = Lens Speed, e.g. 16/4= 4 LS
Real Focus – This refers to the point of convergence of the light rays.
Virtual Focus – This refers to the point where diverging rays would meet if their directions were reversed.
D. Groups of Lenses According to Focal Length and Characteristics (Pallista, 2019)
1. Lens is characterized by its focal length.
Focal Length
The distance between the lens (technically from its rear nodal point) and the focal plane when the lens is focused on
infinity.
Focal length controls the following:
a. Magnification
The size of the image formed by the lens.
b. Angle of view
The amount of the scene shown on a given size of film.
Classification of Lens Based on Focal Length
c. Standard or Normal Lens

A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal measure of the image area.
By international standards, 50 mm.
Lenses with focal lengths from 45 to 60 millimeters are normal lenses because they produce an image that is
approximately the same with the view angle of the human eye which is 45 degrees

Characteristics of Normal Lens
Most normal lenses are faster, that is, they open to a wider maximum aperture, and so can be used with faster shutter
speeds or in dimmer light.
Shows the subject in a way that is similar to the image seen by the naked eye.
Angle of view is 45 degrees to 60 degrees.
2. Short – focal – lens or Wide Angle Lens

It has a shorter focal length than the normal lens. Hence, it covers a picture angle of 60 to 90 degrees. It enables
photographing a widely extended scene from a close proximity or within a confined area.
E.g. 18mm, 24mm, 28mm, 35mm
Characteristics of wide angle lens
Increases the angle of view and thus reduces the size of the image compared to the image formed by a normal lens.
Captures all objects, both near and far in sharp focus;
Have greater depth of field.
Angle of view exceeds 75 degrees
3. Fish Eye Lens
A lens with extreme wide angle.
Characteristics of Fish Eye Lens
It provides a field of view of 180 degrees or more.
A 6 – millimeter fish – eye lens made by Nikon has a 220 – degree field of view that produces a circular image on film,
rather than the normal rectangular or square image.
4. Long or Telephoto Lens or Narrow Angle

Lens with longer focal length that constrict the field of view and decrease the depth of field while greatly magnifying
the image. e.g. 85mm, 100mm, 200mm, 300mm etc.
Characteristics of Long Focal Length
Provides an enlarged image of an object.
Allows you to take close – up shots while keeping your distance (reach out like telescope) to provide greatly enlarged
of a distant object.
Provides shallow dept of field.
Angle of view is less than 45 degrees.
5. Zoom Lens
A special type of camera lens with variable focal length which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of the
variable focus lens.
This lens allows quick adjustment to give a wider or narrower field of vision but keeping the image in focus.
e.g. 24mm – 135mm
Characteristics of Zoom Lens

Allows a quick adjustment to give a wider or narrower field of vision.
Can make the subject appear closer without changing the camera position.
Practical because it allows you to carry just a single lens instead of 2 to 3 lenses.
6. Macro Lens
Allows the photographer to get close to the subject without the need of special close – up attachment.
Close – up Shots – This refers to the use of a macro lens or a special lens attachment when taking close – up shots. It works
with aperture of at least f/16 because depth of field will be shallow. (Delizo, 2015)
Extension Ring – This refers to simple close – up attachment fitting between the lens and the SLR camera body. (Delizo,
2015)
7. Shift of Perspective Control Lens – This refers to lens that allows photography of objects that is very tall, without the
problem of converging verticals; this occurs when the side of the subjects taper toward the top of the picture. The
conventional rule for preventing the film plane is parallel to the vertical plane of the subject and then vertical lines will
remain straight in the final shot. The lens is moved upward but kept parallel to the film, this movement is known as Shift.
(Delizo, 2015)
E. Lens Defects (Delizo, 2015)
Aberration refers to
a. The failure of light rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or reflect from a mirror.
b. The minute variations in lenses and mirrors, and because different parts of the light spectrum are reflected or
refracted by varying amounts.
1. Spherical aberration
The focusing at different points of light rays passing through different parts of spherical lens.
This aberration occurs because light hitting the outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a focus sooner
than that passing through the middle.

2. Chromatic aberration
The failure of different colored light rays to focus after passing through a lens.
The focusing of light of different colors at different points resulting in a blurred image.
3. Astigmatism
The inability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same plane of focus in the image.
Astigmatism occurs at the edge of the image; the image appears elliptical or cross-shaped because of an irregularity in
the curvature of the lens.
4. Coma
It occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different circular zones is brought to a focus at
different distances from the film plane.
A spot of light appears to have a tail, rather like a comet.
5. Curvature of Field
The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat.
It is caused by rays from the outer limits of the subject plane coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays.
6. Distortion
Distortion causes the image of a straight line, at the edges of the field to bow in or out.
a. Pincushion distortion
b. Barrel distortion
F. Other Lens Defects
1. Flare or Optical Flare

A result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces.
It exhibits self as a misty hazy or cloudy semi circular path of light.
2. Mechanical Flare
Bright spot on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such as the stops, shutter, lens mount or
from inside the camera itself.
3. Light Loss
Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce one type of flare (optical) and which will also
increase the optic’s ability to transmit light, thus reducing light to loss.
4. Stray Light
It can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens, shade places on the front of the lens or shield.
(Note: How to Avoid Flare. Help solve the problem by fitting lens hood; otherwise, shade the lens with your hand or shift
view point. Always protect the lens from dirt, flare is more likely to occur in old or dirty lens.)
CHAPTER 5
Filters for Police Photography
Filters
This refers to colored disks of glass or gelatin which are placed in front of the camera lens to improve the quality
of pictures; homogenous mediums which absorb different wavelengths of electromagnetic energy; these are dyed gelatin
sheets cemented between carefully selected glass.
Homogenous mixture – mixture of
Components:
1. Gelatin
This refers to a thin sheet of gelatin dyed to the designed color and intensity. It is used in colored photo.
2. Glass Sandwiches
This refers to components of filters that are made by sandwiching gelatin between two sheets of colored
glass.
3. Dyed Glass
This refers to discs of optical glass dyed to the desired color while in the melted stage.
a. A filter placed in front to the lens changes the color of light that reaches the film. For example, a red filter darkens
blue sky and green foliage considerably and lightens red objects.
b. A filter maybe used to change the composition of available light, increase or decrease contrast exclude certain color,
and highlight a certain subject or color
Uses of Filter:

1. It can be used in two ways – to modify the light falling on the subject (a filter over a light source) or to modify the
light passing through the lens before it reaches the film; and
2. When it is placed over a lens, it does two things – it lightens its own color and darkens complimentary colors.
B. Photographic Filters
1.Blue Filters
This refers to photographic filters that are used effectively when photographing blood. When used outdoors, a blue
filter will make the sky, or any blue object, appear white in the photograph.
2. Green Filters
This refers to photographic filters that are used in place of blue filters for photographing blood. Often, they work
better than blue filters.
3. Yellow Filters
This refers to photographic filters that are used to photograph white cars; the details of the car will stand out.
Use for white automobile to enhance the color.
4. Ultraviolet or UV Filters
This refers to photographic filters that is used to screens out the violet end of the spectrum. It is placed in front of a
lens and left there; it will not only improve most of the police photographer’s work, it will also prevent the lens from
being scratched.
Attached on the camera lens to prevent lens from being scratched
5. Neutral Density Filters

This refers to photographic filters that are used to cut down light transmission. It does not affect the tonal quality of
the scene. They are also used to reduce the light intensity to prevent over exposure.
Reduces the light transmission to prevent over exposure
6. Polarizing Filters
This refers to photographic a filter that is used primarily to control light reflected from highly polished surfaces,
metallic objects and others. It is very useful in photographing many different vehicles in auto accidents. This is the only
filter that can increase the blue saturation in the sky in a color photograph without altering the remaining colors in the
scene.
Use for highly polish auto mobile
7. Haze and Skylight Filters

This refers to photographic filters that are used to remove excess bluishness from distant view outdoors.
Use for outdoors
8. Graduated Filters
This refers to photographic filters that are clear at the bottom, graduating to a color at the top, recommended in a
situation in which the sky part of a scene is much brighter than the foreground.
9. Correction Filters
This refers to photographic filters that are intended to alter the response to the spectral sensitivity in terms of the
naked eye.
Correct color temperature
10. Starbursts Filters

This refers to photographic filters that turn bright points of light into stars with up to 16 points.
11. Color Filters

This refers to photographic filters that increase contrast in black – and – white photographs. It lets light of its own
color pass through the lens to the film but holds back certain other colors. As a result, objects that are the same color as
the filter appear light in the picture, and the blocked colors are dark.
Where filter are may be placed:
a. Over the light source which is usual position on Photomicrography;
b. In front of the sensitized material which involves the use of layer filters for filter separation;
c. Between the lens combinations;
d. Behind the lens which is not advisable because the image slightly placed to about 1/3 of the thickness of the filter;
and

e. Before the lens which has the advantage of elimination the effects and at the same time maintain the image distance
unchanged.
Filter Factors – This refers to the ratio of the time exposure with or without filter.
Filter factors depends upon the:
1. Absorption characteristics of the filter;

2. Subject;
3. Spectral sensitivity of the emulsion; and
4. Processing conditions. (Delizo, 2015)
Chapter VI – Film
Film
A. Film
This refers to a cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are suspended that are capable of recording light.
It is only a fraction of an inch thick, yet it is made of many layers. It is a “Sensitized Material”.
It is a sheet of plastic coated with an emulsion containing light – sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin)
with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity and resolution of the film.
When the emulsion is subjected to sufficient exposure to light, it forms a latent (invisible) image. Chemical
processes can then be applied to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film developing.
Film Structure
The thickest part is a clear plastic base which holds the rest together.
The top layer is a hard transparent coating to help ward off scratches.
The bottom is anti – halation coating which means that it has a dull quality so that light that passes through the rest
of the film won’t bounce back mirror fashion.
This surface of a film and photographic paper capable of retaining a latent image is called Emulsion – contains
thousands of tiny grains of silver salts (halides) suspended in animal gelatin.
If a light ray hits one of the particles, it disturbs it in such a way that when a film is developed in the proper
chemicals, the grains turn black and remains in the film. Those emulsion grains not touch by a ray of light are washed away
by another chemical, which simultaneously fixes the exposed grains so they will not fade.
The result is a transparent film image, but the image is “negative”. The light and dark parts are reversed. The light
part of the original subject turns our black in the negative and the dark part of the original turns clear or light.
Structure of Black – and – white film
1. Top Coating/Varnish Coating/Protective Coating

This refers to top layer; scratch – resistant coating; gelatine coating; an over – coating composed of a thin
transparent layer of hard gelatine which helps protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions.
2. Emulsion Layer/Inert Gelatin

This refers to structure of film that composed of silver halides and gelatine – a layer composed of silver
compounds (which are light sensitive) and halogens (such as bromide, chloride, and iodide which is used in small
amounts, seldom made more than 5% with silver bromide in fast film emulsion).
3. Film Base/Backing/Base
This refers to structure of film that is made of cellulose acetate or other materials such as paper, plastic, or
glass which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non – curl anti – halation backing.
4. Anti – halation Backing/Anti – Curl

This refers to a black dye applied on the rear surface of the film, it absorbs light that may penetrate the
emulsion layer to prevent it from reflecting back to the emulsion thus making the mage sharper since it suppresses
double image, and prevents the appearance of halo formation in the photograph.
5. Structure of Color Film
This refers to emulsion layer that consist of three (or four) layers stacked one on top of another with filter
in between each. These separate layers record the green blue and red values that go on making all colors, because
all colors can be made of mixtures of red, blue and green which are called primary colors.

a) Top Coating – This refers to scratch resistant coating.
b) Emulsion Layer
1) Blue Filter
This refers to a sensitive to blue light only; green and red light passes through it without exposing the color
halides.
2) Yellow Filter
This refers to Carey – lea silver suspended in gelatin – it is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green and red light to pass through.
3) Green Filter
This refers to a layer that is orthochromatic; the layer sensitive to blue light (which cannot reach it) and
green, but not to red; red light passes on the bottom of the emulsion layer.
4) Red Filter
This refers to a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue and red. It is also somewhat sensitive to green light
but to such a slight degree that is not important.
a) Anti – halation Coating

b) Film Base – This refers to plastic film base.
Typology of Films
a. According to Use
1. Black and White Film
This refers to film intended for B and W photography.
2. Color Film
This refers to films that have name ending in Color – color negatives for prints.
3. Chrome Film
This refers to films with names ending in Chrome – for color transparency – for slides films that are exposed
by slides, mounted in a cardboard for slide projectors; reversal type.
4. X – ray Film
This refers to a material which is sensitive to X – ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
b. According to Spectral Sensitivity (Color Sensitivity)
1. Monochromatic Film
This refers to film that is sensitive to a single color of light
1.1. Blue Sensitive Film – This refers to film that is more sensitive to blue rays of light.
1.2. Ultra – Violet Sensitive Film – This refers to film that is sensitive to UV rays only.
2. Panchromatic Film
This refers to film that is sensitive to ultra – violet rays, and all light found in the visible spectrum, especially
to blue and violet light, suitable for general use in the preparation of black – and – white photographs and most
commonly used in investigative photography because it produces the most natural recording of colors.
3. Orthochromatic Film
This refers to film that is sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors but not to red. Reds are recorded as
dark tones, while greens and blues as light tones when printed. This type of film is popular in the market as the
Kodalith Film.
4. Infrared Film
This refers to film that is sensitive to infra – red and ultra – Violet radiation, which is beyond the human
eye’s sensitivity, also sensitive to all the colors found in the spectrum, and useful in penetrating haze because
of its longer wavelength. It is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents; in the discovery of old
or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin; and in the construction of camera traps.
5. Non – Chromatic
this refers to film that is sensitive to ultraviolet and blue – violet colors only, and may be used when natural
radiation is not important. For example, it is used to copy black and white originals and to photographs colorless
subjects when extreme contrast is needed.
Two Main Types of Color Film
1.Color Reversal of Color Film

This refers to film that produces transparencies that can be mounted as slides and projected with a slide
viewer or on a light box, and end in the word Chrome.

2. Color Negative Film
This refers to film that is used in making prints, end in the word Color.
C. Film Speed – This refers to film sensitivity to light. This higher the rating of the film, the more sensitive it will be. This
sensitivity is expressed in numerical rating as ASA Exposure Index.
a. Film Speed Rating – Types of speed ratings
1. ASA (Americal Standards Association)

2. DIN (Deutche Industries Normen) (German Institute for standardization)
3. ISO (Combination of ASA and DIN) (International organization for standardization)
b. Classification of Films According to Sensitivity
1. Slow
ASA 100 below – the finer the grain structure, the richer the color saturation and more impressive the
image sharpness. For color works ASA 25, 50 and 64 films are ideal in glamour photography but all require a
high level of light.
2. Medium – ASA 100 and 200.
3. Fast
Above ASA 200 to 1600 – need less light. Feature coarser grain, weaker color and a slight reduction in
image sharpness
4. Ultra – fast – ASA 3200 and 6400.
D. Special Film for Special Purposes: Slow, medium speed fill will handle 90% of the picture needed in police
photography.
1. Contrast Process Panchromatic Film

This refers to a fine grain film that gives sharp differences between black and white. It is used in copying
documents and photographing fingerprints
.
2. Contrast Process Orthochromatic Film
This refers to film that is similar to panchromatic, but it is much slower and more sensitive to blue than red
light.
3. Infra – red Film

This refers to film that is sensitized with color dyes to make it possible to record only invisible infra – red
heat waves, also sensitive to blue light, so special filters have to be put over the lens.
4. Very High Speed Film

This refers to film that is particularly valuable for law enforcement purposes. It is labelled only with #2475.
It is useful for taking pictures at night. It has an ASA 800 to 2000.
E. Film Sizes
1. 110 – This refers to film sizes for cartridge loading pocket cameras.
2. 120
This refers to film sizes that give a picture that measure about 2/14 inches wide.
2. 126
This refers to film sizes that is older and larger cartridge loading type,
4. 135
This refers to film sizes that are commonly known as 35mm, so named because the film is 35mm wide. It
was originally for motion pictures and the size used in commercial theatres.
5. 220
This refers to film sizes that are the same as 120’s but yields twice many exposures.
Chapter VII – Photographic Paper (Sensitized Paper)

Printing Papers/Positive Paper (Delizo, 2015)
A. Structure of Photographic Paper
1. Emulsion Layer
This refers to layer of photographic paper that contains silver halides suspended in gelatine; the layer
making the paper light sensitive; emulsion maybe composed of silver chloride, silver bromide, or silver
chlorobromide.
2. Baryta Layer
This refers to layer of photographic paper that is a gelatine layer containing barite crystals (barium oxide)
to increase the reflectivity of the paper; the layer that makes the film glossy.

3. Base
This refers to layer of photographic paper that is made of hard paper which must be chemically pure;
chemical content does not change or react with light or other chemicals during printing.
Surface – This refers to the combination of its texture and finish; texture maybe smooth fine grained, or rough and finish
maybe glossy (semi – matt) and matt.
Coating
1. Resin – coated (RC) papers

This refers to coating that is made up by using a layer of paper which is coated both sides with a synthetic
polymer, usually polyethylene; forms the base on to which the emulsion is coated.
2. Fiber – based Papers

This refers to coating that can be air – dried, needs large volumes of water for effective washing that can
be reduced with washing aid.
B. Types Based on Emulsion Used
1. Silver Chloride Papers (Chloride Papers)

This refers to types based on emulsion with slow emulsion speed; for contact printing; image size is the
same as that of the negatives; they give blue black tones in a 65 – 68 degrees F to develop.
2. Silver Bromide Papers (Bromide Papers)

This refers to types based on emulsion with fast emulsion speed; for projection printing (enlarging); about
100 to 1000 times as sensitive as chloride papers; they give black tones in metal hydroquinone developers and
take about 1 ½ minutes to develop at 18 – 20 degrees C; give neutral to cold black tone which is only affected
by development type and techniques.
3. Silver Chlorobromide (Chlorobromide Paper)

This refers to types based on emulsion that the slow is used for contact and the fast is used for
enlargement/projection printing; they give an image tone from warm black to reddish brown, depending on
length of exposure, type, dilution and duration of developer.
4. Variable Contrast Paper (Contrast Paper)

This refers to types based on emulsion that classified by its own maker according to their own ideas; most
of those being used confirm broadly with:
a. Low Contrast
This refers to contrast that used to tone down a very contrasty negative and produces a fairly normal print,
and contrasty paper that can be used to compensate for lack of brilliance in a low contrast and very low contrast
papers.
b. Normal or Medium Contrast

This refers to contrast that is used to print normal or medium contrast negatives.
c. Very Hard or Extra Contrast
C. Grades of Printing Papers
1. Velox # 0 – This refers to grades of printing papers for extreme contrast negatives; the low contrast in the
sensitized paper counteracts the high contrast in the negative, to give a new print.
2. Velox # 1 – This refers to grades of printing papers for high contrast negative.
3. Velox # 2 - This refers to grades of printing papers for printing normal contrast negatives.
4. Velox # 3
This refers to grades of printing papers for negatives that have weak contrast.
4. Velox # 4
This refers to grades of printing papers that provides sufficient contrast to compensate for every weak
contrast; it is useful in printing silhouettes and other such pictures in which high contrast is desired.
5. Velox # 5
This refers to grades of printing papers for flat negatives that are relatively unprintable.

E. Paper Weight
1. Light Weight (LW)

This refers to paper weight that is intended for purposes which involve folding.
2. Single Weight (SW)

This refers to paper weight for all ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double Weight (DW)

This refers to paper weight for large prints because they stand up better rough treatment.
Chapter VIII – Chemical Processing

Chemical Process (Development) (Delizo, 2015)
A. Film Development
The theory of film development refers to the principle in photography that explains how the latent image in the
exposed film is converted into a negative image (visible image). This theory provides that there are six (6) stages (two
optional) of chemical processing needed to make the latent image become visible such that it can be printed to produce a
photograph.
B. Stages of Film Development
1. Predevelopment Water Rinse (optional)

This is done by simply soaking the film in water for 2 to 3 minutes while agitating the water container for
every 20 seconds.
2. Developing (Actual) (60 seconds)

Converting the exposed image on the film into actual image. Exposed film affects the silver halides but the
change is invisible. Developing enables the invisible images into form. This is performed by soaking the film
in the Developer (developing solution). The chemical contents are:
a. Reducer – metol – hydroquinone

b. Accelerator- borax, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide
c. Restrainer – potassium bromide
d. Preservative – sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphate
3. Stop Bath – Rinse Bath (10 seconds0

The removal of the traces of the developer as well as it helps in the removal of excess or undeveloped silver
halides. This process stops development by neutralizing the effects of the developer. It is also necessary to
minimize the staining effect of the developer and at the same time conserve to some extent the strength of the
fixing solution. The three forms of rinse bath are:
a. Water Rinse Bath

b. Acid Rinse Bath
c. Hardening Rinse Bath
4. Fixing Bath or Fixing (30 seconds)

Even after developing, the image is still invisible because the silver halides are still present in the emulsion.
Fixing bath is required to loosen the silver halides from the unexposed halides so they can be washed away. This
stage also removes the unexposed and undeveloped halides by converting them to soluble salts which may be
washed from the emulsion. Fixing also makes the image permanent in white light. Ingredients are:
a. Fixer – hypo (sodium thiosulfate)
b. Neutralizer – acid (acetic acid)
c. Preservative – sodium sulfite
d. Hardener – potassium alum
5. Washing
This is the final part of the processing cycle, which removes the residual chemicals and soluble silver
compounds from the emulsion and reveals the image.
60 seconds only.
C. Developing Chemicals
1. Reducing Agent
The most important chemical in any developing agent. It is the one that reduces the exposed halides into
visible metallic silver. The two chemicals mostly used are: (1) hydroquinone and (2) Metol.
3. Accelerators
The purposes of accelerators are to energize the reducing agents and they soften and swell the emulsion to
permit the developer to penetrate deeply and quickly. The three kinds of accelerators are: Sodium Carbonate,
Sodium Hydroxide and Borax

4. Preservative
The commonly used preservative is Sodium Sulfite. It prevents stain and makes the developing solution
more stable and long lasting.
5. Restrainer
This chemical restrains the action of the exposed areas of the film and permits control of density and contrast.
Potassium bromide is the agent generally used for this purpose.
also known anti fugans
D. Types of Developers
1. Type A (D – 72) – A developer for prints. It produces a very high contrast film.
2. Type B (D – 19)
It is suitable for developing film exposed under dull or hazy lighting conditions.
E. Fixing Chemicals
This refers to the removal of the unexposed halides which has the effect of making the developed image permanent.
It is accomplished by treating the film in a chemical that makes the unexposed halides soluble in water so they may be
washed out of the emulsion.
1. Sodium Thiosulfate
This refers to fixing chemical commonly called “hypo”, it is one which dissolves the unexposed silver
halides.
2. Acetic Acid (28%)

This refers to fixing chemicals that is used to neutralize the developer. When the negative is removed from
the developer, the emulsion is saturated with the solution. Even if it is given a water rinse, some developer will
remain and continue its action. As the films come in contact with plain hypo, the remaining developer starts to
oxidize, causing stains. As the films come in contact with plain hypo, the remaining developer starts to oxidize,
causing stains. To prevent this acetic acid is needed.
3. Sodium Sulfate
This refers to fixing chemical that is added to acetic acid to neutralize the developer but causes the hypo to
break down, liberating sulfur. Sodium Sulfite is added because it combines with the sulfur to form new hypo.
In this respect, sodium sulphite is a preservative just as it is in a developing solution.
4. Potassium Alum
This refers to fixing chemicals that is added to the fixing bath because it has the ability to toughen or harden
the emulsion. The emulsion swells and becomes soft during development and will continue in that condition
during fixation. This makes susceptible to scratches and if the solution temperature is too high, the emulsion
may “frill” or peel away from the edges of the film base.
5. Boric Acid
This refers to the fixing chemical that is added to slow the action and prolong the usefulness of the bath.
Adding the hardener to the fixing bath causes a milky sludge to form and reduce the life of the solution.
F. Equipment for Film Processing (Pallista, 2019)
1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel – the negative will attached to it.
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers)
4. Scissors to cut the togue of the film
5. thermometer – 220 degrees Celsius
6. Timer
7. Funnel – for graduated cylinder
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film clips for drying
10. Glass or plastic bottles (gallon size)
G. Developer Formulation
a. Typical Component
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservative
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer
b. D – 76 Film developer Formula

1. Water 520 C – 750ml
2. Elon – 2 gm
3. Hydroquinone – 5gm
4. Sodium Sulfite – 100gm
5. Borax (granules) – 2gm
6. Water to make – 1li
c. Dektol Paper Developer
1. Water 520C or 125 OF – 500ml

2. Elon – 311gm
3. Hydroquinone – 12gm
4. Sodium Sulfite - 4.5gm
5. Sodium Carbonate – 67.5gm
6. Potassium bromine – 1gm
7. Water to make – 1li
d. Fixing Bath Formula
1. Water
2. Dissolving Agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener
e. Typical Fixing Formula:
1. Water 520C or 125 OF – 600ml

2. Hypo – 240gm
3. Sodium Sulfite – 15gm
4. Acetic Acid (28%) – 480ml
5. Boric Acid (crystals) – 7.5gm
6. Potassium Alum – 15gm (fine granule)
7. Water to make – 1 li
H. Processing Black and White
1. Load film onto spool. Make sure you do this in complete darkness. It is important of roll of film, it is a good idea to have
few practice sessions before attempting it with the real film.
2. Place developer into the tank
3. Start timer
4. Keep developer at 200C
5. Empty tank when timer indicates
6. Pour in stop bath solution
7. Empty stop bath after 30 seconds
8. Pour fixer solution, set timer and agitate
9. Empty fixer
10. Remove film solution from the tank and leave the film on the spool
11. Wash the tank
12. Remove spool from the tank
13. Carefully film from the spool
14. Write the film being careful not to deposit foreign material onto film
15. Dry film
I. Developing Panchromatic Film

1. Prepare all the chemicals to be used
2. Unload the film from the camera
3. Put out the light total darkness
4. Separate the film from the film case
5. Keep the film from the developer with 30 seconds agitation
6. Develop the film 2 ½ minutes
7. Pass it through the stop bath for a few seconds
8. Transfer the film to the acid fixer and let it stay there for 5 minutes. Open the light to check the film being developed.
9. Transfer the film to the running water for 5 minutes.
10. Hang the film for drying.
J. Proper Procedures for Kodak Color Film Processing

1. After checking temperatures of all solutions, turn all the lights and load the film on the reel and place it inside
the developing tank. Recheck the developer temperature just before the processing is begun. Pour the developer
inside the developing tank, start timing the operation, and agitate in the prescribe time, of once every second. At

the end of 14 minutes, including drain time, five seconds, then proceed to step no. 2 solutions must be 73 to 77
degrees.
2. Stop development by immersion on the Kodak C22 stop bath. Agitate in the prescribed manner and for 4 minutes,
drain, and proceed to step no. 3.
3. Harden the film for 4 minutes by placing in Kodak C22 hardener. Agitate the same as in the other solutions. If
there is no film in the preceding solutions, room light may be turned on at the end of the step.
4. Wash the film in the running water for 4 minutes. The water rate should be adjusted to provide a complete tank
replacement every 2 to 4 minutes.
5. Bleach the silver image by placing the film in the C22 bleach for 6 minutes and agitate as prescribed.
6. Wash the film in running water for 4 minutes. The same water rate should be used as previous solutions.
7. Fix the film for 8 minutes in the C-22 fixer. Agitation should be the same.
8. Wash the film for 8 minutes in running water. The same water rate should be used.
9. Immerse the film in diluted photo – flo solution for 1 minute.
10. Dry the film. Use same method as for black and white films.
K. Timetable for Color Processing
Step/Solution/ Remarks Temp. in Time in Total Minutes at

o
Procedure F Minutes End of Step
1. Developer Agitate Completely 75 ½ 8 14
2. Stop Bath Agitate Completely 73 – 77 12 18
3. Hardener Agitate Completely 73 – 77 11 22
4. Wash Running water 73 – 77 4 26
5. Bleach Agitate 73 – 77 9 32
7. Fixer Agitate 73 – 77 10 44
9. Remove water Use diluted KODAK 73 – 77 1 13
droplets Photo – flo Solution
10. Dry Film Same as Black and White films
Procedure:
1. Place the color negative on the film carrier of the enlarger with the emulsion side facing the lens. Start with the
basic filter pack suggested in table 1 for the kind of negative being printed. At a 3x magnification, make a test
strip series of three exposures: one for 10 seconds at F/5.6, another for 10 seconds at F/8 and for 10 seconds at
F/11.
2. Process the KODAK EKTACOLOR 37 RC paper. See the processing steps for tray and baskets, and Kodak
Rapid Color Processor. Dry print or view it wet by transmitted Tungsten light for the proper color appearance.
3. Judge the best density area for color balance. Look at “sensitive: areas such as neutral or facial tone. Make two
decisions:
b. What color is in excess? Compare it to any colored picture with normal density and tone.
c. How much is the color in excess? Slightly, considerably or greatly? Your normal picture will guide the
excess color or for accuracy, always refer it to Kodak XOLOR Data Guide.
4. Apply the decisions about color, adding or subtracting the filters suggested. Make another print at the lens
aperture that gave the proper exposure, adjusting the exposure time based on your acquired experience or refer
it to the Data Guide, “Color – Printing Computer”.
5. The next print should be closer to the correct density and color balance. Continue to consult the table until the
desired result is obtained.
L. Printing into Photographic Paper – Covers Contact Printing and Enlarging (Projecting)
a. Color Printing
This refers to the print processing that uses the same techniques as black and white printing with a couple
of extra steps. Time, temperature and agitation in color printing are critical. Color prints must be processed in

complete darkness and the process uses light sealed tubes whereas in black and white in open trays. Color print
processing drums has an opening which enables chemicals to be poured into them without light entering in the
drums. The drums are with an agitator to ensure an even spread of the chemicals.
b. Kinds of Printing
1. Contact Printing
This refers to the emulsion side of the negative that is exposed in contact with the emulsion of the sensitized
paper, producing a print image of the same size as that of the negative.
3. Projection Printing
This refers to the image in the negative that may be enlarged or reduced. When the image print is larger
than the size of the negative, It is an enlargement, while the reverse is called reduction.
M. Equipment for Paper developing
1. Three plastic trays – one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by
the largest prints size).
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.
Chapter IX – Application of Photography in Law Enforcement

Application of Photography to Police Work (Delizo, 2015)
A. Investigative Photographs
This refers to any photographs made to record an object or event, or to clarify a point that is relative to a matter
under investigation. Many investigative photographs are made in the photographic laboratory. However, this is concerned
with those taken on the crime scene.
B. Admissibility of Photographs as Evidence

Photographs are admissible in court if the investigator can testify that they accurately depict the area observed. The
accuracy of the photograph always relates to the degree it represents the appearance of the subject matter as to form, tone,
color (if applicable), and scale. Thus the use of lens that will record with accuracy all objects and areas in focus may not
portray correct distances between objects, nor reproduce them with the proper perspective, when they are out of focal range.
In such situations, the crime scene sketch and the investigator’s notes play strong supporting roles.
Usually a photographic negative is considered sufficient proof to refute any allegation that a photograph has been
altered. However, if enlarged photographs are made for presentation in court, a contact print without borders should also be
made.
Because of the importance of scale, distances and perspective in interpreting the photographs taken of crime scenes,
it is good procedure to include a ruler or other scale measurement in the photograph, when this is practicable. However,
because some courts have not allowed even this minor modification to the scene, an identical photograph without the scale
indicator should also be taken.
If the photograph is to have the highest quality as evidence, it must depict the scene, person, or objects precisely as
they were found. Photography must therefore be an exclusive function of the crime scene search that is no people should be
working within the scene at the time it is photographed nor should extraneous objects, such as police equipment, be included
in the pictures.
Theories that govern admissibility of photography as evidence.
1. Pictorial Testimony Theory

- Photographic evidence is only admissible when there is a witness sponsoring that can testify that it is fair and
accurate representation of the subject matter.
- Solely based on the personal experience of the testimony
2. Silent witness theory

If the process being used to produce the evidence is accurate is reputable hence the name of silent is designated.
Take note: both still up to the trial judge.
C. Identification of Photographs
The photograph must be precisely identified, and identifying data must be noted as each shot is taken. The
information relative to the technical history of a photograph will be recorded in the investigator’s notes, which become part
of the permanent record of the case.
D. Custody of Photographs
Custody of investigative photographs should be carefully maintained. When the film is sent by mail to a commercial
processor, registered mail with return receipt should be used.

E. Before Taking Photographs, the Photographer Should Take Note of the Following Pointers
1. Evaluate or assess the crime scene and establish a plan how to “Capture and Preserve” it before actually taking
pictures.
2. Photograph the crime scene environment (the scene in general) before focusing at the focal point.
3. Take as many photographs as you can. Maximize the use of available film supply.
4. Observe correct setting of the four (4) controls of the camera, including proper technique of focusing, exposure,
film development and printing.
5. In photographing the direct victim of a death case, make sure that the victim is dead before taking photographic
evidences.
6. Take a minimum of four (4) photographs at different angles concerning the exterior and interior of the scene, and
the position of the victims and physical evidences.
7. Take photographs of the subject at different angles following a clockwise or counter – clockwise direction.
8. Sequence of pictures taken should be logical and consistent to help the investigators in reconstructing the crime
scene.
9. Do not move or transfer anything at the crime scene unless the scene has been properly measured, marked,
sketched and
10. Unnecessary or unauthorized touching, moving, and transferring the properties, weapons, and environment.
11. Take note of any unusual conditions or circumstances existing at the crime scene or its adjacent environment.
12. Take note of the existence of traffic lights, signals, and precautions.
13, Mark or chalk the perimeter of the involved body, weapon, property, or vehicle before moving them.
Take Note: Crime scene is the treasure island of the investigators.
F. Crime Scene Photography (Pallista, 2019)
Hence, the first step in the investigation of any crime is to photograph completely and accurately all the aspects of
the scene before any of the objects of evidence are removed or otherwise disturbed.
Similar photographs should also be made after the body or bodies have been removed.
It is always wise to take too many photographs rather than too few.
a. Crime Scene Photography Procedure
1. Camera should be mounted on a sturdy tripod whenever feasible to prevent camera movement.
2. The camera should be levelled whenever commensurate with the particular photograph to be taken.
3. Crime scene views include three general classes

a. Long/General views, showing general location and conditions
b. Medium views, pinpointing a specific object of evidence or significant segment of the crime scene.
d. Close – up views, recording position and details.
4. Photographs should be taken progressively as the photographer enters the building or room to avoid disturbing
something that might otherwise remain unnoticed, and to maintain continuity.
5. Views should be taken to illustrate the general location of the scene of the crime. A large outdoor scene or a
matter involving several buildings may call for an aerial view.
6. Definitely required is a view of the exterior of the building when the crime was committed inside. It is well to
include the street and house number when this is possible.
7. Needed next is the complete photographic coverage of the interior rooms within the crime area, which show the
condition in general and relate the overall scene to specific items and places.
8. Bodies of victims should be photographed exactly as found, from all angles, and especially from overhead when
this can be done, for identification purposes.
a. Close – up photographs, one to one, if possible, should be taken all wounds, bruises, discoloration, and
abrasions – generally with color.

9. Measuring device such as rulers, yardsticks, and tape measures can be used to show the relative size of and
distance between objects or the degree of magnification of an enlargement. They should not obscure any important
part of the evidence. In photographing a document for example, a ruler with 6 inch size should be placed on the
bottom or just below the object will show the relative size of objects in a photographic exhibit.
10. Field notes.
a. Record the date and time of arrival at the scene as well as the time of departure from scene.
b. Specifically record the location area, house number, street name, building name, and type of scene.
c. Write down the names and badge numbers of all investigative officers present during the photographing
d. Total and record the number of exposures, which necessitates the bad negatives, be saved for the record.
e. Record specific information on each exposure. This should include the time of taking each picture, which
can be expressed either using AM or PM or on military 24 – hour scale on which 3:00 PM becomes 1500hrs.
11. Additionally.
a. Direction camera pointed
b. General statement of what photographed
c. Exposure and ASA/ISO rating
d. Kind of Film (including brand and exposures per roll)
e. The lighting whether available, flood lamps, flash bulbs, etc.
b. The Order of Photographing a Crime Scene is as Follows
b.1. Photographing the Exterior of the Crime Scene

1. Geographical location of the scene that surrounds the crime scene;
2. Tracing and linking evidences like footprints, tire marks, and other traces or impression that can be useful to
identify and associate a suspect with the crime or the scene;
3. External and internal conditions of the crime scene;
4. Points of ingress and egress.
b.2. Photographing the Interior of the Crime Scene

1. Possible point of ingress and egress as seen inside the room.
2. Adjacent rooms where the crime was committed
3. General appearance of the room where the crime took place
4. Tracing evidences like fingerprints, footprints, blood stains and
5. Other things that can be used to identify and link suspects to the crime or crime scene
6. Physical evidences present at the crime scene
7. The body of victims of the crime.
(Note: One rule in Crime Scene Photography is “take as many photographs as you can”)
c. Types of Photographs to be taken

c.1. Exterior (Outdoor) Crime Scene Photographs
1. Aerial Photograph – top view of the crime scene
2. Photograph of the crime scene at 4 different angles (from 4 different directions)
a. North side view/angle
b. East side view/angle
c. South side view/angle
d. West side view/angle
3. Photographs of points of Ingres and Egress as observed outdoors
4. Photograph of peculiar conditions observed at the exterior of the crime scene
c.2. Interior (Indoor) Photographs of the Crime Scene

1. Photographs of the 4 sides of the room
2. Photographs of the entrance and exit as observed inside
3. Photographs of peculiar condition inside the room
c.3. Photographs of Victim or Victims

1. Overhead shot/angle
2. Photograph of victim at 4 different angles
a. head to foot shoot/angle
b. left angle
c. foot to head shot/angle
d. right angle
3. Close – up photograph of the victims face
4. Close – up photograph o the injuries/wounds
5. Miscellaneous photographs
c.4. Preparation of Mugfile – A Mugfile is a gallery (file) or collection of police

photographs of criminal suspects that is giving positive identification. The Mugfile contains the following data/information:
1. Offender’s (Suspect’s) data
2. Victim’s data
3. Property data
4. Offense data
5. Photograph of Offender (Suspect) at different angles
6. Miscellaneous photographs, such as:
a. Close up shots of distinguishing marks
b. A series of circumstantial photographs of the crime scene
c.5. The Series of Offender’s Photographs includes the following;

1. Facial Close – up
2. Half Body Angle
3. Whole Body Angle
4. Right Side View: Close up; half body; and whole body
5. Left Side View: Close up; half body; and whole body
6. Close – up shots of distinguishing marks
c.6. Photographing Alive Victims and Suspects

a. Photographs that show areas of the body which usually are not visible when the person is clothed should be taken
only under the direct supervision of the examining physician whose testimony the photographs are intended to
illustrate. Thus, it is unusual that this type of photographs will be taken on the crime scene.
b. Before photographing any part of the female body normally covered by clothing, written consent of the subject
must be obtained. If the subject is a minor, the written consent of the parent is needed and the photography must be
done with witnesses present.
c.7. Photographing the Arson Scene

When photographing the arson scene, complete coverage of the damage is important. But perhaps of even greater
importance are objects or areas that are suspected to have been the point or points of initiation of fire. Close – up photographs
should be made of all such objects or areas. In addition, there are several other critical points or items of interest in an arson
scene that should be photographed.
a. Exterior views of all structures involved in the fire.
b. Interior views that give a complete representation of the damaged areas and any undamaged areas immediately
adjacent.
c.8. Photographing the Burglary Scene

The photographic requirements already cited for the homicide scene apply to the burglary situation. In addition,
particular attention should be paid to:
a. The interior and the exterior of the building.
b. Damaged areas, particularly those around the points of entry and exit used by the criminal.
c. Close – ups of damaged containers that were the target of the burglar – safes, jewel boxes, strong boxes, etc.
d. Tool marks both close – up and from a perspective that will allow the position of the mark with respect to the
general scene to be noted.
e. Fingerprints, although fingerprints are of major interest to all type of investigations, they are of particular value
in a burglary investigation. Fingerprints are photographed only when they are visible without development and
when they cannot be lifted after they have been developed.
c.9. Photographing the Homicide Scene (Demetria, 2019)

a. Exterior of the building
b. Evidence outside the building
c. Entrance into the scene
d. Room in which the body was found
e. Adjoining rooms, hallways, stairwells
f. Body from different angles
g. Close-up of the face and body wounds
h. Weapons
i. Trace evidence
j. Signs of activity prior to the homicide
k. Evidence of a struggle
l. View from positions witnesses had at time of the crime
m. Autopsy
c.10. Photographing the Suicide Scene (Demetria, 2019)

a. Photograph the original position of the body to help determine the manner of death.
b. Overall view of the body and rope should be taken at torso and foot level.
c. Show the height of the body above ground.
d. Photographs should be made to show the relative position of any object.

e. Subjects for close-up shots are:
1. the knot, its size, type and location on the neck;
2. depth and location of the grooves in the neck;
3. black-and-white marks around the edge of the groove;
4. signs of violence around the neck, suggesting prior strangulation;
5. protrusions of the tongue, binding of hands and feet, etc.
c.11. Photographing the Drowning Scene (Demetria, 2019)

a. Photograph the whole body, both from the position of standing observer and from the ground level.
b. Close-ups should include:
1. any foam about the mouth;
2. wounds, peculiar markings, bruises, or unusual discoloration’s;
3. articles, such as seaweed, grasped in the hand; and
4. any rope or wire bindings.
c.12. Photographing the Assault/Injuries Scene (Demetria, 2019)

1. Photographing injuries, use case identifier in every shot.
a. Face of victim in the photographs
b. Bruises
c. Bite marks
d. Orientation shot
e. Close – up at 90 degree angle to avoid distortion
f. Ruler in same plane as bite mark
g. Focus carefully
h. Bracket exposures
2. Equipment
a. Use DSLR
b. Use color measuring device
c. Natural light or flash unit with diffused lighting
c.13. Photographing the Sexual Assault Scene (Demetria, 2019)

1. Record information on signs of any struggle at the scene where the attack occurred, or indications of the victim's
effort to resist attack;
a. such as bruises, black and blue marks, torn clothing, etc.
2. Scratches should be photographed using oblique lighting, with and without measuring device at the crime scene and
also at the morgue.
3. In a rape – homicide investigation, UV-IR photography of the body may detect latent bite marks since hemorrhaging
can occur in tissue under the skin.
4. Location of foreign hairs & fibers, biological fluids & stains should be depicted.
a. If alive, permission from the victim to photograph her body should be obtained
b. if the victim was a minor, written permission from the parent or guardian.
c. It is recommended that the victim's physician be present when such photographs are made.
5. Blood spatter on walls should be photographed with the lens parallel to the stain so that directionally (the direction the
blood flowed) can be determined.
6. In sexual exploitation of children cases, every room in a suspect's residence should be photographed even if no physical
evidence (such as photographs or video tapes) are found during a crime scene search.
7. Occasionally, a suspect will place his own camera on a tripod and by using a cable release, will photograph himself with
his victim(s).
G. Rule 11, Rules on Electronic Evidence (Demetria, 2019)
a. Audio, Photographic, Video, and Ephemeral Evidence

Section 1 – Audio, Video and similar evidence Audio, video, and photographic evidence of events, acts or
transactions shall be admissible provided it shall be known, presented or displayed to the court and shall be identified,
explained or authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some other person competent to testify on the
accuracy thereof.
Section 2 – Ephemeral Electronic Communications - Ephemeral Electronic Communications shall be proven by the
testimony of a person who was a party to the same or has personal knowledge thereof. In the absence or unavailability of
such witnesses, other competent evidence may be admitted. A recording of the telephone conversation or ephemeral
electronic communication shall be covered by the immediately preceding section. If the foregoing communications are
recorded or embodied in an electronic document, then the provisions of Rule 5 (authentication of electronic document) shall
apply.
b. Ephemeral Electronic Communications – This refers to the telephone conversations, text messages, chatroom sessions,
streaming audio/video, and other electronic forms of communication the evidence of which is not recorded or retained.

c. As to the admissibility of the text messages, the RTC admitted them in conformity with the Court’s earlier Resolution
applying the Rules on Electronic Evidence to criminal actions. Text messages are to be proved by the testimony of a person
who was a party to the same or has personal knowledge of them. Here, PO3 Cambi, posing as the accused Enojas, exchanged
text messages with the other accused in order to identify and entrap them. As the recipient of those messages sent from and
to the mobile phone in his possession, PO3 Cambi had personal knowledge of such messages and was competent to testify
on them. (Pp v. Enojas, GR No. 204894, Mar. 10, 2014)
d. What preliminary matters must first be established in order that photographs, x-rays, motion pictures and video
tapes, computer printout, maps, diagrams, sketches may be admitted in evidence? (Demetria, 2019)
Photographs must be shown to be a true and faithful reproduction of the place and the object to which they refer.
The photograph may be verified either by the photographer who took it or by any person who is acquainted with the object
represented and testified that the photograph faithfully represents the object. Pictures are worthy only of what they show
and prove and on what they do not speak of including the events they failed to capture.
A photograph may be qualified for admission by the testimony of any person who eye – witnessed the scene
pictured. It is not necessary that the photographer who took the picture authenticate it. However, the photographer who saw
the scene firsthand and photographed it is better able to give testimony overcoming objections to admissibility than other
witnesses.
d. 1. X – ray – Admissible under same principles as ordinary pictures although subject to explanation or interpretation by
experts to make them intelligible to courts.
d.2. Motion Pictures – Admissible under same principles as still pictures, the only substantial difference being in the
manner of their presentation. It means that the picture accurately depicts the events as he saw them when that occurred.
d.3. Videotape – Just like a motion picture synchronized with a sound recording. A complete videotape may be received
into evidence if the offering party lays the foundation necessary to admit a sound recording. When it is testified that the
video tape is a true and accurate representation of what it is purported to represent, it sufficient authentication.
GODBLESS FUTURE RCRIM!!!

Forensic Photography (FORENSIC 1)

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REYMARK DAQUIGAN

CHAPTER I – Historical- Background

Photograph refers to the chemical, mechanical or electronic product of photography.

In technical aspect Photography is defined as follows:

1. As an Art; Photography is the art of taking pictures.

a. Camera – to RAF (regulate, absorb and filter) light;

b. Film (sensitized material) – to record light.

Technical Photography and Forensic Photography.

1. Technicalities of Photography refers to technical concepts and principles which includes:

2. Police Photography refers to:

a. Study of fundamental but pragmatic principles of photography.

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 1

Significance of Photography in Law Enforcement and Criminal Investigation

1. Photographs are necessary to preserve:

Application of Photography in Police Work

4. Offender detection – surveillance, burglar traps, confessions, re – enactments of crime.

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 2

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 3

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 4

C. Important Dates in the Development of Photography

Significant Dates Event

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 5

D. Landmark Cases in Photography

Case Facts of the Case

Steps are taken to ensure proper photographic documentation:

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 6

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 7

Chapter II– Principles of Photography

A. Basic Principles of Photography

A.1. Light – This refers to:

Natural Light Source

Classification of LIGHT According to its Intensity

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 8

• It is best illustrated by the dropping of stone in a pond of still water.

• It is used to explain X -radiation and photo - electricity.

The RAT Law

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 9

• 299,792,458 meters per second

Invisible Radiation with wavelength shorter than 400 mμ

Invisible Radiation with wavelength longer than 400 mμ

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 10

Colors of Lights Found in the Visible Spectrum and Coloring Matters

Primary Colors of Light Rays

Secondary/Complementary Colors of Light Rays

Color Mixing of Lights

Primary Colors of Coloring Matters

Secondary Colors of Coloring Matters

Tertiary Colors of Coloring Matters

Color Mixing of Coloring Matters

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 11

Camera – This refers to:

A. Early Forms of Camera (Delizo, 2015)

B. Other Types of Camera (Delizo, 2015)

(Source: butkus.org, n.d.)

CRDTS: R.DAQUIGAN “LAKANBISIG CLASS OF 2024” 12

(Source: archiewcphotography, n.d.)

C. Main Parts of a Camera (Pallista, 2019)

D. Basic Parts of the Modern Camera (Sarmiento, n.d.)

E. Essential Camera Accessories (Sarmiento, n.d.)