MODULE 1

Identify key milestones in the historical development of photography.

Historical Development of Photography

1. Introduction to Photography and definition of important terms.

The fundamental principle of photography involves the capture of light on either a photographic emulsion or an electronic
sensor.
The term "photography," which literally means "drawing with light," refers to the practice of capturing a visual
representation of an object or scene on light-sensitive film or, more recently, digital electronic or magnetic memory.

2. Important Personalities and dates in the field of photography.

- Unsuccessful attempt of Thomas Wedgewood
-Successful attempt of Niepce
-1839
-The discovery of Daguerreotype Process by Niepce with association of Daguerre.
-Sir Herschel coined the word Photography.
-Developed the first glass negative.
-Talbot introduce the calotype.

William Henry Fox Talbot (1839)

• He is the Father of modern Photography
• He invented the Calotype (paper based), which produces a negative picture on a paper, the lights on the image were
recorded as darks, the darks as lights.

Joseph Nicéphore Niépce of France (1816)

• He succeeded but several days of exposure in the camera were required.
• He took the world’s very first photograph called “Heliography”
pewter plate coated with bitumen – sensitized material of Nicephore

John W. Herschel
• He coined the word photography.
• The Greek roots/etymology of the word photography:
a. Phos or Fos - means “light"
b. Grapho or Grafo – means “to draw,” or “to write”

Frederick Scott Archer

• He pioneered the wet Collodion process which took place of the calotype known as collodion type process.
• Collodion process is a photographic process that produced a negative image on a transparent photographic medium,
usually made in glass.

Steve Sasson (1975)

• An American Electrical Engineer who invented the digital camera.

Edwin H. Land (1947)

• Introduced “polaroid” the one step photography.

Louise Jacques Mande Daguerre (1838-1839)

• A Parisian painter and theater designer who continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect the photographic process.
• He invented the Daguerre type or Daguerreotype process (metal based) in Paris and first publicly announced
photographic process (Commercialized in the year of 1839).

Sir Isaac Newton (1666)

• An English Philosopher, Mathematician, and Physicist who discovered and proved that the strongest
light is white light.

10. George Eastman

• He introduced the use of roll film made of celluloid materials for use by a portable camera.
- moving picture.
- invented the kodak.

Define and analyze basic terms in forensic photography

DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMS
1. PHOTOGRAPHY – It is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light, upon
sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes involved therein.
2. FORENSIC - Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for public
discussion.
• When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes
used interchangeably with the word legal.
3. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY - is an art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for
laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.
4. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY - the application of the principles of photography in relation to the police work and in the
administration of justice.
5. PHOTOGRAPH - A mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and photograph are not the same for a
picture is a generic term is referring to all kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product
of photography.
• Photographs are also a means of communication. It is a language sometimes defined as the “most universal of all
languages”. Photography has an advantage as a language because it does not rely upon abstract symbols-words.
Photography thus is more direct and less subject to misunderstanding.

3. Essential Elements of Photography.

1. Image
2. Light or electromagnetic radiation – the source of it may either be natural or artificial light.
3. Sensitized Materials – materials which are sensitive to light such as the photographic films and photographic paper.
4. Camera and its accessories – a light tight box which maybe of different type, size and use.
5. Chemical Process – a process in photography which involves use of chemicals to develop and fix latent prints on the film
to develop and fix images onto photographic paper. The process involves time, temperature, concentration of solutions and
degree of agitation.

Important dates in the field of Photography

• 1826- Nicephore takes the first permanent photograph, a landscape that required eight hours of exposure.
• 1839 - the birth year of photography
• 1871 - The gelatin emulsion is invented by Richard Maddox.
• 1872 - creates the first color photograph
• 1887 - Celluloid film base introduced.
• 1988 - the arrival of true digital cameras
• 1990 - Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital cameras.
• 1994 - The first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that worked with a home computer via a serial
cable were the Apple Quick Take 100 camera.

MODULE 2

• Key Concepts
Principles of Photography and its importance to Criminal Investigation
1. Principles of Photography
2. Photography in Law Enforcement Field.
3. Significance of Forensic Photography.
4. Types of Photographers in Law Enforcement.

Determine and explain the importance of Forensic photography.

Forensic science holds the branch of Forensic photography which encompasses documenting both
suspected and convicted criminals, and also the crime scenes, victims, and other evidence needed to make a
conviction.
In the late 19th century that it came to be widely accepted as a forensic means of identification.
Forensic photography resulted from the modernization of criminal justice systems and the power of
photographic realism.
Forensic Photography also known as forensic imaging or crime scene photography relates to photography
undertaken within a legal context.
It combines both science and art for the purpose of recording and preserving the initial appearance of the
crime scene and physical evidence, in order to provide a permanent record for the courts.
Forensic photography and police photography are used interchangeably.

Evaluate the significance of Photography in Police work and in criminal

investigation.
1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where the find things.
3. To help on securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the case.

Identify the significance of forensic photography

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of examination by
the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph.
2. A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available especially in court
presentation, in court proceedings; fiscals and defense lawyers have generally never visited the scene of the
crime. As a general rule, take many photographs of the crime scene and select the best.
3. Used as an aid by investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene they have
investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
4. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve crimes.

Analyze the three types of photographer

Photographer is a person who is logical, analytical and realistic thinker, and pay full attention to every detail of the image
and for them authority matters. He or she focus on sharp photos, white balance, shadows, and highlights.

3 types of photographers in Law enforcement field

1. Lab Technician - is the darkroom expert. They are responsible for all film development, both black & white and color.
They also produce black & white and color enlargements, as well as 1:1. In addition, they are responsible for all copy work
and the logging and filing of all negatives.

2. Crime Scene Specialist (CSS) - is trained in a variety of subjects, including photography. Their mission is to cover all crime
scenes by photographing it, gathering and packaging evidence, dusting and lifting of fingerprints, making measurements,
and drawing the crime scene to scale. A CSS is also required to photograph bodies at the scene and at autopsies. They are
non-sworn and are not required to carry a firearm.

3. Forensic Photographer - is an expert in the photo sciences field. He has knowledge beyond the basics of exposure and
film development. He is rarely called to a crime scene unless special photography is required, such as ultraviolet or
Luminol photography.

MODULE 3
● Key Concepts
Photographic rays- its nature and characteristics
1. Light, wavelength and frequency.
2. Theories of Light.
3. Four photographic rays.

Explain the importance of light in photography.

Light is one of number of known forms of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion. 186,000

WAVELENGTH - Wavelength is the distance from crest (highest point) to the wave of the next succeeding crest.
FREQUENCY - Frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.

Describe and explain the characteristics of lights.

FOUR PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS
1. X-ray – radiation having a wavelength between 01 to 30 nanometer or milli-microns. They are produced by passing an
electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.
2. Ultra-violet rays – radiation having a wavelength from 30 to 400 milli-microns. It is used to photograph fingerprints on
multi-colored background, documents that are altered chemically or over writings and detection of secret writings.
3. Visible light rays or White light – rays having a wavelength of 400 to 700 milli-microns.
4. Infra-red rays - radiation having a wavelength of 700 to 1000 milli-microns. It is used in taking photographs of obliterated
writing, burnt or dirty documents or blackout photography.

X
U
V
I

MODULE 4
● Key Concepts
Light: Its sources, Properties and Angle
1. Effects of Light.
2. Types of Light.
3. Colors of Light (Primary and Secondary Colors)
4. Properties of Light.
5. Sources of Light.
6. Forensic Light Sources.

White light is the sum total of all colors of the rainbow while
Black is the absence of all colors.

Differentiate primary light and Secondary light.

If we will divide the wavelength of visible light into three,
we will produce:
✓ Blue
✓ Green
✓ Red

Secondary Color
Magenta
Cyan
Yellow

Identify types of light and its properties.

1. Reflection
• It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
a. Regular
Happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.
b. Irregular of diffused
Occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.
2. Refraction
• The bending of light when passing from one medium to another.

3. Diffraction
• The bending of light when it hits a sharp edge opaque object.

4. Rectilinear
• The nature of light that normally travels in straight line.

5. Interference
• Color can be produced by interference of light waves in thin film like in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating in
water.
• The light reflected from the top surface of such a film undergoes a reversal or phase but light reflected from the
bottom of the surface does not undergo this type of change.

6. Absorption
• The nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surface.

7. Filtration
• The character of light to be altered from its colorless into visible state.

8. Polarization
• The process by which the vibration of light is confined to a definite plane, and the speed of light can be
measured.

9. Fluorescence
• These happen when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at
another wavelength.

Classify the sources of light.

SOURCES OF LIGHT
1. Natural
• Coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, etc.
• The intensity of the sunlight falling on open space varies depending on the weather condition, time of the day, or even
time of the year.
• For more accurate exposure at daylight, only one characteristic is considered – the kind of shadow casted by an object in
open space.
a. Bright Sunlight - A lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.
b. Hazy Sunlight - Objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
c. Dull Sunlight - Objects in open space cast no shadow.
• Cloudy Bright - Objects in an open space cast no shadow but objects at far distant are clearly visible.
• Cloudy dull - Objects in an open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already limited.

2. Artificial
 Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the continuous radiation and short duration.
a. Continuous Radiation
• Those that can give continuous illumination.
b. Short Illumination (flash unit)
• It gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning metallic wire (flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled
tube (electronic flash).
• The flash bulb is no longer available in the market but electronic flash remains very popular.
• The electronic flash offers a great light output in a compact, lightweight and economical form.
• Because it is battery powered, it is more convenient for field work where AC current is not available.

FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES

Applied to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive light sources which us filtered white light.
1. Ultra violet lamp
• It comes in variety of shape, sizes and power.
• Some units are portable battery operated and are easily carried and can meet the rugged and rigorous demand for field
work.
2. Laser – Light amplification through simulated emission of radiation
• By illumination certain items with LASER, they would fluoresce or could be made to stand out in sharp contrast with their
background.
• This was especially significant in locating dried biological stains.
• It provided a way for criminalist to finally see, locate, and visually record evidence that they know that they had been
missing.
• Quite expensive.
3. Alternative Light Source (ALS)
• Far more inexpensive alternative to Forensic Laser.
• It uses variety of band pass filters to provide a high intensity beam of a non-coherent light.

Explain the effects of light

Properties of Light 1. Reflection
• It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
2. Refraction
• The bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
3. Diffraction
• The bending of light when it hits a sharp edge opaque object.’
4. Absorption
• The nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surface.

RAT LAW; Reflected, Absorbed. and Transmitted

MODULE 5
● Key Concepts
Camera: Its basic parts, types and function
1. Early forms of camera
2. Classification of camera
3. Essential parts of a camera

Explain the function of camera.

A camera is basically nothing more than a light tight box with a pinhole or a lens, shutter at one end and a holder of
sensitized material at the other. While there are various kinds of camera from the simplest construction (Box-type) to the
most complicated, all operate on the same principles.
The exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the lens and its aperture, and the shutter through its speed
in opening and closing the lens to light.

1. Camera Obscura
(Lat. dark chamber) - was an optical device used in drawing, and one of the ancestral threads leading to the invention of
photography.
2. Camera Lucida - allows you to trace what you see.
3. Pinhole Camera - a camera of simple design and construction usually home-made consisting of a box having a small
aperture functioning as lens at one end, the image being projected on the film at the other end.
4. Box Camera - a simple camera is little more than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and shutter.
In the box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the photographer gather more light to be recorded.
5. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera.
6. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie making
7. Polaroid Still -This camera is restricted in its uses but ideal in instant photograph when there is no requirement for
enlargements.
8. Underwater Camera - Designed for underwater photography.
9. Wide View angle Camera - A camera with a wide-angle lens that produces a rectangular image that is designed for
landscape photography and architectural photography.
10. Panoramic Camera - Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a 120®, 180®, or 360® view of
one exposure.
11. Still Video Camera - Images can be stored in video tapes equipment with a floppy disc, a disc that can hold about 50
images or more.
12. Reflex Camera
a. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its interchangeability of the lens
b. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming the image.
• PARALLAX - The difference between what is seen through the viewfinder and what is exactly recorded on the film.
35mm - is the considered as the most common format of film.
13. Digital camera (digicam) - is a camera that encodes digital images and videos digitally and stores them for later
reproduction. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from
PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.

Enumerate the basic parts of camera and its functions.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA
1. Body or Light Tight Box – suggest an enclosure devoid or light. An enclosure, which would prevent light from exposing
the sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or enclosure to always light tight at
all the time because if it does, then no light could reach the sensitized material during exposure. It means that before and
after the extraneous light, which is not necessary to form the final images.
2. Lens – the function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of
the image formed through which light passes during the exposure.
3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for a pre-determined interval of time, which
light is again blocked off from the film.
Diaphragm – changes the size of the aperture of the lens and regulate the amount of light reaching the film
4. Holder of sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to hold firmly the sensitized
material in its placed during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.
5. View-finder – it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the lens.

Main parts of Digital Cameras

1. Camera Lens – A lens is a merely a carefully ground or molded piece of transparent material that refracts light rays in
such a way as to form an image.
2. Aperture – It is the opening within a lens that controls how much light hits the image sensor. It may be fixed or variable
opening which controls the amount of light coming through the lens.
3. Camera’s image sensor – An image sensor is a solid-state device, the part of the camera’s hardware that captures light
and converts what you see through a viewfinder or LCD monitor into an image.
4. Camera Shutter – In photography and digital photography applications, the shutter is the device on the camera that open
and closes to control how long the focal plane is exposed to light.
5. Shutter Speed – is the duration of time generally expressed in seconds for during which any type of shutter remains fully
open for exposure.
6. Focusing control – focusing is an integral part of any camera operation. Whether you are using a basic point-and-shoot
model, or something that enables you to fine-tune your focusing, picking the right mode and getting the sharpness where
you want it is the difference between a poor image and a stunning one.
7. Viewfinder - The viewfinder is one of the most important parts of a camera. It is a rectangular-shaped part at the back of
your camera that lets you see and frame your subject. Some viewfinders are fully digital, which shows you various details
like your shutter speed, aperture, and ISO before you take the shot.
8. LCD Monitor – The LCD monitor is used to view the menus and camera settings, playback captured images and videos,
and also frame your shot (when using Live View). Some LCD monitors are also touch screens, making it easier to interface
with your camera.
9. Built-in Flash – When needed, you can fire the flash to capture a shot in a dimly lit scene. The flash may be automatically
fired in some modes.
10. Main Dial - The main dial is a cogwheel situated on the front part of the camera that allows you to adjust aperture,
shutter speed, exposure compensation, and other parameters. On some cameras, the main dial can help you navigate
through the images on the memory card.
11. Mode Dial - A mode dial is one of the most used parts of the camera. It is a small cogwheel situated on the top-right of
the camera that switches between the camera’s modes (i.e., ways of operating). Additionally, a camera may have multiple
modes, including manual, automatic, and semiautomatic settings, and scenebased.
12. Batteries (Compatible rechargeable batteries) - the battery is one of the most important parts of the camera. Most of
its components will not work if not powered by one. Having a long-lasting battery lets you shoot more photos and shoot for
extended periods, allowing you to find the perfect shot.
13. SD (Secure Digital) Cards

1975 Kodak digital camera prototype - Created in 1975 by Steve Sasson, an engineer at Kodak, the first ever digital
camera was a fairly rudimentary affair compared to what we use today.

1994 Apple QuickTake 100 - The first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that worked with a home computer
via a serial cable were the Apple Quick Take 100 camera

What are Other Types of Cameras (According to Film use/s)

1. Press Camera
⮚ A camera loaded with a sheet of film.
⮚ They are traditional folding bellows designs with a lens standard in an extendable baseboard.
2. Underwater Camera
⮚ Designed for underwater photography.
3. Wide View angle Camera
⮚ A camera with a wide-angle lens that produces a rectangular image that is designed for landscape photography and
architectural photography.
4. Panoramic Camera
⮚ Used for landscaping photography.
⮚ It is easy to use by encompassing a 120®, 180®, or 360® view of one exposure.
5. Still Video Camera
⮚ Images can be stored in video tapes equipment with a floppy disc, a disc that can hold about 50 images or more.

MODULE 6

LENS
• The basic function of a camera lens is to "gather" light rays from a subject, form and focus those rays
into an image, and project this image onto film inside the camera.

TWO MAIN TYPES OF LENSES ACCORDING TO SHAPE:

a. Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens
• It is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides.
• Light passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of lens meeting at a point.
• It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from.
b. Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens
• It is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides.
• Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point.
• It produces a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set of
focused at infinity position. As according to focal length, lenses maybe classified as:
a. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
b. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more than twice the diagonal of its
negative material.
c. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative material.

2. Relative aperture – the light gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-number system. It is it is otherwise called
the relatives aperture. By increasing or decreasing the F-number numerically, it is possible to:
a. control has the amount of light passing through the lens
b. control the depth of field
c. control the degree of sharpness due to the lens defects.

3. Depth of field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens
is set or focused at a particular distance.

4. Hyper focal distance – is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening
which will give the maximum depth of field.
What are the main groups of camera lens?
1. Simple Meniscus Lens
• This is usually found in simple box camera comprises a single piece of glass with one side convex
and the other side Concave.
• It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens
• This is a combination of two achromatic lenses with almost the same focal length.
• This is corrected from some kind of lens defect but not to astigmatism defects.
3. Achromatic Lens
• A lens which is partly corrected for achromatic aberration.
4. Anastigmatic Lens
• Lens free from astigmatic and other types of lens defect.
• It has the ability to focus vertical or horizontal lines at the same time.
5. Process Lens
• A saucer-corrected lens for astigmatism.
• It has a better color correction and has the ability to produce the best definition of image in the
photographs.
6. Fixed Focus Lens
• A lens used in all fixed focus camera.
• Basically, it has short focal length and greater depth of field.

What are the special types of lenses?

1. Macro Lenses
• The word “macro” is derived from Greek word which means “to enlarge”.
• In photographic terms, a macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few
inches from the subject.
• Two Main Types:
a. One is meant to be used on a hand-held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40mm to
about 90mm with the average about 25mm.
b. Wide angle or a lens with focal length of 100mm or more and is designed with a close-up
bellows attachment of the camera. The longer lenses give a longer image and are most
suitable for static subjects and painstaking photography.
2. Zoom Lenses
• Allow quick adjustment to give a wide or narrow field of vision.
• It can be moved back and forth while other elements stay in place which give the same effects as if
the camera itself was moving towards or away from the subject.

MODULE 7

SHUTTER
• A device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately timed intervals then close
automatically.

Two general types of shutters

1. Central Shutters – one that is located near the lens (usually between the element of the lens). It is made of metal leaves
and its action starts from the center toward the side then closes back to the center.
2. Focal Plane Shutter – is located near the focal place or the sensitized material. It is usually made of cloth curtain. Its
action starts on one side and closes on the opposite sides.

GUIDE AND PRINCIPLES TO CONSIDER IN EXPOSURE

B. Principle in Relative Aperture
• “The larger the f-number, the smaller the aperture”
C. Principle in Shutter Speed
• “The higher the number, the faster the shutter speed”
D. Principle in Film Sensitivity
• “The higher the number, the more sensitive/faster the film”

Hot pursuit – fast film

FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY
Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an electric discharge through a gas-filled tube
(electronic flash) is the most common supplemental light for still photography.

TYPES OF FILTERS
A. GENERAL TYPES
1. Optical filter- are made either of glass or acetate. Optical filters are used primarily to control exposing energy (visible
wavelength, ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working illumination in areas where sensitized materials are
handled.
2. Particle or solution filter - is used in special photographic procedures like in infrared luminescence.

B. OTHER TYPES OF FILTERS

1. Light Balancing filter
• A filter used to change the color quantity of the exposing light in order to secure proper color balance for artificial light
films.
2. Color Compensating Filter
• It is used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result obtained with color films and to compensate for
deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.
3. Neutral Density Film
• It is being used when the light is too bright to allow the use of desired f-number of shutter speed with a particular film.
4. Polarizing Filter
• It is used to reduce or minimize reflection on subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces
5. Blue, yellow, and/or green filters
6. Special 18A Deep Purple Filters
• It is the correct filter for ultraviolet photography.
• These are often used in photography; its short wavelength gives better definition of the fine details.

MODULE 8

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

SENSITIZED MATERIALS
A. Photographic Film
• Is a chemically reactive material that record a fixed or still image when expose to light.
• It is a cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are suspended capable of recording light.
• Its primary function is to record the image that is focused upon it by the lens of the camera.
B. Photographic Papers
• A type of light sensitized material that produces a positive result or photographs after development which is final result
of photography.
• A material suspended with an emulsion.

The light sensitivity of the film is known as emulsion speed.

PHOTOPGRAPHIC FILM
Kinds of Film
1. Ordinary/Panchromatic Film
• It is sensitive to all colors especially to blue and violet.
• It is suitable for general use in the preparation of black and white photographs.

Classes of Ordinary Film

a. Process Panchromatic Film or Short Scale
• Low in speed and high in contrast.
b. Fine Grain Panchromatic Film of Long Scale
• Permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the advantage of fine grain structure.
c. High Speed Panchromatic Film
• It was designed originally intended for photographing and object or subject under adverse lighting conditions.

2. Blue Sensitive Film

• A film especially treated that makes it more sensitive too blue rays of light.

3. Orthochromatic/Kodalith Film
• Sensitive to all colors except red.
• Good for fingerprint photography or document (high contrast).

4. Minicopy Film
• Film with limited enlargement capability.
5. Polaroid film
• Contains chemicals for developing and fixation.
• A special type of sensitized material that produces a photograph immediately after exposure.
6. Color Film
• All film ending in “COLOR”.

Types of color film

a. Color Negatives – for prints, ends in word “COLOR”
b. Color Transparency – for slides, ends in the word “CHROME”.

7. Color Infra-red Film

• A special type of film which is sensitive to infra-red radiation.
• It is also sensitive to violet and blue-green.
• In is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength.
• In investigative photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents.
• In the discovery of old or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin, and in the construction
of camera traps.

8. X-ray Film
• A material which is sensitive to x-ray region of electromagnetic spectrum.

General Types of Emulsions

1. Monochromatic Film
• Because of its limited color sensitivity, has no use in regular photography
• It is used primarily for recopying.

2. Orthochromatic Films
• These are sensitive to ultra-violet, violet, blue, green and yellow portions of the spectrum.
• They do not accurately reproduce the relative brightness of the subject of a subject as seen by the naked eye.
• It is available in sheet film only and it is not used in regular police photography.

3. Panchromatic films
• These are sensitive to all color of the visual spectrum to assist in the selection of the correct film for any kind of work.
• These are divided based on color sensitivity.
1. Emulsion Speed
The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows:
a. ASA (American Standard Association) Rating - This is expressed in arithmetical value.
b. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) Rating - This is expressed in logarithmic Value
c. ISO (International Standards Organization) Rating - This is expressed in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic
values.

BLACK AND WHITE FILM (Six Layers of Black and White Film)
1. Gelatin Anti-Halation Layer- this layer prevents light from passing back through the emulsion layer once it has already
passed through.
2. Anti-Curl Backing - this layer stabilizes the laminate to prevent it from curling.
3. Adhesion Layer - this layer is used to bond different layers together.
4. Film Base - this is a transparent layer that supports the image.
5. Emulsion - this is the most important layer; it contains the silver halide crystals that react when the film is exposed to
light, causing a latent (unseen) image.
6. Gelatin Protective Coating - also known as the anti-scratch layer. They serve as a support to the emulsion.

IMPORTANT TERMS
a. Latent image - The invisible image left by the action of light on photographic film or paper. When processed, the latent
image becomes a visible image, either as a negative, or as a positive black and-white print or color transparency.
b. Contrast - It is the degree of difference between the darkest tone and the lightest tone in a negative, print, or slide. The
darkest tone may be black, and the lightest may be pure white, depending on the subject, lighting, exposure, and
development.
c. Density - In a negative or slide density relates to the amount of developed silver (or dye) in any area, and is a measure
of the “light-stopping power” of that area.
d. Emulsion - A thin layer of light-sensitive material, usually silver halide; emulsion is coated on a transparent base for film,
and on a paper base for printing papers.
e. Granularity or Graininess - This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after the development of
an exposed film.

MODULE 9

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Chloride Paper - Has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.
2. Bromide Paper - Has fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or enlarging.
3. Chloro-Bromide Paper - A multi-speed and could be used in both contact printing and enlarging.

What are the Types of Black and White Photographic Emulsions?

1. Silver Chloride [AgCl] Emulsions. They are very slow (low sensitivity to light) and mainly used for contact printing works
with long exposure times. Their sensitivity is limited to UV light and violet.
2. Silver Bromide [AgBr] Emulsions. They are very fast (very sensitive to light). Their sensitivity widens almost up to green
light. Their tonal range is shorter and cannot rival the one offered by Silver Chloride emulsions. They print with a neutral to
cold cast.
3. Chlorobromide Emulsions. They are sensitive enough to allow working under the enlarger which requires relatively
short exposure times.
4. Silver Chlorobromide. Used in modern photo paper that have sensitivity to light that may go from violet, blue up to
cyan, but not necessarily up to green and most definitely not up to red light.

MODULE 10

CHEMICAL PROCESSING

After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing, the next step
would generally be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps are development, stop-bath,
and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color development, stop fix and stabilizer.

Stages of Chemical Processing

1. Development 4-5 min
• is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black and white
emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In a color emulsion, the
developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye.
• In the development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduce exposed silver halide
crystals to form grains of metallic silver. This process of reaction is the same in both black and white
films and photographic papers.
• In development of:
a. Film – D-76
b. Photo paper – Dektol
c. Both film and paper - Universal developer

2. Stop-bath 10-15 sec

• it halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination of the
developer and fixer from each other.

3. Fixation 5mins
• a fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a through washing. In this
processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and removed
from the emulsion of the photographic material.

4. Washing – use of running water.

5. The application Wetting Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo – to prevent watermark and easier to dry.

6. Drying.

Dark room Photography

• Darkroom - A light tight room used for developing film making contact print and enlargement. It is a
room protected from rays of light harmful to sensitized materials, plates and papers.

Two distinct sides:

1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that must be kept away from water.
2. Wet Side – Processing area, chemical, stock solutions, trays and other materials.

Chemical Processes:
Developing process of film – the latent image becomes permanent and visible in a reverse way thus producing a negative.
Developing process of photo paper – the permanent and visible image produces positive print or photographs.

Two Factors to be considered in developing process:

1. Density – is the degree of darkness of the image developed – too dark or to light.
2. Contrast – is the different of tone from another.
Factors that affect chemical development of the sensitized material:
1. Concentration or strength of the working solution – used mixture procedure by manufacturers.
2. Temperature of chemical involved in the development process
3. Time of development
4. Agitation of the sensitized material during development.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPER

1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulfite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or fog preventer – potassium bromide

Chemical component of a fixer:

1. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or sodium thiosulphate
2. Preservative – Sodium sulphite
3. Neutralizer – boric and acetic acid
4. Hardener – Potassium alum.

Faults and Remedy on Negatives:

1. Intensification – can be done to under-exposed negative. It is the addition of minute part of another metal usually
chromium or mercury on the top of the metallic silver formed to strengthen contrast to obtain good density.
2. Reduction – for over exposed negative. It is the reducing of density in the negative-overexposed
negatives potassium ferry cyanide and sodium thiosulphate or Hypo or Farmer’s Reducer.
3. Increasing or Decreasing development time.
4. Use of development that increase or subdues contrast.

MODULE 11

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
1. Printmaking Process:
2. Printmaking – the final stage in making photographs.
3. Enlarger – It is a machine used in making enlargement. It is a specialized transparency used to produce prints from film
or glass, or from film or glass negatives, or from transparencies.
4. Contact Printing – photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact.

Factors to consider in selecting negative:

1. Sharpness
2. Density
3. Contrast

General Types of Photographic Printing

1. Contact Printing
• The procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being reproduced.
• When the photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact, this process is known as contact printing.
• This is the simplest and the most economical method of photographic printing.
In terms of print quality, it can surpass enlargement in tonality because there is no scattering of image forming lights as
these can be projected beams of an enlarger.
• It usually looks sharper because there is no lens on the printing system to add its aberrations in the print process and also
because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the sharpness is not apparent.

2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

• This is the type of printing where the image in a negative is optically or enlarged onto a print material for exposure to
produce a picture image. The main equipment used is the enlarger.

MODULE 12

Objectives of Crime Scene Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he find things.
3. To help in securing or obtaining confession, description and information to the case.

Basic Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. Refresh memory
2. Preserve time and event
3. Save money and effort

The fundamental purpose of crime scene photography is to produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.

In taking mug shots of a suspect who is standing, the camera is positioned at chest level.

MODULE 13

SURVEILLANCE PHOTOGRAPHY
The purpose of surveillance photography is to gather pertinent facts or information, or evidence of illegal acts of persons
or if a place is being used for illegal activities.

The main difference of this type of photography to that ordinary photography is the requirement of secrecy.
The use of wide-angle lens for close distance and a small lens diaphragm for greater depth of field will certainly be of great
help.

MODULE 14

Investigative photography is employed by crime scene investigators to document the conditions and details of a crime
scene. This includes capturing photographs of the overall scene, close-up shots of evidence, and various angles to aid in
the reconstruction of events. It helps establish the chain of custody for evidence and ensures that critical details are not
lost or altered during the investigation process.

KINDS/ TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY & ITS APPLICATION TO LAW ENFORCEMENT OPERATIONS

1. Photomicrography - The art of photographing minutes objects when magnified by means of a microscope and enlarge
from 10 times and up. It is used usually in question documents and Fire Arm Identification.
2. Photomacrography/macrophotography – Type of photography that directly enlarged on the negative and magnified
from 1 to 9 times. Commonly used in Personal Identification like finger print, foot print, palm print, tube/extension bilus.
3. Microphotography – The process of reducing big object or things of minute object. The photographer uses a special
negative known as a microfilm to preserve the images.
4. Crime Scene Photography – Deals with the photographing the scene of the crime or details of perpetuated crime.
5. Surveillance Photography – Deals with photographing individual without his knowledge, such as the same in
clandestine photography.
6. Infrared Photography – deals with the photographing of object visible, divisible, invisible even with haze.
- very useful in visualizing gunshot residue, bloodstains, tattoos,obscured writing,forgery,latent prints, and
counterfeiting.
- obliterated writings
- “blackout photography”
7. Ultra-Violet Photography – deals with the photographing of object or markings which is invisible using
reflected or fluorescent.
 - used in fingerprints on multl-colored background, documents that are altered chemically, or over writings and
detection of secret writings.
8. X-Ray Photography – deals with photographing of hidden object or things.
9. Traffic Accident Photography – deals with the photographing of traffic incident or occurrence especially in a vehicular
accident. 10. Investigative Photography – deals with the study of the concept of photography its application to law
enforcement or investigation process and the preparation of photographic evidence for court presentation.
11. Mug-shot Photography – Deals with the study of photographing individual for identification purposes.
12. Thermo/Thermal photography – A kind of photo where we use laser beam radiation using laser beam film.
13. Aerial photography – A kind of photography applied for photo mapping. Taking of photograph above the subject.
14. Underwater photography – photographing things under water.
15. Finger Print Photography – Deals with the application of macro-photography so as to produces an enlargement of
finger print for comparison purposes.
16. Firearm Identification photography – Deals with the photographing of firearm shells and bullet. It is also where
photomicrography is applied.
17. Question Document photography - process of photographing document for purposes of examination and as a
substitute for duplicate copy when original is lost and the purpose of duplicate photograph is to establish the contents of
the lost original document.
18. Arson and Questionable Fire photography – It is the willful and malicious burning of property, usually a building or
dwelling unit. 19. Covert photography - quite difficult and complex, but they employ discreet, legal, and professional
tactics to discover or gather information about the subject.
20. Forensic photography- The study of the fundamental of photography, its application to police work and the
preparation of photographic evidence for court presentation.

MODULE 15

The green color of filter should be used to improve the outer part of a fingerprint impression dusted with black powder on
a green background.

Macrophotography and Microphotography

Macrophotography includes close-up and photomicrography is frequently used throughout the crime scene investigation
to record and preserve smaller sized items of evidence. Some specific evidence types using close-up and
photomacrography include fingerprint identification, toolmark, shoe mark and type mark comparisons, and blood spatter
examination and bite mark identification.
Photomacrography is usually defined as any magnification at the film plane of 1x (life size) and higher. Anything below life
size is considered a “close-up”. Simple diopter lenses placed in front of the normal lens, or sometimes a small extension
tube between the camera lens, usually result in magnification below a 1:1 ratio.

What are the tools for Photomacrography?

Macro lens
A lens with extra focusing extension built into the lens body is called a macro lens. A true macro lens is an also optically
designed for working at very close focusing distances and will usually provide a 1:2 image ratio without additional
attachments, at the same time having the capability to focus on objects at infinity.

Extension Tube
Extension tubes are metal tubes designed to fit between the lens and the camera body and are therefore custom designed
to fit the lens mount of the camera. They normally come in sets of several different lengths so that a range of image
magnifications can be chosen.
Bellows Attachment
The bellows attachment is mounted between the lens and the camera body and has a flexible bellows that allows easy
choice of lens extension: With a normal lens on a full frame camera, a bellows will usually offer image magnifications from
about three-fourths life size to three times life size.

What are the Techniques for Photomacrography?

The magnification of photographic image creates exposure changes, depth-of field changes, and camera and subject
movement issues. Camera must have the capability of coupling with the electronic flash to meter and control the flash
exposure, the exposure corrections for lens extension will have to be applied manually. The flashover or the distance of
the flash from the subject is then changed until the desired aperture is achieved.

Microphotography
Microphotography is the process through which the size of a photograph is reduced so that it can only be viewed using a
microscope. In microphotography, the photographer uses a special negative known as a microfilm to preserve the images.
Microphotography was invented by John Benjamin Dancer from Manchester, England in 1839 using the Daguerreotype
method.

FINGERPRINT PHOTOGRAPHY
Fingerprint is one of the most convincing means of establishing the fact that the suspect was present at the crime scene.
Without photography, such evidence would lose some of its effectiveness. Since fingerprints are found on fixed objects and
cannot be brought to the laboratory or later, in court, while others are barely visible to the naked eye. These and other
difficulties are readily overcome by photography. Fingerprints are easily destroyed by careless handling or exposure to
weather so it must be recorded and preserved photographically.
Fingerprint is a record of the pattern of friction ridges of the skin of the fingers. Fingerprints left accidentally at the scene of
a crime or those impressed on a fingerprint card of an individual are photographed to serve the following purpose:
1. Makes permanent records of fingerprints
2. Will bring out faint fingerprints which cannot be studied by the naked eye but often are great value for identification
purposes.
3. It can magnify a fingerprint to almost any extent desired.
4. Will make possible the side-by-side comparisons of magnified fingerprints for the courts to see whether or not two or
more fingerprints are identical in detail.
Whether chance impressions are latent or visible, their photographing is a task calling for technical skill and knowledge. An
accidental impression is rarely as perfect as a prepared impression with ink by a skilled fingerprint technician. Very often
there are some parts fragmentary or some parts smudge.

MODULE 17

Traditional or Analog Photography is photography performed with an analogue camera and a roll of film

In layman's terms, the primary factor that distinguishes the two methods is the storage of the images captured.
Analog photography makes use of a photosensitive material known as film, whereas digital photography makes
use of a data storage device such as a memory card.

MODULE 18

PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
Photographs as Evidence
The principal requirements to admit a photograph (digital or film-based) into evidence are relevance and authentication.
Unless the photograph is admitted by the stipulation of both parties, the party attempting to admit the photograph into
evidence must be prepared to offer testimony that the photograph is an accurate representation of the scene. This usually
means someone must testify that the photograph accurately portrays the scene as viewed by that witness.

Presentation and Preparation of Photographic Evidence

1. Markings and/or Impressions
• Footwear and tire impressions are perhaps the most overlooked evidence at a crime scene. Impression evidence can be
collected by casting and with photography.
• At major crime scenes impressions should be photographed before they are casted.
• At minor crime scenes impressions are usually photographed without casting. If the impression is properly
photographed positive identification linking a suspect or vehicle to the crime is possible.
• When taking photographs of footwear or tire impressions begin with a photograph to show where the impression is
located in the crime scene.
It is important to include a recognizable landmark in the photograph so the location of the impression is understood. If the
impression is near a landmark, a mid–range photograph probably would be adequate to show the location of the
impression.
• If the impression is farther away from a recognizable landmark, additional photographs would be
necessary.
• Place the scale approximately one inch away from the impression and on the same plane as the
impression.
a. Lighting techniques in impressions/markings
• The most effective way to insure you are using the best angles of lighting is “preview the photograph” by looking at
lighting from several different angles.
• With cardboard – use of lighting must place at different angles while the other one is holding a cardboard
• Dusty Impression - type of footwear impression is best photographed with light from a low oblique angle.
• Tire mark impression - tire impression is similar to photographing footwear impressions. However, you must photograph
tire impressions in enough sections to show one circumference of the tire.
• Tool mark - the best way to light tool marks is with oblique lighting. Oblique lighting will reduce reflections and show
greater detail by creating small shadows within the tool marks.
2. Fingerprints
• Fingerprints should be photographed before they are collected on major cases or if the latent may be destroyed when
lifting.
• When photographing with a digital camera all photographs should be taken in color mode. Even if the finished
photograph would be better in black–and–white it should still be taken in color when using a digital camera.
• When photographing evidence containing fine detail with a digital camera it is highly recommended the images be
captured as RAW files.
a. Photographing Specific Types of Fingerprint Subjects
• Dusted fingerprints with good visible detail can usually be photographed without special lighting techniques.
• Fingerprints on porous surfaces (textured wall coverings, wood, brick, etc.) may need almost a 90–degree lighting angle to
avoid the creation of shadows in the surface’s texture, which would interfere with the recording of fingerprint detail.
• Fingerprints on glass (windows, drinking glasses, etc.) can be photographed by placing a white card behind the glass and
using a low oblique angle of light. They can also be photographed by using transmitted (back) lighting by positioning a
diffused light source behind the glass.
• Fingerprint impressions in soft substances (e.g., wax, putty, clay, adhesive tape, grease, or dust) require the use of oblique
lighting at a low angle.
3. Firearm Photography
• The location and condition of firearms and related evidence at a crime scene should be diagramed and photographed
before recovering and securing.
When bullets have passed through garments into the body, a clear photograph of the bullet hole positions in the victim is
desirable.
• Include a ruler/scale in all photographs.
a. Bullet Path Photography
• The suspected path of a bullet can be illustrated with a variety of techniques.
• Colored strings can be strung to illustrate bullet paths.
• Reflective string can also be used—the string will glow when a flash photograph is taken.
• Fiberglass rods or wooden dowels can also be used, especially to show how a bullet passed through an object or wall.
• Another technique for photographing the suspected path of a bullet is to use a laser beam.
4. Bloodstain Photography
• The photographer sets up his camera to photograph the floor area where a void pattern is located.
• First photograph shows the void pattern on the floor.
• The photographer positions the electronic flash where it is believed the victim’s head was located.
• Second photograph shows a shadow matching the void pattern due to the position of the flash.
a. Lighting techniques in bloodstain
• Proper lighting will show the detail of the bloodstain patterns and evidence.
• Do not attempt to photograph bloodstain with an electronic flash positioned on the camera. If you do, you will normally
get reflection from the surface you are photographing.
• The best way to light bloodstain is with oblique lighting. Oblique lighting will reduce reflections and show greater detail in
the evidence.
• Use a low grazing light angles when dealing with bloodstain on fabrics.

MODULE 19

Common requirements that make the Photograph acceptable as Evidence in Court:

1. What is the relationship of the photo to the original?
2. Faithful representation of the subject as seen by the naked eyes
3. Avoid Distortion- by using an appropriate film.
4. Camera- consider the subject position, whether condition etc.
5. Consider the limitation of your equipment.

TECHNIQUES FOR DEMONSTRATING EVIDENCE PRINTS

1. Composite Exhibits - this consist of two photographs placed side by side to show points of similarities or differences.
This is generally used in the comparison of fingerprint or handwriting.
2. Matching photographs - this is another technique of illustrating similarities. Place a part of one photograph over and in
careful alignment with the other. Used in toolmarks, shells, pair illustrations or in matching glass fragments or paint chips.
3. Matching Transparencies- this is used to show objects have identical outline. A positive transparency of one is placed
over the other, adjusted so the outline coincides, like in proving traced forgery.

PREPAPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Each crime has individual features that should be photographed. Keep in mind that the nature of the offense and the
feature that establishes the elements of the offense is being shown.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCEDURE:
1. The camera should be mounted on a steady tripod whenever possible to avoid camera movement.
2. The camera should be levelled whenever commensurate with the particular photograph to be taken.
3. Crime scene views include three (3) general classes. They are:
a. Long views (General View) (overview) - wants to show the over-all view of the scene of the crime
- order to cover the entire crime scene and bring out the relationships between the objects the shot.
b. Medium views (midrange shot) - process of photographing the crime scene and dividing it into sections.
c. Close-up views - emphasize the details of the crimes and the different physical evidence found in the crime scene.
d. Extreme close-up views - magnification is needed to show details present in every piece of evidence
4. Photographs should be taken progressively as the photographers enter the building or room to avoid disturbing
something that might otherwise remain unnoticed, and to maintain continuity.
5. Views should be taken to illustrate the general location of the crime scene.
6. Definitely required is a view of the exterior of the building. It is well to include the street number whenever possible.
7. Needed next is the complete photographic coverage of the interior rooms within the crime area, which show the
condition in general and relate the overall scenes too specific items and places.
8. Bodies of victims should be photographed exactly as found from all angles, especially from overhead when this can be
done for identification purposes. A close-up photograph, one to one, if possible, should be taken on all wounds, bruises,
discoloration, and abrasion generally in black and white color.
9. Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks, and tape measures can be used to show the relative size of and distance
between objects and the degree of the magnification of an enlargement. Measuring devices must not obscure the object to
be shown, so it is placed at the bottom or just below the object to show the relative size of objects in a photographic
exhibit.
10. Field Notes:
a. Record the date and time of arrival at the scene as well as the time of departure from the scene.
b. Specifically record the location area, street number, and name of building, type of scene.
c. Write down the name, badge numbers of all investigative officer’s present during the photographing.
d. Record specific information on each exposure, including the time of taking each picture which can be expressed either
using AM or PM or military type of timing.
11. Additionally, record the;
a. Direction camera pointed
b. General statement of the photographed object
c. Exposure or ASA rating
d. Kind of film used
e. Types of lighting utilized in photographing

5 angles shots
2 shots - every item of evidence

MODULE 20

It is vital to develop a habit of always checking the camera settings before taking making a shot to the next. The absolute
basics of digital photography is remember to reset the camera setting.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
• Uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photo detectors to produce images focused by a lens, as opposed to an
exposure on photographic film. The captured images are digitized and stored as a computer file ready for further digital
processing, viewing, electronic publishing, or digital printing.
• When digital imaging is considered for law enforcement, the concern of the admissibility of digital photographic
evidence in court is often raised. The fact that digital photographs are more easily altered than film-based photographs is
usually cited. Some even believe digital photographs are not admissible in court.
LEGAL FOUNDATION OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
1. R.A 8792 (E-Commerce Law)
2. Acting on the memorandum dated June 18, 2001 of the committee on the Revision of rules of court to draft on the E-
Commerce Law (R.A 8792) the Supreme Court, En Banc, approved the said resolution.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

Digital photography in law enforcement has in a very short time moved from a novelty to a potential timeand-money saver
to a necessity. The end of 35mm film photography in the field of law enforcement brings with it some new considerations,
some of which may be completely foreign to those who were initiated to film-based photography. Any police or law
enforcement agencies that decides to use digital photography must create a set of standards operating procedures (SOPs),
that must be followed to the letter, as follows:
1. Get an archive and management system.
• As soon as the police or law enforcement agencies put digital cameras in the hands of the police or law enforcement
officers, or criminal investigators, the digital-image files will begin to stack up. The first thing to do is moving images from
the memory card to a computer and subsequently securing, searching, and archiving those images. Most of these systems
incorporate features that secure the original images and track any changes made to copies of those images in an image
editor such as Adobe Photoshop.
2. Watch out for proprietary formatting.
• If the police or law enforcement agencies choose to use some type of image database, make sure it can be maintained in
the event the software providers go out of business. Many are proprietary systems and store images in a way that makes
both inaccessible without proprietary software. It is believed that the benefits derived from a good image-management
system designed specifically for the needs of law enforcement override the chance that the images may be unusable should
the manufacturer go out of business.
3. Make sure the images will stand up in court.
• There are two things that will help to ensure the integrity of the digital images if presented in the court. First, there is a
need for the strict set of SOPs; and second, there is a need to be able to document any changes made to enhance, clarify, or
modify a digital image from its original state. It is useful to have documentation tools, so if changes were made in some
detail in photographs, it can be articulated in court. Altering even one pixel in the image will result in a value that is
different from the original.
4. Backup, backup, and backup again.
Anyone who has dealt with computers for any length of time has experienced periodic loss of data, that is, varying from the
annoyance of a lost e-mail to the catastrophic failure of an entire hard drive. So, it is no surprise that the image-
management SOPs must include provisions for backing-up irreplaceable crime-scene photos. There are two ways to back-up
images. First, the original images are burned onto a CD-R, which becomes the “negative” for those images; and second
backup, backup, and backup again.
5. Do not be afraid to invest in storage space.
• If the police or law enforcement agencies just switching from film to digital, take a look at how many pictures the police or
law enforcement officers or criminal investigators were taking with their film cameras in order to determine the future
storage needs. The police or law enforcement agencies choose to maintain their photographs indefinitely. If your agency
chooses to back up all of its images on a secure file server, this means there is a need to periodically increase the server’s
storage capacity.
6. Beware of potential issues with raw image formats.
• The police or law enforcement agencies prefer the raw image format because it is the original sensor data, but the
problem is that the sensor data is not viewable with image-viewing software without some sort of conversion. The
conversion, may not be supported by all software, or the conversion may not be supported by later versions of software in
the future. “Nikon and Canon’s formats may be stable, but the formats for some of the smaller camera may not be so stable
in the future.”
7. Beware of potential issues with Joint Photographic Experts Group or JPEG files.
• Compressed image formats, such as JPEG are useful for saving storage space, but they can also result in an irretrievable
loss of image data. Therefore, when using JPEG or some other compressed image formats, use the lowest possible setting to
avoid excessive damage to the image quality. Once an image format and compression settings has been decided, be sure to
document them in the SOPs and make sure photographers strictly adhere to those standards.

GUIDELINES FOR ENSURING DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHS ARE ADMISSIBLE

1. Develop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP), Department Policy, or General Order on the use of digital imaging. The
SOP should include when digital imaging is used, chain of custody, image security, image enhancement, and release and
availability of digital images. The SOP should not apply just to digital, but should also include film-based and video
applications as well.
2. Most importantly, preserve the original digital image. This can be done a variety of ways including saving the image file to
a hard drive or recording the image file to a CD. Some agencies elect to use image security software.
3. Digital images should be preserved in their original file formats. The saving of a file in some file formats subject the image
to lossy compression. If lossy compression is used critical image information may be lost and artifacts introduced as a result
of the compression process.
4. If images are stored on a computer workstation or server, and several individuals would have access to the image files,
make the files read-only for all but your evidence or photo lab staff. As an example, detectives could view any image files
but they would not have rights to delete or overwrite those files.
5. If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced the new image files created should be saved as new file names.
The original file must not be replaced (overwritten) with a new file.