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CHEMISTRY

LESSON NOTES
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YEAR 11
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 SCHEME OF WORK FOR CHEMISTRY
YEAR 11, FIRST TERM
WK TOPIC CONTENT
1. Acids, Bases Acids: Classification, Definition, Basicity of
and Salts an acid, preparation of acids, Properties of
acids, Reaction of dilute acids,Test to
identify a colorless solution as an acid,
strong and weak acids definition and as
electrolyte, Dilute and Concentrated acids
Uses of some acids

2. Acids, Bases Bases: Definition, properties of Bases/

and Salts(cont) alkalis, strong and weak Bases definition
and as electrolyte, reactions of bases, uses
of some bases/ alkalis
Salts: Definition and formation, Types of
salts
Factors influencing methods for preparing
normal salts

3. Acids, Bases Experimental description of preparation of

and Salts(cont) soluble salts by
(i) neutralization reaction(titration)
(ii) reaction of active metals with dilute
acids
(iii) reaction of dilute acids with insoluble
trioxocarbonates IV salts
(iv) preparation of insoluble
salts(precipitation demonstration)
(v) Properties of salts,
(vi) behavior of some salts on exposure
4. Acids, Bases Behavior of soluble normal salts in
and Salts(cont) aqueous solution(HYDROLYSIS)
pH of solution and calculations
pH range of common indicators for acid-
base titration

5. Electrolysis Definition of terms; Electrolysis,

electrolyte, electrode, electrolytic cell
Electrolysis of molten compounds
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of
substance, factors affecting discharge of
ions

6. Electrolysis Application and uses of electrolysis

continues Application and uses of electroplating
metals
Faraday’s laws of Electrolysis and
calculations
7. Half-Term
8. Electrochemical Definition/ Explanation: Standard
cells electrode potential, standard hydrogen
electrode, electrochemical cell and
diagram, writing of cell notation, e.m.f of a
cell
9. Electrochemical Calculation of e.m.f of a cell
cell (cont) Application of electrochemical cell
types of cell (primary and secondary cell)
comparing electrolytic cell and
electrochemical cell
 SCHEME OF WORK FOR CHEMISTRY
YEAR 11, SECOND TERM
WK TOPIC CONTENT
1. Metals and Relative Abundance in the earth crust,
their differences of chemical properties of metals
compounds and non-metals, order of reactivity of metals
(using water or dilute acid)
Occurrence of metals
Extraction: Definition, Principle of Extraction
2. Metals and Detailed Extraction of the metals, their
their properties and uses
compounds Alloys: Definition, examples, uses and
advantages
Uses of some compounds: CaCO3, Na2CO3,
CuSO4, AgNO3, AgCl/AgBr, NH4Cl, NH4NO3,
(NH4)2SO4
Solubility of salts in water, Stability to heat
3. Metals and Corrosion of iron: conditions, process of
their corrosion, prevention of
compounds corrosion( galvanizing, tin plating, the use of
Mg to prevent corrosion of under water pipes
4. Metals and Extraction of Aluminium
their Transition Metals( s,p,d and box orbital
Compounds electron structure)
Properties with reasons
Test for metal ions
5. Nitrogen Nitrogen: Laboratory and Industrial
and its preparation and uses
compounds Oxide of nitrogen: N2O, NO, NO2: Lab
preparation and uses
 Ammonia: Lab preparation and uses. Test for
NH3 gas
HNO3 : Laboratory and industrial preparation
and uses
Importance of nitrogen cycle
6. Sulphur and Occurrence, extraction and allotropes,
its properties and uses of sulphur
Compounds Laboratory preparation of SO2 gas, properties
and uses
Na2SO3 as food preservative
Test for S2- ion, SO32- ion and SO42- ion
Preparation of H2SO4 and uses

7. Half-Term
8. Halogens Gradation of physical properties of halogens
Laboratory preparation of Chlorine gas,
Properties and uses, Bleaching action of
chlorine, Test for Cl2 gas, Cl2 gas reaction with
NaOH(at low and high temperature)
Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen Chloride
gas, properties and uses
Test for Hydrogen Chloride gas
Test for halide ions
9. Rate of Definition, Collision theory, factors affecting
reaction rate of Reaction, Methods of Determining the
rate of Reaction
Energy Profile diagram for catalytic reaction of
exothermic and endothermic reaction
10. Revision
11. Examination
12. Examination
 SCHEME OF WORK FOR CHEMISTRY
YEAR 11, THIRD TERM
W TOPIC CONTENT
K
1. Chemical Definition- Reversible and change change of
Equilibriu Reaction conditions
m Le-chatelier’s principle
Equilibrium constant Kc, and pressure constant
Properties of a reaction at equilibrium

2. Some Definition : Empirical Formula, Molecular

terms in formula, Structural Formula with examples,
Organic Isomerism, Homologous series, Functional
Chemistry Group,
Hydrocarbon: Definition, Saturated
hydrocarbon.

3. Hydrocarb Unsaturated hydrocarbon : Definition,ethene

ons preparation(lab), structure, reactions of alkenes.
(Alkenes) Addition reaction with H2; HX(hydrogen halides )
halogens
Isomerism in Alkynes
Differences between structural and geometrical
isomers

4. Hydrocarb Unsaturated hydrocarbon : Definition,ethyne

ons preparation(lab), structure, reactions of alkenes.
(Alkynes) Addition reaction with H2; HX(hydrogen halides )
halogens
Isomerism in Alkenes
Distinguishing between terminal alkyne
 Test to distinguish between alkene and alkynes

5. Aromatic Benzene : Resonance structure, Physical

Hydrocarb properties, substitution reaction and addition
ons Reaction with Chlorine
6. Alkanols Sources and structure , laboratory and Industrial
preparation of ethanol
Uses of ethanol as fuel and as solvent
Isomerism in alkanols
Primary, Secondary and tertiary alkanols and
Distinguishing test

7. Half-Term
8. Alkanoic Sources of Methanoic Acid and Ethanoic Acid,
Acid physical properties , chemical
properties( reaction with metals(Na,Mg) with
trioxocarbonates as identification Test for –
COOH group

9. Alkanoates Preparation of Alkanoates( esterification),

(esters) properties and uses of esters, Natural sources of
esters
I.U.P.A.C naming of esters and functional group
Oils and Differences between Esterification and
Fats Neutralization
Sources, Physical properties and chemical
properties (conversion of oils to fats)
Soaps and Detergents: Preparation of soap by
saponification reaction, cleansing action of soap.
Differences between soap and soapless
Detergent
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
ACIDS
1. are grouped into (a) inorganic (or mineral) acids and (b) organic
acids.
(a) Inorganic (Mineral) acids are Hydrochloric acid(HCl), trioxo nitrate
V acid (HNO3), tetra oxo sulphate VI acid (H2SO4) e.t.c
(b) Organic acids are
i. Methanoic acid (formic acid) in insect sting HCOOH
ii. Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) in vinegar CH3COOH
iii. Butanoic acid in rancid butter and putrid human sweat C3H7COOH
iv. Oxalic acid in beetroot, spinanch (COOH)2
v. Lactic acid in sour milk
vi. Citric acid in lemon and lime
vii. Ascorbic acid in oranges
viii. Tartaric acid in grapes
ix. Fatty acids in oils and animal fats
x. Amino acids in proteins
2. An acid is defined as a substance which ionizes in aqueous
solution (or in water) to produce hydrated hydrogen ion i.e.
hydroxonium ion H3O+ as the only positive ion.
3. Basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen ion in
the molecule of an acid (which is replaced by a metal or ammonium
ion)
Acid Basicity Acid Basicity
HCl 1 HCOOH 1
HNO3 1 CH3COOH 1
H2SO4 2 (COOH)2 2
H3PO4 3
4. METHODS OF PREPARING ACIDS
i. React acidic non-metallic oxide gas with water
Examples : CO2(g) + H2O -----------> H2CO3
NO2 + H2O ------------> HNO2 + HNO3
SO2 + H2O -------------> H2SO3
ii. Reaction between hydrogen and halogen and dissolving the
product in water
H2(g) + Cl2(g) -------------> 2HCl(g)
HCl(g) + H2O -----------> H3O+ + Cl-
iii. Reaction of the highly viscous or less volatile acid (concentrated
H2SO4) with a salt to displace the more volatile acid from the salt
(HCl, HNO3)

e.g. KNO3 + H2SO4 -------------> KHSO4 + HNO3(v)

( concentrated) acid vapour
5. PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Physical: (a) Sour taste (b) concentrated acids are highly corrosive,
causing damage to skin, clothes
(c) affects or changes colour of indicators (i) turns blue litmus paper
red (ii) methyl orange in acid is red (iii) phenolphthalein in acid is
colourless
Chemical: (a) Reactive metals (Ca, Mg, Al, Fe) will displace hydrogen
gas from dilute acids (HCl , H2SO4)
2HCl + Mg -------------> MgCl2 + H2
Note: (i) HNO3 is not used because it is an oxidizing agent which
oxidizes hydrogen to water
(ii) The reaction of very active metals K, Na with dilute HCl or H2SO4
will be explosive and dangerous
(b) Dilute acid will displace carbon IV oxide gas from trioxocarbonate
IV salts
MgCO3 + H2SO4 ---------------> MgSO4 + H2O + CO2
(c) Dilute acids will displace sulphur IV oxide gas from trioxosulphate
IV salt on heating
Na2SO3 + HCl ---------------> NaCl + H2O + SO2(g)
Pungent smell
(d) Dilute acids will displace hydrogen sulphide gas from sulphide
salts
FeS + 2HCl -------------> FeCl2 + H2S
Rotten egg smell
(e) Acid will react with a base or alkali to form salt and water only
HCl + NaOH ------------> NaCl + H2O
2HNO3 + MgO ------------> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
6. USES OF ACID
i. for preparing salts e.g. All acids
ii . for manufacturing fertilizers H2SO4, HNO3
iii . for making explosive HNO2 (concentrated)
iv . for making detergent H2SO4(concentrated)
v. As drying agent for gases H2SO4 (concentrated) except NH3
(alkaline gas), H2S (reducing agent)
vi. as a catalyst conc H2SO4
vii. as oxidizing agent HNO3 (dil & conc)
C + H2SO4 ------------> CO2 + SO2 + H2O
viii. as a dehydrating agent. Conc H2SO4
ix. in car batteries as electrolyte. Conc H2SO4
x. for making soap e.g. fatty acid in palm oil
7. CONCENTRATION OF ACIDS
a. A dilute acid contains a small quantity of acid molecules in a large
quantity of water
b. A concentrated acid contains a large quantity of acid molecules in
a small quantity of water
8. STRENGTH OF ACIDS: This shows the degree or extent of ionization
of the acid in water or aqueous solution
a. A strong acids ionizes completely in aqueous solution
e.g. HCl -------------> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
b. A weak acid ionizes partially (or incomplete) in aqueous solution
example: CH3 COOH CH3COO-aq + H+(aq)
Others are H3PO4, (COOH)2
9. METHOD OF DILUTING A CONCENTRATED ACID: Add a little
quantity of the concentrated acid gradually to a large amount of
water and stir.
NOTE: I. Do not add or pour concentrated acid quickly into water to
dilute it
Reason: The process of dilution is exothermic and the large amount
of heat energy released can result in ; (a) splattering of the acid and
can cause serious burns on the skin or damage the top of the table
(b) Breaking the glass beaker or flask causing serious damage
II. Do not add water to concentrated acid to prevent spattering of the
acid
BASES
1. (a) A base is a (i) metallic oxide e.g. Na2O, MgO, CuO (ii) a metallic
hydroxide e.g. Fe(OH)2
(b) An alkali is a soluble base. It is a substance which will dissolve in
water to form an alkaline solution e.g. NaOH, KOH, NH4OH
(c) A base (or alkali) will produce hydroxide ion in aqueous solution
e.g. NaOH(aq) -----------------> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2. STRENGTH OF BASES
A strong base (alkali) will ionize completely in aqueous solution
e.g. KOH(aq) -------------> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
A weak base (alkali) will ionze partially in aqueous solution
e.g. NH4OH(aq) -------------> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
3. PROPERTIES OF BASES (ALKALIS)
Physical
i. Aqueous solution of a base has soapy feel to the skin or slippery to
touch
ii. Bitter taste
iii. A concentrated solution of alkali is corrosive to skin
iv. Aqueous solution of bases will affect the colours of indicators
(a) Red litmus will change to blue
(b) Methyl orange in alkali is yellow
(c) Phenolphthalein in alkali solution is pink
Chemical properties
i. Bases and alkalis reacts with acids to form salt and water only
(neutralization reaction)
e.g. CuO + H2SO4 ---------------> CuSO4 + H2O
KOH + HCl ----------------> KCl + H2O
ii. Aqueous solution of the alkali (NaOH, KOH) can be used as a
precipitating agent to produce insoluble metal hydroxides
e.g. FeCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ------------> Fe(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
green precipitate
iii. Aqueous solution of alkali react with amphoteric metals (Al, Pb,
Zn, Sn) to form a complex salt and also produce hydrogen gas.
Zn + NaOH(aq) ------------> NaZnO2 + H2
iv. Aqueous solution of alkali reacts with amphoteric oxides (Al2O3,
PbO, ZnO, SnO) to form salt and water
2NaOH + Al2O3 --------------> 2NaAlO2 + H2O
USES OF BASES(ALKALIS)
i. In the manufacture of soap (NaOH, KOH)
ii. For neutralizing or reducing the acidity of soil (CaO, Ca(OH)2 )
iii. In the manufacture of cement and mortar Ca(OH)2
iv. As a mild laxative Mg(OH)2 an antacid
v. To absorb (or remove) CO2 gas from air e.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
vi. As household cleaning agent e.g. NH3(ammonia) solution used for
removing grease from windows

SALTS
1. A salt is defined as a compound containing a metal ion or
ammonium ion (a positive radical) and a non-metal ion (e.g. Cl-) or
acid radical (a negatively charged group atom e.g. NO3-)
Examples; NaCl, NH4NO3, MgSO4, kHCO3, Zn(OH)Cl
A salt is formed by replacing the H+ ions of an acid partially or
completely by a metal ion or ammonium ion
2. TYPES OF SALTS
(a) i. Normal salt: is salt which contains no replaceable hydrogen ion
or hydroxide ion e.g. NaCl, K2SO4, CaCO3, NH4Cl e.t.c
ii. a normal salt is formed by completely replacing all the hydrogen
ion in an acid by a metal ion
(b)i. Acid salt is that which contains replaceable hydrogen ion e.g.
KHSO4
ii. An acid salt is formed by partially replacing the hydrogen ion in a
dibasic acid (H2SO4) or tribasic acid (H3PO4) by a metal ion
H2SO4 + KOH ------------> KHSO4 + H2O
(c) i. Basic Salt: is that which contains replaceable hydroxide ion e.g.
Mg(OH)Cl, Zn(OH)Cl
ii. A basic salt is formed by partially replacing the hydroxide ion in a
base by an acid radical
Mg(OH)2 + HCl -----------------> Mg(OH)Cl + H2O
OTHER TYPES OF SALTS
(a) Hydrated Salt: is a salt which contains molecules of water which is
loosely bond to I mole of the salt. e.g. CuSO4.5H2O, BaCl2.2H2O,
Na2CO3.10H2O e.t.c.
(b) Double salt contains two different metal ions with one acid
radical with a water of crystalisation. E.g. KAl(SO4)2.12H2O
(c) Complex salt contains a metal ion bonded to ligands e.g.
Cu(NH3)4.SO4
3. FACTORS DETERMINING THE METHODS OF PREPARATION OF
SALTS
(a) solubility (b) stability to heat
4. METHODS OF PREPARATION OF SALTS
I. SOLUBLE SALTS:
(a) Reaction of active metals with dilute acid
e.g Zn + HCl ---------------> ZnCl2 + H2
Procedure: Add dilute acid to a test tube containing excess zinc
granules. Wait till effervescence stops. Filter the solution to obtain
the filtrate of Zinc chloride and residue of Zinc. Pour the filtrate into
an evaporating dish and heat to obtain ZnCl2 solid. Sundry to obtain
dry solute.
(b) Reaction of a trixocarbonate IV salt with dilute acid
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 -----------> Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
Procedure:
(c) Reaction of acid and Base to form salt and water (neutralization
reaction):
e.g. H2SO4 + NaOH ------------> Na2SO4 + H2O
(d) Direct combination of metal and Non-metal
e.g. Na + Cl2 -----------> NaCl

II. INSOLUBLE SALTS

(a) precipitation method by reacting two different aqueous solutions
in which there is exchange of ions e.g.
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) ----------> AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
White curdy precipitate
(b) direct combination of a metal and non-metal
e.g. Fe + Cl2 -------------> FeCl2(s)
green precipitate

5. COMPOUNDS OF METALS ( i.e. SALT)

I. Solubility in water
(a) trioxonitrate V salts (nitrate salts) All soluble
(b) Chloride salts – generally soluble except in water except AgCl,
BaCl2, PbCl2.
(c) tetra oxo sulphate VI salts- generally soluble in water except
PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4 (slightly soluble in water)
(d) Trioxo carbonate IV salts – generally INSOLUBLE except those of
Group1 metals and Ammonium salt
II. Effect of heat on Salts
(a) Trioxo carbonate IV salts
i. Not decomposed on heating e.g. Group 1 carbonates e.g. K2CO3,
Na2CO3, Rb2CO3 except Li2CO3 which decomposes similarly as MgCO3-
(diagonal relationship)
ii. decomposed to metal oxide (solid residue) and carbon IV oxide
gas e.g. CaCO3, MgCO3, -------- CuCO3
e.g. ZnCO3(s) ---------------> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
white powder yellow (when hot)
white (when cold)
iii. Decomposed to metal, carbon IV oxide and oxygen gas e.g.
Ag2CO3, Au2CO3, Hg2CO3
e.g. Ag2CO3 ------------> 4 Ag(s) + 2CO2(g) + O2(g)

(b) Trioxo nitrate V salts

i. decompose to dioxo nitrate II salt and oxygen e.g. KNO3, NaNO3.
This method is used to prepare pure oxygen gas in the laboratory.
KNO3(s) -------------> KNO2(s) + O2(g)
Ii . Decompose to metal oxide (residue), nitrogen IV oxide gas
(brown gas) and oxygen gas. e.g. Ca(NO3)2 to------ Cu(NO3)2
e.g. 2Pb(NO3)2(s) -----------------> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
white crystals reddish brown gas
brown (hot)
yellow (cold)
iii. decompose to metal, NO2 and O2
2AgNO3(s) ----------------> 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2
6. PROPERTIES OF SOME SUBSTANCES
(a) Efflorescent substances: are substances which looses part or all
of their water of crystallization on exposure to air.
e.g. Na2CO3.10H2O ----------------> Na2CO3 + 10H2O
(b) Deliquescent substances: are which on exposure to air absorbs
water moisture and dissolves in it or turn into a solution. E.g. NaOH,
FeCl2, CaCl2 e.t.c
(c) Hygroscopic substances: are substances which absorbs water
moisture from air and become sticky. E.g. H2SO4(conc), CaO, CuO,

7. NATURE OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF SALTS

8. pH of aqueous solution
 ELECTROLYSIS
1.INTRODUCTION: Analysing the components of a compound by
passing of electricity
2. Definition of some terms:
i. Electrolysis ; is the chemical decomposition of a substance in
molten or aqueous solution by passage of electricity.
ii. electrolyte is a molten or aqueous substance which allows electric
current to pass through it
iii. Electrolytic cell is a cell comprising the electrolyte into which two
electrodes are dipped and connected to an external direct current
source. An electrolyte changes/convert electrical energy to chemical
energy.
iv. Electrodes; (a) positive electrode is called the anode at which
current enters the electrolyte or electrons leave the electrolyte. (b)
negative electrode is called the cathode at which current leaves the
cell or electrons enter the electrolyte. An electrode is a pole at which
current enters or leave the electrolyte.
NB: During electrolysis the electrode must be specified usually inert
electrode used are carbon graphite or platinum.
3. ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN ELECTROLYTE e.g Molten
NaCl
NaCl contains Na+ and Cl-
Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve) Pt/carbon
Pt/Carbon
Ions Na+ Cl-
present/migrate
Ion discharged Na+ Cl-
Reaction Na+ + e- ----------> Na 2Cl- ----------> Cl2 + 2e-
(reduction) (oxidation)
Product Sodium metal Chlorine gas

2. ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF

SUBSTANCES.
In aqueous solution of substances the types of ions will be more than
one but only one ion must be discharged at each electrode in
preference to the other i.e there is competition for the discharging of
ions.
Factors affecting the preferential discharge of ions at the electrodes
during electrolysis are:
1. The position of ions in the electrochemical series
2. the concentration of ions in the solution
3. the nature of electrodes
Electrochemical series:
For Cations:
Increase in the preferential discharge of ions
K+ Na+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ Zn2+ Fe2+ Sn2+ Pb2+ H+ Cu2+ Hg2+ Ag+
For Anions:
increase in preferential discharge of ions
- - - - -
F SO42 NO3 Cl Br- I- OH
a. Electrolysis of dilute NaCl solution (using platinum or graphite
electrode)
NaCl ---------> Na+ + Cl-
H2O H+ + OH-
Cathode (-ve) Pt/Carbon Anode (+ve) Pt/carbon
Ions Na+, H+ Cl-, OH-
present/migrate
Ion discharged H+ (due to H+ lower than OH-( due to OH- lower
Na+ in the e.c.s) than Cl- in the e.c.s)
Reaction 2H+ + 2e- ----------> H2 4OH- --->2H2O + O2 +4e-
(reduction) (oxidation)
Product Hydrogen gas oxygen gas

b. Electrolysis of concentrated solution of NaCl (Brine) using

platinum electrode
Cathode (-ve) Pt/Carbon Anode (+ve) Pt/carbon
Ions Na+, H+ Cl-, OH-
present/migrate
Ion discharged H+ (due to H+ lower than Cl-( due to Cl- highly
Na+ in the e.c.s) concentrated than OH-)
Reaction 2H+ + 2e- --------> H2 2Cl- ----------> Cl2 + 2e-
(reduction) (oxidation)
Product Hydrogen gas Chlorine gas
The residual solution contain Na+ and OH- ions which will make the
solution to be alkaline or pH >7.

c. Electrolysis of CuSO4 aqueous using carbon or platinum electrode

CuSO4 ------> Cu2+ + SO42-
H2O H+ + OH-
 Cathode (-ve) Pt/Carbon Anode (+ve) Pt/carbon

Ions Cu2+, H+ SO42-, OH-

present/migrate
Ion discharged Cu2+ (due to Cu2+ lower OH-( due to SO42-
than H+ in the e.c.s) difficult to discharged)
Reaction Cu2+ + 2e- -------> Cu 4OH----->2H2O +O2 +4e-
(reduction) (oxidation)
Product Copper metal (brown) oxygen gas
Overall effect: Cu2+ ion is continuously removed from the blue CuSO4
solution therefore the blue colour fades gradually.

d. Electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using copper electrode

CuSO4 -----------> Cu2+ + SO42-
H2O H+ + OH-
Cathode (-ve) (copper) Anode (+ve) (copper)
Ions Cu2+, H+ SO42-, OH-
present/migrate
Ion discharged Cu2+ is discharged Cu anode ionises
Reaction Cu2+ + 2e- -------> Cu Cu ---------> Cu2+ + 2e-
(reduction) (oxidation)
Therefore the mass of Therefore the mass of
copper cathode will copper anode will
increase decrease
Since the number of moles of Cu2+ ions removed from solution at the
cathode is equal to number of moles of ions of Cu2+ produced at the
anode, the blue colour of CuSO4 solution will remain unchanged. This
process is used in the purification of copper metal.
e. Electrolysis of acidified water ( i.e water to which a very little
quantity of dilute H2SO4 is added to increase the electrical
conductivity of water)
This process is used to obtain the volume composition of water at
ratio Hydrogen (2) : oxygen (1)
The process takes place in an instrument or apparatus called Water
VOLTAMETER/ Hoffman’s VOLTAMETER
H2SO4 ------------> 2H+ + SO42-
H2O H+ + OH-
Cathode (-ve) Pt/Carbon Anode (+ve) Pt/carbon
Ions H+ SO42-, OH-
present/migrate
Ion discharged H+ migrates here OH-( due to SO42-
difficult to discharged)
Reaction 2H+ + 2e- --------> H2 4OH- --->2H2O + O2 +4e-
(reduction) (oxidation)

3. USES/ APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS

1. in the large scale production of important chemicals such as
oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, and sodiumhydroxide
2. Extraction of highly reactive metals e.g Na, Ca, Mg, K(from fused
chlorides) and aluminium (from fused oxides)
3. Purification of impure copper ( the impure copper if used as anode)
4. Electroplating of metals e.g chrome plated iron( stainless steel)
NB: metal to be plated is the cathode while metal used for plating is
the anode and the electrolyte contains the metal ions of the metal
anode
5. To determine the volume composition of water
6. Used for anodising aluminium by covering the aluminium metal
with oxide layer which provides a protective layer coating and also
enables dye to be adsorbed on the surface to give an attractive colour
finish.
4. ADVANTAGES OF ELECTROPLATING
1. provides attractive or decorative appearance
2. for durability
3. to prevent corrosion
4. provides resistance to attack by chemicals

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
INTRODUCTION: (a) During the electrolysis of CuSO4 solution
using copper metal as the anode electrode, the copper metal ionizes
(forms ions) by loss of electron.
Cu(s) --------------------> Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
(b) The ease of loss of electron loss by metals vary

(1) ELECTRODE POTENTIAL: When a metal:

(a) is placed in a water or in a solution containing its ions, the metal
ionizes
M(s) -----------> Mn+ + ne-
(b) The metal ions will enter into the solution and leaves electron on
the metal
(c) The two layers of opposite charges formed will cause a potential
difference
(d) The greater the ease of electron (or tendency) for the metal to
ionize, the greater the potential difference.

(2) (a) Electrode potential is defined as potential difference between a

metal and a solution of the metal ion. The unit is volt
(b) It is not possible to measure the electrode potential of a single
metal
(c) The difference in potential difference between two electrodes can
be measured
(d) The hydrogen electrode is used as a standard reference electrode
which is given an arbitrary value of zero to measure the values of
electrode for all other electrodes.
(e) The standard electrode potential is obtained or measured by
measuring it.

(3) The standard Hydrogen Electrode: This is defined as hydrogen gas

at 298K (25oC) and pressure of 1atm passed over platinium electrode
coated with platinum black dipped into a molar solution of hydrogen
ion.

Table of standard Electrode potentials for Half electrode in volt.

Electrodes : K+/K ; Mg2+/ Mg ; Zn2+/ Zn ; Fe2+/ Fe ; H+/ H2 ; Cu2+/ Cu
Electrode : -2.92 -2.71 - 0.76 - 0.44 0.00 +0.34
Potential

THE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

(1) Is defined as a cell which changes chemical energy to electrical
energy
An electrochemical cell will supply electricity e.g. car battery is an
electrochemical cell.
(2) The electrochemical cell consist of two half cell in which two
metals with different electrode potential dipped into 1 molar solution
of its ions are connected externally to a galvanometer (or voltameter
or ammeter) to detect the direction of the flow of electrons and also
connected internally by a salt bridge to complete the circuit.

Diagram of an Electrochemical cell (using the electrodes Zn2+ / Zn

and Cu2+ / Cu)
In the electrochemical cell above:

1. (a) Zinc metal is more reactive than copper metal

(b) zinc loses electron more readily than copper
Zn(s) -----------> Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (OXIDATION)
(c) therefore zinc electrode is the ANODE
(d) the electron will move up the surface of zinc electrode and flow
through the galvanometer. Therefore the zinc electrode is the
Negative electrode.

(2)(a) The copper electrode is the cathode and it is the positive

electrode
(b) The half reaction is Cu2+(aq) + 2e- ------------> Cu(S)
(REDUCTION)
(3) The direction of the electron flow is(through galvanometer) is
from more reactive metal zinc electrode (negative electrode ANODE)
to the less reactive metal copper electrode(positive electrode
CATHODE). This is shown by an arrow.

CLASS PRACTICE:
Draw the electrochemical cell diagram:
(a) for the electrodes
(i) Ag+ / Ag and Mg2+ / Mg
(ii) Fe2+/ Fe and Cu2+/ Cu
Write a balanced equation and ionic equation for the cell
(b) From the reaction
2Al(s) + 3ZnSO4(aq) ---------------> Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Zn(s)
Write the balanced ionic equation

THE SALT BRIDGE

1(a) The functions (or purpose) of the salt bridge are:
(i) to complete the circuit
(ii) to prevent the aqueous solutions of the salts in the two half cells
from mixing
(iii) to maintain an electrical balance (or electrical neutrality) by
allowing the flow of positive ions and negative ions between the
solutions in the two half cells.
(b) The salt bridge can be either
(i) a filter paper soaked in a solution of KNO3, NaNO3
(ii) an inverted U-tube with a glass wool plug at the open ends filled
with the aqueous solution of NaNO3 or KNO3
(c) Two broken lines are used to represent the salt bridge in the
cell notation.
(d) Aqueous solution of NaNO3 is usually used in the salt bridge
because it will not interfere with the reactions in the half cells since all
trioxonitrate V salts are soluble.
NOTE: If solution of Na2SO4 or NaCl is used, it will interfere with
the reaction in any of the half cell using lead or silver as electrode
since PbCl2, AgCl, PbSO4 salts are insoluble.

Writing cell Notation for the Electrochemical cell

(1) This is simply representing the cell by using the two-half electrode
systems.
(2) The cell notation can be written from
(a) the diagram of the electrochemical cell
(b) the half electrodes systems
(c) the chemical equation for the reaction or the ionic equation for the
reaction.

Example:
(i) From the cell diagram drawn the cell notation is
Zn / Zn2+(aq)1M Cu2+(aq)1M / Cu(s)
Salt bridge
(ii) write cell notation for then reaction
 Mg(s) + ZnSO4(aq) -----------> MgSO4(aq) + Zn(s)
Cell Notation is Mg(s) / Mg2+(aq) 1M Zn2+(aq) 1M / Zn(s)
Ionic equation Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) ------------> Mg2+(aq) + Zn(s)
(iii) write cell Notation given the half electrode system
Cu2+ / Cu and Ag+ / Ag
Answer: Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) 1M / / Ag+(aq) 1M / Ag

Class practice : Write cell notation for each

(i) Fe(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) ---------> Fe(NO3)2(aq) + Ag(s)
(ii) 2Al(s) + 3Fe3+(aq) ---------> 2Al3+(aq) + 3Fe(s)
(iii) Cu2+/ Cu(s) and Fe2+ / Fe(s)

USES OF ELECTRODE POTENTIAL VALUES

1(a) It is used to calculate the e.m.f of an electrochemical cell.
(b) The e.m.f of a functioning electrochemical cell must have a
positive sign e.g. +1.20 volt.
(c) The farther away the two electrodes used are from each other in
the electrochemical cells the greater the e.m.f of the cell.
Example 1:
Given the two electrodes potentials
E0 for Zn2+ / Zn -0.76v and Cu2+ / Cu +0.34v ; calculate the
e.m.f of the cell
Working:
Zn /Zn2+(aq) 1M // Cu2+ / Cu
Oxidation Reduction
L.H.S R.H.S
E.M.F = R.H.S - L.H.S
EReduction - EOxidation
= +0.34 – (-0.76)
= +1.10 volts
This means that the cell is functioning with a +ve e.m.f
Example 2:
Find the e.m.f of the cell for the two half electrodes with electrode
potentials
E0 for Mg2+ / Mg -2.7v and Cu2+ / Cu +0.34v
Working:
Mg/Mg2+(aq) 1M // Cu2+ / Cu
Oxidation Reduction
L.H.S R.H.S
E.M.F = R.H.S - L.H.S
= +0.34 – (-2.7)
= +3.05 volts
Class exercise: Calculate the e.m.f of the cell for the two half
electrodes with electrode potentials Al3+ / Al = -1.76v and
Fe2+ / Fe = -0.44v
(2) To prevent the feasibility or spontaneity of a reaction. The e.m.f
produced by reaction in the electrochemical can be used to determine
the sign of ∆G the free energy change of the reaction using the
expression.
∆G = - nFE ( for a reaction to be spontaneous or take place ∆G must
be negative)

∆G = free energy change

n = number of moles
F = faradays
E = the e.m.f of the cell (JAMB)
The sign of ∆G will be negative only if the sign of e.m.f is positive

(3) To compare or predict the

(i) oxidizing ability of a metal ion
(ii) reducing ability of a metal (JAMB)

SIMPLE CELLS
An electrochemical cell is a simple cell and can be classified into:
(i) primary cell (ii) secondary cell
PRIMARY CELL SECONDARY CELL
e.g. (a) lead acid accumulator e.m.f
(a) Daniel cell e.m.f 1.10v 2.20v
(b) lechlanche cell e.m.f 1.50v Pb plate Anode
PbO2 coating an Pb cathode
Electrolyte: dilute H2SO4 as in
car battery
(b) Nife’s alkaline cell
diagram (JAMB)
Fe cathode
Ni(OH)2 anode
Dis-advantages Electrolyte: KOH
(i) polarization caused by the Advantages
accumulation of hydrogen gas (i) No polarization, so it can be
around the Zinc electrode, so it used for a long period and
can not be used for long period. maintains a large current for a
(ii) It can not be recharged (so long time
the cell will gradually be used
up). The reaction in a primary (ii) it can be recharged because
cell is not reversible the reaction in the cell is
reversible

NB: CuSO4(aq) is used as a DEPOLIRISER (JAMB)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL AND
ELECTROLYTIC CELL

ELECTROLYTIC CELL ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

1. Changes or converts Changes or converts chemical
electrical energy to chemical energy to electrical energy
energy
2. it is a single cell and uses It is a two half cells and have
only one electrolyte (molten the aqueous solution containing
the ions of the different metal
electrodes
3. Salt bridge is not required Requires salt bridge
4. The anode is the positive The anode is the negative
electrode while the cathode is electrode while the cathode is
the negative electrode. the positive electrode.
 METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS, ALLOYS

1. Abundance of metals in the earth crust

Aluminium is the most abundant (in sand and clay)
Al > Fe > Ca > Na > K > Mg > Ti

2. The chemical differences between metal and non-metal are

METALS NON-METALS
1 Has a few outer electrons e.g. Has many outer electrons e.g. C
Mg 2)8)2 2)4
2 Loses outer electron(s) Gains electrons
3 Can acts as a reducing agents Can act as an oxidizing agent
(electron donor) (electron acceptor)
4 Can form basic oxide e.g. Can form acidic oxide e.g. CO2
Na2O

3. Reactivity of Metals
(a) The chemical properties of metals depend on the ease of loss of the
outer (valence) electron(s)
(b) The reagents which can be used to compare and arrange metals in
order of reactivity are: (a) water
(b) dilute acid (HCl, H2SO4)
(a) Reaction with water
i. cold water: K, Na (violent); Ca(fast) e.g. 2Na + 2H2O ------------>
NaOH + H2
ii. Hot water: Mg, Al, Zn
e.g Mg + H2O --------------> MgO + H2
iii. with steam: Fe, Sn. The reaction of iron with steam is a reversible
reaction
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) +4H2(g)
(iv) No reaction with cold water, hot water or steam Cu, Ag, Au.
Reason: they are less reactive or lower than hydrogen in the reactivity
series and so can cannot displace hydrogen gas from water
(b) Reaction with dilute Acid e.g HCl, H2SO4
i. K, Na are NOT reacted with dilte acid because the reaction will be
explosive and dangerous
ii. Ca reacts fast with dilute acid
iii. Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn reacts steadily with the dilute acid
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) ---------------> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
iv. Cu, Ag will not react with dilute HCl or H2SO4

4. Occurrence of metals
Most metals occur combined with other element(s) (non-metals) in
compound called ORES or MINERALS
NaCl (rock salt); KCl. MgCl2. 6H2O (carnalite)
CaCO3 (limestone or marble or chalk)
Al2O2.2H2O (Bauxite) and Al2O3.SiO2.H2O (clay or kaolin);
Fe2O3 (Haematite); Fe3O4 (magnetite); FeS2 (iron pyrite (minor));
ZnS (Zinc blende); PbS (Galena); SnO2 (cassiterite);
CuFeS2 (copper pyrite), Cu2S (chalcocite). The common names of the
ores are in brackets.
The metals Ag, Au exist as free elements

5. Extraction of Metals and Methods used

(a) Extraction of metals is the process of obtaining metals by reducing
the metal ions in the compound to the metal atom e.g. Mn+(s) + ne-
------------------> M(s)
(b) The principle of the method of extraction or the factors which will
determine the choice of the method of extraction are:
i. The strength of the bond in the ore of the metal
ii. The abundance or availability of the ore of the metal ( the raw
material)
iii. The ease of purification of the ore or the metal e.g.
a. The ore of Al and Sn are purified before extraction from ores
b. Copper metal is purified after extraction from the ore
c. The ore of Fe is purified during extraction
(c) The methods of extraction are
i. Electrolysis of molten or fused chloride salt for the metals Na, K,
Ca, Mg OR electrolysis of molten or fused oxide for Al
The reduction of the metal ions takes place at the cathode
Na+ + e- ---------------> Na
This method is also called Electrolytic reduction
ii. Chemical Reduction of the metal ion using carbon (coke) or carbon
II oxide gas (CO) as a reducing agent for Zn, Fe, Pb, Sn. e.g.
Fe2O3 + 3CO ----------------> 2Fe + 3CO2 (Blast furnace)

ZnS + O2 ----------------> ZnO + SO2

ZnO + C ------------------> Zn + CO (furnace)

NB: Raw material is defined as the available cheap starting chemical

substance which is used to produce more useful products.

6. ALLOYS
(a) An alloy is a mixture of two or more molten metals alloyed to cool
and solidify
(b) An alloy is made by mixing the molten metals (in appropriate
proportions) and allowing the mixture to cool and solidify.
(c) An alloy is usually more useful than the individual metal because
of the advantages of improved properties such as
i. hardness ii. high tensile strength iii. low melting point iv. resistant
to chemical attack v. improved malleability vi. Resistance to
corrosion or rusting vii. Improved appearance or decorative or
attractive appearance
Examples, Composition, Properties and Uses of some Alloys
i. Brass- Zn and Cu has attractive appearance, resistant to attack by
chemicals. Used for musical instrument and nuts
ii. Bronze- Sn and Cu; it is resistant to attack by chemicals, used for
medals, coins, sculpture
iii. Steel- Fe and C; has high tensile strength, used for construction of
bridges and machines
iv. Stainless steel- Fe and C with Ni or Cr; has attractive appearance,
it is resistant to corrosion, used for cutlery, surgical instruments
v. Soft solder- Pb(50) and Sn(50); has low melting point, it is used for
plumbing and welding
vi. Type metal- Pb(75) and Sn(25); it is tough and fusible, it is used in
printing machines
vii. Duralumin- Al, Mg, Cu and Mn; it is strong but a very light alloy
with low density, used for construction of aircraft and ships
viii. Permalloy- Fe(22) and Ni(78), it is very strong and magnetic,
used for making electromagnets

7. Uses of some Salts

a. CaCO3- for making cement, pigment for paper
b. AgCl or AgBr- in photography
c. KNO3- for making gun powder
d.CuSO4- as fungicide for spraying plants
e. Na2CO3.10H2O (washing soda)- for removing hardness from water
f. Na2CO3(anhydrous): for standardizing acid in titration (a primary
standard substance)
g. NaCl (common salt) for food preservative
h. NH4Cl- as electrolyte in primary cell (e.g. lechlanche cell)
i. NH4NO3- in making fertilizer, explosives
j. (NH4)2CO3- for smelling salt (to prevent drowsiness or fainting)
k. CaSO4- for making plaster of paris (P.O.P)

EXTRACTION OF METALS
(1) Sodium (Na)
Mpt 98oC
Source of Ore – Sea water (NaCl)
Electrolysis of molten NaCl, (mpt 801oC)
Molten CaF2 is added to lower the melting point of the electrolyte to
about 600oC
Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve) (carbon graphite)
Na+ + e ---------> Na 2Cl- ----------> Cl2 + 2e-

Uses of Na
(i) Sodium vapour lamp
(ii) Na/Pb alloy used to prepare lead tetraethyl/ anti-knock added to
petrol
(iii) Na/Hg amalgam preparation
(2) Calcium (Ca)
Mpt 850oC
Ore- CaCO3 converted to CaCl2 (other Ores are CaF2, CaSO4)
Electrolyte: Molten CaCl2 with CaF2 added to lower the melting point
of the electrolyte
Cathode (-ve) Anode (+ve) (carbon graphite)
Ca2+ + 2e- ---------> Ca 2Cl- ----------> Cl2 + 2e-

NOTE: The process of extraction of Na and Ca metals from the

molten chloride is NOT environmentally friendly because the chlorine
gas produced at the anode is a poisonous gas

EXTRACTION OF IRON (Fe)

1. This is carried out in a blast furnace from the ore Fe2O3 (haematite).
Other Ore of iron are Magnetite (Fe3O4); Iron pyrite (FeS2)

2. (a) The Raw materials namely:

i. Iron ore Fe2O3 (Haematite) which contains silica (SiO2) as impurity
ii. Limestone (CaCO3). This is added to remove the silica impurity as
slag (CaSiO3)
iii. Coke (a form of carbon) are fed into the furnace from the top
(b) The blast of hot air is blown into the furnace from Tuyeres near
the base of the furnace

3. The processes and reactions taking place in the blast furnace are:

Top- pre-heating the ore

Middle (800oC- 1000oC)

Fe2O3 + 3CO ------------> 2Fe + 3CO2
CaCO3 -------------> CaO + CO2
CaO + SiO2 --------------> CaSiO3 (slag)

Bottom 1600oC – 2000oC

C + O2 -------------> CO2
CO2 + C ------------> 2CO

The molten iron formed settles at the bottom of the furnace from
where it is run off. This is known as pig iron containing carbon, Si as
impurities
The molten slag (CaSiO3) which is less dense settles on top of the
molten iron and prevents the iron from being oxidized.

Types of Iron
(a) Pig Iron and Cast Iron are the impure forms (containing
C,P,S,Mn,Si). They have low strength and brittle
Cast Iron contains less impurity than Pig iron
(b) Wrought Iron- pure form, strong and malleable, can be forged and
welded
(c) Steel (alloy of iron with carbon) and traces of Ni, Cr)
Hardening of Steel- Heat and cool quickly in oil or water. This makes
it hard and brittle
Tempering of steel- by reheating hard steel to a lower temperature
(200oC- 310oC) then quickly quench in water.
The steel becomes less hard but tougher, stronger and more malleable

Properties of Iron
1. Combines directly with non-metal O,S,Cl2 on heating
2. Iron is passive to concentrated HNO3 due to formation of
impervious iron III oxide layer on the surface which prevents further
reaction.

Corrosion or Rusting of Iron

Corrosion means the wearing away of the metal surface due to the
reaction of the metal with oxygen in air
Rusting of Iron
i. This is a special case of corrosion
ii. It requires the presence of oxygen (in air) and water (moisture)
iii. The process of rusting is REDOX reaction
iv. The product of rusting of Iron is rust brown powdered of Iron III
oxide with formula Fe2O3.xH2O
(value of x varies) which shakes off easily thereby exposing the Iron
to further rusting.

Prevention of Corrosion or Rusting of Iron

Methods are Greasing, Oiling, Painting, Varnishing, plastic coating,
alloying, metal coating.

Metal coating of Iron is by

a. Galvanizing: dip iron into molten zinc and allow to cool
b. Tin plating by electrolysis (iron as cathode, tin as anode, solution of
tin II ion as electrolyte)
Metals higher than Iron in the E.C.S (Zn,Mg) will provide a
better/sacrificial protection even if the coating is scratched e.g.
galvanized Iron will not rust even when the coating is scratched.
Reason: Zinc is higher than Iron in the E.C.S and looses electrons
more readily than iron and Zinc corrodes instead of Iron
Underwater Iron pipe lines are prevented from rusting by attaching
bags of scraps of magnesium metal at intervals. Mg is more reactive
than iron and loses electron more readily than Iron
Tin plated Iron if scratched on the surface will cause the iron to rust
faster since Iron is more reactive than tin and loses electrons more
readily than tin
Other conditions which can cause Iron to rust faster include:
i. Salt solution (which act as an electrolyte) e.g. cars parked near the
sea will rust faster
ii. Air pollutants which can form acid rain in industrial areas (NO2,
SO2) (also act as electrolyte)
iii. Heat e.g. the car exhaust pipe rusts fast

EXTRACTION OF TIN
1. The ore is Tin IV Oxide (SnO2), (Cassiterite or Tinstone). It
contains sulphur as impurity and also earthly impurities (sand SiO2).
2. The ore (SnO2) is first crushed, washed with water and filtered to
remove some earthly impurities and also to concentrate the ore
3. The impure ore is roasted in air to remove the sulphur impurity as
SO2 gas
4. The Tin IV oxide is then heated with coke to reduce it to tin in a
furnace (reverberatory). Limestone is added to remove the remaining
earthly silica impurity as slag
SnO2(s) + C(s) ------------> Sn(s) + CO2(g)
5. The molten Tin is run off from the bottom of the furnace.

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
The ore Bauxite, Al2O3.2H2O. It contains impurities such as silica
SiO2 and oxide of Iron (FeO, Fe2O3). Another ore of aluminium is clay
(kaolin) Al2O3.SiO2.H2O

Stage 1 PURIFICATION OF BAUXITE (Al2O3.2H2O)

i. Bauxite is roasted in air to convert Iron II oxide to Iron III oxide
ii. The finely divided residue is reacted with concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution which dissolves the bauxite to form a solution of
aluminate ion
Al2O3 + 2OH- ------------------> 2AlO2- + H2O
Al2O3 + 2NaOH -----------------> 2NaAlO2 + H2O
iii. The un-dissolved impurities Iron III oxide and aluminium silicate
are filtered off
iv. A little crystals of aluminium hydroxide is added to “seed out”
pure aluminium hydroxide which precipitates from aluminate solution
v. The precipitate of aluminium hydroxide is filtered, washed and
dehydrated by heating strongly to leave alumina (Al2O3) which is pure
aluminium oxide
Bauxite is first purified because the electrolytic refining of aluminium
metal is very costly

Stage 2: ELECTROLYSIS OF ALUMINA (Al2O3)

i. The pure aluminium oxide (alumina) is dissolved in molten cryolite
(Na3AlF6) which reduces the melting point the is the electrolyte
ii. (a) The carbon-lined Iron tank acts as the cathode
(b) Carbon rods dipped in the electrolyte act as anode. The process of
extraction of aluminium is considered as environmentally friendly
because the gas produced at the anode is oxygen
Catode reaction Anode reaction
Al3+ + 3e- --------------> Al 2O2- --------------> O2 + 4e-
iii. The molten (or liquid) aluminium metal is more dense than the
electrolyte and sinks to the bottom of the tank from where it is tapped
off
iv. The carbon anode is continuously replaced because it burns off as
CO2 gas by reacting with the oxygen gas produced at the anode

Chemical Properties of Aluminium

1. It is an amphoteric metal
(a) Reacts with dilute HCl
2Al + 6HCl ---------------> 2AlCl3 + 3H2
(b) Reacts with solution of alkali
2Al + 2OH- + 2H2O -----------> 2AlO2- + 3H2
2. It is rendered passive by trioxonitrate V acid because an unreactive
aluminium oxide layer is formed which prevents further reaction.

Some uses of Aluminium

1. For overhead electric cables due to its low densit, resistant to
corrosion and good electrical conductivity
2. In alloys Duralumin (Al, Cu, Mg, Mn) used in aircraft
3. Aluminium powder is used in paints and explosives
Note: The extraction of aluminium metal from other ores is more
costly than from bauxite ore

TRANSITION METALS

1. The first series of transition metals: Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni,
Cu, Zn (atomic numbers 21-30) belong to period 4 of the periodic
Table and contain partially filled or completely filled 3d orbitals
2. They are known as the d-block elements because the inner 3d
orbitals are being successively filled with electrons after the outer 4s
orbital has been fileed with two (2) electrons and contain partially
filled or completely filled 3d orbitals

e.g. Sc(21) 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d1 or 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6
3d1 4S2

Cr(24) 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d4 or 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6
3d4 4S2

Zinc is NOT a typical transition metal because it has completely filled

3d orbitals
CHARACTERISTICS PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION
METALS
PROPERTIES REASON(S)
1 Variable Valency or Variable Use of outer 4S2 electrons and
Oxidation numbers variable number of the 3d orbital
e.g. Fe; +2(in FeCl2), +3(in electrons in forming bonds in
FeCl3) chemical reactions since electrons
 Mn; +4(MnO2), +7(KMnO4) and 4S orbitals which are close in
Cu; +1 in (Cu2O), +2 in CuO energy
(Except Zn)
2 Paramagnetism (paramagnetic This is due to the presence of
property) unpaired 3d electrons in the atom
Fe, Atomic number 26 or ion.
(Ar) 4S2 3d6 (except Zn) Fe: (Ar) 3d6
4S2

3. Can act as Catalyst Because of the

Examples: MnO2 catalyst in i.large number of valence
the preparation of O2 gas by electrons
heating KClO3 ii. ability to exhibit variable
Fe in Haber process valency
V2O5 in contact process iii. available 3d orbitals which
facilitates the electron
redistribution on the surface of the
catalyst
4 Formation of complex ions There are empty or vacant orbitals
and compounds. to accept lone electron pairs
Examples Cu(NH3)4SO4 donated by ligands e.g. (NH3) to
K4Fe(CN)6 form co-ordinate bond
5 Coloured ions and coloured Presense of partially filled 3d
compounds . orbitals and ability to promote
Examples: Cu2+ (aq) – Blue electrons between the 3d orbitals
K2Cr2O7 – orange crystals
CuSO4.5H2O – Blue crystals
FeSO4.7H2O – pale green
crystals
 (except Zn 2+ ions and their
compounds)

Identification of Metal ions (Ca2+, Pb2+, Zn2+, Al3+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+) in
aqueous solution of salts
I. Salts dissolved in distilled water will produce
a. Colourless ions: Zn2+, Al3+, Ca2+, Pb2+
b. Coloured ions: Cu2+ (blue), Fe2+(pale green), Fe3+(reddish brown)

II. The reagents used to carry out tests to identify these metal ions in
aqueous solution are
a. Sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH(aq))
b. Aqueous ammonia (NH3(aq))
III. The observation for the reaction of the reagent with each metal ion
is as stated below
The reagent is added in few drops then followed by excess.
a. On adding NaOH(aq) to Zn2+, Al3+ in solution, both Zn2+, Al3+
white gelatinous precipitate, soluble in excess
b. On adding NH3(aq) to Zn2+, Al3+ in solution
Zn2+- white gelatinous precipitate soluble in excess
Al3+ - white gelatinous precipitate insoluble in excess
c. On adding NaOH(aq) to Ca2+, Pb2+ in solution
Ca2+- white precipitate insoluble in excess
Pb2+- white precipitate soluble in excess
d. On adding NH3(aq) to Ca2+, Pb2+ in solution
Ca2+- no reaction
Pb2+- white precipitate insoluble in excess

IV. Coloured ions in aqueous solution (Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+)

a. On adding NaOH(aq) to Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ in solution
Cu2+- pale blue gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in excess
Fe2+- dirty green gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in excess
Fe3+- reddish brown gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in excess
b. On adding NH3(aq) to Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+ in solution
Cu2+- pale blue gelatinous precipitate, soluble/dissolves in excess to
form a deep blue solution
Fe2+- dirty green gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in excess
Fe3+- reddish brown gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in excess

NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Nitrogen:
Occurrence: 78% in air

Industrial Preparation:
By fractional distillation of liquefied air (as discussed in the previous
class in year 10 under the topic oxygen)

Laboratory Preparation of Nitrogen

(1) From Air:
(a) Pass air through caustic soda to remove CO2 gas
(b) Then over heated copper turning to remove O2 gas
Cu + O2 --------------> CuO
Brown Black
(c) The gas left (nitrogen) is collected over Water ( because it is
insoluble in water)
NB: If air is passed through alkaline pyrogallol, CO2 gas and O2 gas
will be removed.

(2) Action of Heat on ammonium dioxo nitrate III (NH4NO2)

obtained by mixing (NH4Cl + NaNO2)
NH4Cl + NaNO2 ----------------> NH4NO2 + NaCl

N 2 + H 2O
NB: NH4NO2 is unstable to heat and can explode when heated directly
N2 gas is collected over water because it is insoluble in water (wet
gas)
Other reactions to prepare nitrogen
(i) Heating ammonium heptaoxodichromate VI
(NH4)2 Cr2O7(s) ----------------> N2 + Cr2O3(s) + 4H2O
 Orange crystals green solid
(ii) Reacting Chlorine with excess ammonia
3Cl2 + 8NH3 --------------> N2(g) + 6NH4Cl(s)
(iii) Pass ammonia gas over heated copper II oxide
NH3(g) + CuO(s) ----------> Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
NB: This is an equation where ammonia is acting as a reducing agent

Properties of Nitrogen
(i) it is colourless and odourless
(ii) it is less dense than air
(iii) Insoluble in water
(iv) Neutral to litmus paper
(v) It is non reactive because of the presence of triple bond in its
molecule

Chemical properties
(i) React with active metals to form metal nitrides e.g.
Mg + N2 ----------> Mg3N2 (magnesium nitride)
Na + N2 -----------> Na3N
The nitrides can react with warm water to produce ammonia gas
Na3N + H2O -------> NaOH + NH3
(ii) React with non- metal like O2 and H2
(a) N2 + O2 --------------> 2NO
Fe catalyst
(b) N2 + 3H2 2NH3

USES OF NITROGEN
(1) Used in industrial manufacture of ammonia by Haber process
(2) Liquid nitrogen is used as coolant
(3) Used in industries as inert gas to prevent oxidation of metals
(4) Used to maintain soil fertility in the form of its compound
NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4 used as fertilizers

OXIDES OF NITROGEN

(1) Nitrogen I oxide (N2O) (Laughing Gas)

Laboratory Preparation:
Action of heat on ammonium trioxonitrateV obtained by mixing
KNO3 and NH4Cl.
KNO3 + NH4Cl ---------------> NH4NO3 + KCl

N2O + 2H2O
NB: NH4NO3 is unstable to heat and can explode when heated directly
N2O gas is collected over warm water because it is more soluble in
cold water

Properties of N2O
(i) colourless gas with pleasant sickly smell.
(2) it is called laughing gas used for anesthetics in hospitals.
(3) Neutral to litmus paper
(4) it supports combustion (similar to oxygen gas).
(2) Nitrogen II oxide (NO)
Laboratory Preparation:
React copper (Cu) with dilute HNO3 ( a weak oxidizing agent)
Cu + HNO3 ------------> Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
NB: (i) NO gas is colorless, it can combine with oxygen to form NO2
gas.
NO(g) + O2(g) -------------> NO2
Brown gas
(ii) NO is collected over cold water because it is insoluble in water
(iii) NO can be used to distinguish between N2O gas and O2 gas
(3) Nitrogen IV oxide
Laboratory Preparation:
(i) By thermal decomposition of trioxo nitrateV salts (except KNO3
and NaNO3) which produce only oxygen gas on heating
2Pb(NO3)2 -------------> 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
2AgNO3 ---------------> 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
Dry NO2 is collected by downward dilevery of gas or upward
displacement of air because it is denser than air
(ii) Reacting copper with concentrated HNO3( an oxidizing agent)
Cu + HNO3--------------> Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O
Brown gas

Properties of NO2
(i) It is a brown gas
(ii) soluble in water
(iii) it is called mixed acid anhydride because it forms two types of
acid HNO2 and HNO3 when dissolve in water. 2NO2 + H2O ----------->
HNO2 + HNO3

OTHER COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN

I. Ammonia (NH3)
Laboratory Preparation:
By heating ammonium salt with aqueous alkali solution ( NaOH,
KOH or Ca(OH)2)
2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2)(aq) -------------> CaCl2(aq) +
2H2O(l) + NH3(g)
NB: (1)Ca(OH)2) is preferably used because it is cheap and not
deliquescence
 (2) NH3 gas produced is passed through CaO as a drying agent in a
drying tower
(3) NH3 gas is collected by upward delivery or downward
displacement of air because it is less dense than air
NB: (i) Concentrated H2SO4 is not used as a drying agent for NH3
because it will react with it to form ammonium sulphate since NH3 is
an alkaline gas
(ii) CaCl2 is not used as a drying agent for NH3 because it forms a
complex compound

Industrial Preparation: By Haber process pass dry Nitrogen gas and

dry Hydrogen gas over finely divided iron catalyst at 450oC and 200
atm to form ammonia gas

N2(g) + 3H2(g)Fe catalyst 2NH3

Physical Properties of Ammonia

(1) Colourless gas with choking/irritating smell
(2) Alkaline gas which turns wet red litmus paper blue
(3) Highly Soluble in water ( demonstrated by fountain’s experiment)
to form a weak base (NH4OH)
(4) Can be easily compressed into liquid at ordinary temperature.

Chemical Properties or Reactions of Ammonia

(1) Burns in oxygen with a greenish- yellow flame to form Nitrogen
and water
4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) -----------> 2N2(g) + 6H2O(l)
(2) Reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce a dense white fume
of NH4Cl. This is test for Ammonia gas
 NH3(g) + HCl NH4Cl
(3) Acts as a reducing agent
(a) Reduces copper II oxide to copper
CuO(s) + NH3(g) ----------> Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
(b) reduces Cl2 gas to produce HCl gas
3Cl2 + 4NH3(g) -----------> 6HCl + N2
Excess

(4) Acts as a precipitating agent in aqueous form for metals to form

insoluble hydroxides
ZnSO4 + NH4OH ------------> Zn(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4
White gelatinous
precipitate
(5) Reacts as a base
NH3 + H2SO4 ---------------> (NH4)2SO4(s)
(6) Reacts with CO2 to produce urea
2NH3 + CO2 -----------> (NH2)2CO(s) + H2O
(7) Reacts with electropositive metals to form ionic amides
2Na(s) + NH3(g) -------------> 2NaNH2(s) + H2(g)

Uses of Ammonia
(1) Used in making fertilizer e.g NH4NO3, (NH4)2SO4,(NH4)2PO4
(2) Used in laundary to remove stain
(3) Used as liquid ammonia as refrigerant
(4) It is used for softening hard water
(5) Used in producing important chemicals like (NH4)2CO3,
(NH4)2SO4, NH4Cl, NH4NO3

II. HNO3 TRIOXO NITRATE V ACID

Laboratory Preparation:
By reacting nitrate salt with concentrated H2SO4 (as a less volatile
acid) in an all in-glass retort Flask because HNO3 attacks rubber and
cork
KNO3 + H2SO4 -----------> KHSO4(aq) + HNO3(g)
NB: (i) The brown NO2 gas produced due to the decomposition of the
trioxonitrate V acid results in the yellow coloration of the acid.

Industrial Preparation: The stages in the process are

Step 1: catalytic oxidation of ammonia (obtained by haber process) in
the presence of (90%) platinium and 10% rhodium as catalyst
NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 90%Pt / 10% Rh 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
Step II: Further oxidation of NO to produce NO2 gas
2NO + O2(g) -------------> 2NO2(g)
Step III: dissolution of NO2 gas in water in the presence of oxygen
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 -------------> 4HNO3

Properties of HNO3
(i) Colorless liquid which fumes in air on exposure
(ii) As a dilute acid: It reacts with base to fom salt and water only
HNO3 + KOH --------------> KNO3 + H2O
 Dilute HNO3 and concentrated HNO3 act as oxidizing agent
(iii) Reacts with electropositive metals to produce salt and water
Mg + HNO3 ------------> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O + NO
dilute
Mg + HNO3 -------------> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O + NO2
conc
(iv) Reacts with non-metals e.g. carbon is oxidized to CO2
C(s) + HNO3 --------------> NO2 + CO2 + H2O
conc
(v) Reacts with trioxo carbonate IV salt to produce CO2 gas

Fe and Al are passive to HNO3 due to the formation of

impervious layer on the surface of the metal which prevents further

reaction

USES OF HNO3
(1) For making explosives e.g. tri nitro toluene (TNT)
(2) for making aqua-regia (mixture of HCl and HNO3) which can
dissolve unreactive metal such as gold
(3) use as an oxidizing agent in the laboratory
(4) for making fertilizers e.g. NH4NO3
(5) for preparation of some drugs

III. SALTS OF NITROGEN and their uses

SALTS USES
NH4Cl Used in dry and wet cell as electrolyte
NH4NO3 Used in making explosive, fertilizers and freezing
mixture
(NH4)2SO4 Used as fertilizers and herbicides(to spray plants)
(NH4)2CO3 As smelling salt to prevent dizziness and fainting
(NH4)2PO4 Used as fertilizers

Test for NO3- (trioxo nitrate V ion) (Brown ring Test)

To solution (e.g. NaNO3) add freshly prepared FeSO4 solution after
adding dilute H2SO4 and shake
Slant the test tube and carefully pour concentrated H2SO4 slowly
down the side of the test tube
A brown ring will be formed at the junction of the two liquid layers

IV. NITROGEN CYCLE

SULPHUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Occurrence and extraction
1. Sulphur is a yellow solid, a polyatomic molecule represented as S8
2. It has (i) ring structure (ii) puckered ring structure
3. It is extracted by Frasch process: Super heated water is forced down
through two concentric tubes into the sulphur deposits underground.
The molten sulphur which flows out is allowed to cool and solidify.
4. Allotropes of sulphur
Sulphur exists as two main allotropes
(i) Rhombic or octahedral sulphur (Sα). Stable below 96oC
(ii) Monoclinic or prismatic sulphur (Sβ). Stable above 96oC see
diagram in your textbook
5. These allotropes can change from one form to the other at a
transition temperature of 96oC
Sα Sβ
Stable below 96oC Stable above 96oC
Produced by evaporation obtained from Rhombic sulphur
of saturated solution of at above temperature of 96oC
sulphur in CS2

Physical Properties of sulphur

(i) Yellow Solid
(ii) Insoluble in water but soluble in carbon IV sulphide (CS2)
(iii) Has a melting point 119oC and boiling point 444oC

Chemical properties or Reactions of Sulphur

(1) Reaction with non-metals
(a) Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue Flame
S + O2 --------------> SO2
(b) reacts with carbon on heating to form carbon disulphide( carbon
IV sulphide)
C + S ---------------> CS2(s)
(c) reacts with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulphide at high
temperature
H2 + S --------------> H2S
(2) Reaction with metals e.g Sulphur reacts with Fe on heating to
form FeS
Fe + S -------------> FeS
USES OF SULPHUR
(1) for the industrial manufacture of H2SO4
(2) for vulcanization of rubber making rubber tougher
(3) As fungicide and insecticide in vine crops( to spray plants)
(4) for making calcium hydrogen trioxo sulphate IV Ca(HSO3)2 used
as bleaching agent in paper industry
(5) for making medicinal skin ointment
(6) for making matches, fireworks, and gun powder
(7) for making dyes
COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

Laboratory Preparation:
By reacting dilute acid (HCl or H2SO4) with metallic sulphide. The
Kipp’s apparatus is used for intemitent supply of the gas)
HCl(aq) + FeS(s) -----------------> H2S(g) + FeCl2(aq)
(i) The gas is poisonous and has a foul smell like a rotten egg.
Therefore the experiment is carried out in a fume cupboard.
(ii) H2S is collected over warm water because it is more soluble in
cold water
(iii) dry H2S is collected by downward delivery because it is denser
than air

Physical Properties of H2S

(1) colorless gas with foul smell like rotten egg
(2) denser than air
(3) Soluble in cold water but insoluble in hot water
(4) burns with blue flame in oxygen

Chemical properties or Reactions of H2S

(1) Burns in excess O2 with blue flame to form SO2
2H2S + 3O2 ----------------> 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
Excess
Burns in a limited supply of oxygen to produce sulphur
2H2S + O2 ----------------> 2H2O(l) + S(s)
(2) It is a weak dibasic acidbecause it ionizes partially or completely
in water
H2S + H2O 2H3O+ + S2-
It can react with alkali to form salt
NaOH + H2S ------------> Na2S + H2O
(3) It acts as a reducing agent
(a) with SO2: H2S is oxidized to sulphur
2H2S + SO2 ----------------> 2H2O(l) + S(s)
R.A O.A
(b) with halogens H2S + Cl2 ----------------> 2HCl(l) + S(s)
(c) with FeCl3: brown colour of Fe3+ solution turns to green Fe2+
solution
FeCl3 + H2S --------------> FeCl2 + HCl + S
Browns(O.A) R.A green solution
(d) with acidified KMnO4 the purple acidified KMnO4 turns
colourless
(e) with acidified K2Cr2O7, the orange acidified K2Cr2O7: yellow
colour turns to green
(f) with H2SO4 or HNO3
H2SO4(aq) + H2S ---------------> 2H2O + SO2(g) + S(s) (evolution
of sulphur)
HNO3(aq) + H2S ---------------> 2H2O + 2NO2(g) + S(s) ( brown
fume of NO2)
H2S is oxidized to sulphur
(4) H2S acts as a precipitating agent to form insoluble sulphides
Pb(NO3)2 + H2S -----------> PbS + HNO3
Colourles solution Black precipitate
Test for H2S
Place a moist/wet lead acetate or lead ethanoate paper in a gas jar
containing H2S, it will turn black due to the formation of PbS
Uses of H2S
In the laboratory as a precipitating agent
NB: Metallic sulphides are insoluble in water except group1 metals
and NH4+

OXIDES OF SULPHUR
Sulphur IV oxide (SO2)
Laboratory Preparation:
(a) By heating sodium trioxo sulphate IV salt with dilute HCl
Na2SO3(aq) + HCl(aq) Heat 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Physical Properties:
(1) Colourless poisonous gas with a chocking smell
(2) Soluble in water
(3) denser than air
(4) turns wet blue litmus to red

Chemical Properties
(1) an acidic oxide:
(a) dissolve in water to form H2SO3
H2O + SO2 H2SO3
(b) reacts with alkalis to form salt and water
KOH(aq) + SO2(g) -------------> K2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(2) It is a reducing agent
(i) FeCl3 is reduced to FeCl2
FeCl3 + SO2 + 2H2O ------------> 2FeCl2 + H2SO4(aq)+ 2HCl(aq)
Brown solution green solution

(test for a reducing agent)

(ii) HNO3 reduced to NO2. Change of oxidation number of N from +5
to +4
2HNO3(aq) + SO2(g) ---------------> H2SO4(aq) + 2NO2(g)
(iii) Turns Orange acidified K2Cr2O7 green
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + 3SO2 -------> K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
Orange green
Turns purple acidified KMnO4 solution to colourless
2KMnO4 + H2SO4 + SO2 ----------> K2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O
Purple solution colourless solution

(3) It acts as an oxidizing agent only when reacted with a stronger

reducing agent (H2S)
H2S + SO2 ---------------> H2O + S
(4) It acts as a bleaching agent. It bleaches by reduction which is not
permanent and can be reversed by oxygen in air
Uses of SO2
(1) In industrial manufacturing of H2SO4
(2) As a refrigerant (liquefied SO2)
(3) For bleaching wool, silk and straw which can be damaged if
chlorine is used
(4) used in pulp and paper industry
(5) as preservative in fruit drinks

Industrial Preparation of H2SO4 (Contact process)

The Stages are:
(i) Sulphur is burnt in oxygen to oxidize it to sulphur IV oxide
(ii) Sulphur IV oxide is further oxidized by reaction with oxygen in
the presence of vanadium V oxide as catalyst(V2O5) as catalyst at
temperature between 400oC to 500oC to form Sulphur VI oxide
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
(iii) Sulphur VI oxide is dissolved in a little quantity of concentrated
H2SO4 to form oleum.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) ------------> H2S2O7
conc oleum
NB: It is hazardous to dissolve SO2 gas in water because the reaction
is highly exothermic causing the acid to boil and spray of thick mist of
H2SO4 in the surrounding
(iv) Oleum is diluted with water to form 98oC concentrated H2SO4.
H2S2O7 + H2O ------------> 2H2SO4

Physical Properties of H2SO4

(1) Less volatile acid and a highly viscous liquid and has a high
boiling point
Chemical properties/ reactions
(1) As dilute H2SO4
(a) reacts with active metals to produce H2 gas
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) --------------> MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(b) reacts with bases to form salt and water
KOH + H2SO4 ------------> K2SO4 + 2H2O
(c) reacts with trioxocarbonate IV salts to produce CO2 gas
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ----------------> CaSO4(s) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
(d) reacts with metal sulphides to produce H2S gas
FeS + H2SO4 --------------> FeSO4 + H2S
(e) reacts with SO32- salt to produce SO2 gas
(2) As Concentrated H2SO4
(1) Act as oxidizing agent with:
(a) non-metals
C(s) + H2SO4 -----------------> CO2 + H2O + SO3
(b) metals to produce SO2 gas
Zn + 2H2SO4 -------------> ZnSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
(2) Act as dehydrating agent by removing element of water molecule
H2SO4
C6H12O6 6C(s)
White crystals -6H2O black solid

H2SO4
HCOOH CO (lab preparation of CO gas)
-H2O

H2SO4
CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4
blue crystals -H2O white powder

(3) Displace more Volatile acid gases from their salts

KNO3 + H2SO4 -----------> KHSO4 + HNO3
KCl + H2SO4 -----------> KHSO4 + HCl
(4) As precipitating agent for insoluble sulphates
Pb(NO3)2 + H2SO4 -----------> PbSO4 + HNO3
Colourless solution white precipitate

Uses of H2SO4
(1) For making fertilizers ( NH4)2SO4
(2) Use for producing other more volatile acids because it is a less
volatile
(3) Used in manufacturing of soaps and detergents
(4) Used in the extraction of metals ( pickling of metals before
electroplating)
(5) Used for refining petroleum
(6) Used in lead acid accumulator batteries
(7) Used in the laboratories as drying agent for some gases, except
H2S, NH3

USES OF SULPHATE SALTS

Ca(HSO3)2 – as a bleaching agent
MgSO4 – as pugative
(NH4)2SO4 – as fertilizers
ZnSO4. 7H2O (white) – for treatment of skin infections
FeSO4. 7H2O – used for making red pigment when strongly heated to
Fe2O3
CuSO4. 5H2O (blue) – as pesticides/ fungicides for spraying plants
KAl(SO4)2. 12H2O – used in treatment of town water supply to
coagulate the fine particles
BaSO4 – used in manufacture of white paints
CaSO4- plaster of paris (P.O.P)
Na2SO4.10H2O to manufacture glass

Test for SO42- ion

To aqueous solution of Na2SO4 add BaCl2 solution – white precipitate
of BaSO4 will be formed then followed by excess dilute hydrochloric
acid. The white precipitate will be insoluble.
 HALOGENS
Belongs to group 7 in the Periodic Table. These are
F2 – yellow gas
Cl2 – greenish yellow gas
Br2 – brown liquid
I2 – greyish black solid (crystals)
The halogens are the most electronegative element in each period.
Laboratory preparation of Chlorine
(1) By oxidation of concentrated hydrochloric acid with MnO2 (with
heating) OR KMnO4 (no heating)
(a) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(l) heat MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2(g)
conc
(b) KMnO4(s) + 16HCl(l) ------> 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2(aq) + 8H2O +5Cl2(g)
conc

diagram and explanation for using H2O to remove HCl and conc H2SO4 to dry the gas

NB: Dry chlorine gas is collected by downward delivery of gas

because it is denser than air
Industrial preparation of chlorine:
By electrolysis of of concentrated NaCl ( Brine) using graphite or
platinium electrode
Physical Properties of chlorine
(1) A greenish yellow gas with choking smell
(2) Soluble in water
(3) Denser than air
Chemical Properties/ Reactions of chlorine
(1) Reacts with metals to form chlorides
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -------------> 2NaCl
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -------------> 2AlCl3
2Fe(s) + 2Cl2(g) -------------> 2FeCl3(s)
NB: Metals with variable valencies form compounds with higher
valency because of the oxidizing property of chlorine.
(2) Reacts with non-metals (except oxygen and nitrogen) to form
covalent chlorides
2P(s) 3Cl2(g) -------------> 2PCl3(g)
2P(s) 5Cl2(g) -------------> 2PCl5(g)
H2(g) Cl2(g) -------------> 2HCl(g)
(3) Displacement Reactions
A more electronegative/reactive halogen will displace a less
electronegative/reactive one from its salt.
Cl2 + KBr(aq) -----------> KCl(aq) + Br2(g)
F2 + KCl(aq) -----------> KF(aq) + Cl2(g)
(4) Oxidizing Property of Cl2 gas
(a) with Ammonia
2NH3 + 3Cl2 -------------> N2 + 6HCl
(b) changes green FeCl2 solutions to brown FeCl3 solution
2FeCl2 + Cl2 ------------> 2FeCl3
(c) oxidizes trioso sulphate IV acid to tetra oxo sulphate VI acid
H2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O --------------> H2SO4 + 2HCl
(5) Cl2 is as a bleaching agent
(i) in water
Cl2 + H2O ------------> HOCl + HCl
Oxochlorate I acid
NB: Chlorine bleaches by oxidation because the HOCl decomposes to
produce nascent oxygen [O] which it uses for bleaching by oxidation
process. Therefore the bleaching process is permanent
HOCl -------------> HCl + [O]
[O] + Dye -------------> (Dye + O)
Coloured colourless
(ii) with Ca(OH)2 to form a bleaching powder
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 -----------> CaOCl2 + H2O
Calcium oxy dichloride
(6) Reactions of chlorine
(i) with aqueous alkalis to form sodium oxo chlorate I and chloride of
the metal
2NaOH + Cl2 --------------> NaOCl(s) + NaCl + H2O
(ii) with concentrated NaOH to form trioxo chlorate V and sodium
chloride
6NaOH + 3Cl2 -----------> NaClO3(s) + 5NaCl + 3H2O
Test for chlorine gas
(I) Turns moist blue litmus paper to red and then bleaches it
(II) insert a moist starch-iodide paper into a gas jar containing
chlorine gas, it turns black due to formation of potassium chloride
Uses of Chlorine gas
(1) used as a bleaching agent
(2) used in treatment of water and sewage
(3) For synthesis of useful compounds e.g. CCl4 used as chloroform
 Hydrogen Chloride gas
Laboratory Preparation
By reacting Chlorides salts with concentrated H2SO4 and heat.
KCl + H2SO4 --------------> KHSO4 + HCl
Physical Properties of HCl
(i) colourless gas which produces white fumes in moist air
(ii) highly soluble in water demonstrated by fountain’s experiment
(iii) soluble in non-polar solvent such as methyl benzene
(iv) denser than air, hence collected by downward delivery of the gas
(v) it extinguishes a burning splinter
Chemical properties of HCl gas
(i) dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid
(ii) the acids reacts with active metals to produce hydrogen gas
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) -------------> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Observations: Effervescence, Colourless odourless gas is produced
(H2)
(iii) Reacts with alkali or amphoteric oxide to form salt and water
NaOH + HCl ------------> NaCl + H2O
CaO + 2HCl -------------> CaCl2 + H2O
(iv) hydrogen chloride gas reacts with ammonia to produce a dense
white fumes of NH4Cl
HCl + NH3 NH4Cl
( This is the test of HCl gas)

Uses of Hydrogen Chloride gas

i. is used in the synthesis of chloro ethene(vinyl chloride) used in
making polymers e.g PVC plastics
ii. is used for pickling in steel industries i.e. removal of oxides from
surface of metals
iii. as laboratory reagents for analyzing compounds

Test for HCl gas

Dip a glass rod into a reagent bottle containing aqueous NH3 and
place near a gas jar containing HCl gas, a dense white fume of NH4Cl
is formed

Test for Halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) in the form of its metallic salts e.g.
NaCl, NaBr , NaI
Test reagents are AgNO3(ag)

ions Test Observation

Cl- Add dilute HNO3 to aqueous No effervescence/no
solution of the salt reaction
then AgNO3(aq) White curdy precipitate
followed by NH3(aq) is formed
Precipitate dissolves
Br- Add dilute HNO3 to aqueous No effervescence/ no
solution of the salt reaction
then AgNO3(aq) Pale yellow curdy
followed by NH3(aq) precipitate formed
Precipitate dissolves
I- Add dilute HNO3 to aqueous No effervescence/ no
solution of the salt reaction
then AgNO3(aq) Yellow curdy precipitate
followed by NH3(aq) is formed
Precipitate insoluble
Question: Why is the solution containing the halide ion acidified with
dilute HNO3 before adding AgNO3(aq)

RATE OF REACTION

1. The rate at which reactions take place vary from:

i. Very fast reaction
e.g. 2Na(s) + 2H2O -----------------> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) (violent)
ii. Very slow reaction
e.g. rusting of iron in the presence of oxygen and water moisture in air

2. The rate of reaction is defined as the change in the concentration of

reactants (or products) with time.
Rate = Change in concentration of reactants (or products)
Time
Example: 10g of reactants left 4g after 10 mins. Find the rate of
reaction
Working: Change in concentration of reactants = (10-4)
Rate = (10-4)g = 6 = 0.6g/min
10 min 10

COLLISION THEORY: This summarizes the two assumptions on

how a reaction can take place.
i. A reaction will take place as a result of effective collisions between
the reacting particles
ii. For a reaction to take place, the reacting particles must possess a
minimum amount of energy called activation energy

ACTIVATION ENERGY: Is defined as the minimum energy which

the reacting particles must possess to overcome the activation
complex barrier to form products.
It is also the minimum energy required by reactants to form the
activation complex (or activated complex) which has an unstable
complex structure before forming the products.

ACTIVATION COMPLEX: This is the intermediate unstable

compound which must be produced before the product can be formed.
Activation complex is also known as “Transition state”
Reactants -------> Activation complex (unstable) -----------> Products
Transition State

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION

The factors are:
i. Temperature
ii. Concentration
iii. pressure
iv. Surface Area or particle size
v. Catalyst
vi. Light
vii. Nature of the reactants

(a) Temperature: If the temperature is increased:

i. The reacting particles will move faster and acquire more kinetic
energy
ii. More reacting particles will possess average kinetic energy greater
than the activation energy
iii. The number of effective collisions between the reacting particles
will increase
iv. Hence, the rate of the reaction will increase
Energy Distribution curve ( BOLTZMAN)

(b) Concentration: If the concentration of the reactant is increased e.g.

from 1M to 2M HCl as in the reaction e.g. Zn + 2HCl(aq) ----------->
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) (mass of Zn and volume of HCl kept constant)
The number of effective collisions between the reacting particles will
increase and the rate of the reaction will increase.

NOTE:
i. The parallel line to the time axis on the graph indicates that the
reaction is complete.
ii. The steep slope part of the graph indicates that the initial shape of
the reaction is fast
iii. The less steep slope of the graph indicates that the reactant
particles are continuously used up
The gas produced is collected in a graduated syringe as shown in the
diagram below

For the reaction

Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ----------> 2NaCl(aq) + H2O + SO2 + S(s)

The time taken for the disappearance of letter X on the sheet of paper
placed under the conical flask due to the formation of the yellow
colloidal sulphur is noted for the different concentration of the
reactants.
Diagram:
(c) Particles size or surface area: if the reactants particles are small
( that is in powdered form) it will have a large surface area.
The number of effective collision will increase and the rate of reaction
will increase.
The graph below shows the effect of the particles size of zinc metal on
the rate of the reaction with 1M HCl using a top loading balance
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ---------------> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

(d) Pressure: This applies to gaseous reactions

e.g. H2(g) + Cl2(g) ---------------> 2HCl(g)
If the pressure is increased, the number of effective collisions between
the reactants will increase and the rate of the reaction will increase

(e) Catalyst: The addition(or presence) of catalyst will provide an

alternative reaction path (or route) with a lower activation energy for
the reaction.
The graph below shows the effect of catalyst on an endothermic
reaction

A + B --------------> C + D
2KClO3(s) --------------> 2KCl(s) + O2(g)
(Laboratory preparation of oxygen gas using MnO2 as catalyst)
(f) Light: The presence of light (sunlight) provides the required
activation energy for the reaction to take place
Examples:
i. Chlorination of methane in the presence of sunlight
ii. Photosynthesis in plants in the presence of sunlight
iii. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by light
iv. Decomposition of AgBr, AgCl (in photography)
These are photochemical reactions
(g) Nature of the reactants: The rate of reaction will be affected by the
area or surface of the reactants in contact with each other.
If the reactants are in the same phase, the reaction will be faster than if
the reactants are in different phases
e.g. NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) -------- slow reaction (different phase)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ------- fast reaction (same phase)

Methods for determination of rate of reaction

These can be by the
i. Change in the total mass using the top loading balance
e.g. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -----------> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
ii. Change in volume of the gas produced during the reaction by
recording the volume of the gas collected in the syringe per unit time
iii. Change in the total pressure (for gaseous reactions)
iv. Change in the colour intensity using a photoelectric colorimeter
e.g. N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
v. Change in pH; using the pH meter
 EQUILIBRIUM REACTION
A (dynamic) equilibrium is a reversible reaction in which the
concentration of the reactants and the products remain constant (or
does not change with time), since the rate of forward reaction is equal
to the rate of the backward reaction.
For the reaction Rf
A + B C + D
Rb
At equilibrium Rf = Rb
Le- Chateleirs Principle states that if the condition (concentration,
pressure or temperature) of a reaction in equilibrium is changed or
altered the position of equilibrium will adjust itself to cancel(or
nullify) the effect of the imposed condition.
Examples of equilibrium Reactions
I. Homogeneous reactions
a. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) ∆H -ve
b. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ∆H -ve
c. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) ∆H -ve
d. PCl2(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g) ∆H +ve

II. Heterogeneous reaction (in a closed system)

CaCO3 CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Comparing closed system and open system

Closed system Open system
Heating CaCO3 solid in a Heating solid CaCO3 in a testube
closed container CaCO3 CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3 CaO(s) + CO2(g)

i. a closed system is an isolated i. allows the shape or removal of

 system so that there is no matter or substance or energy into
exchange or loss of matter or the surrounding
energy into the surrounding
ii. the reaction can attain a state ii. the reaction goes to completion
of dynamic equilibrium

Effects of factors on an Equilibrium Reaction

Consider the reaction
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) ∆H -ve

The effect of
a. increasing the concentration of H2(g)
i. more of N2 gas and H2 gas will react
ii. the equilibrium position will shift in the forward direction
iii. the yield of the product (NH3 gas) will increase
NB: vise versa for decrease in concentration

b. increasing the temperature

i. the forward reaction is exothermic hence the backward reaction
which will be endothermic will be favoured by the increasing in
temperature.
ii. the position of the equilibrium will shift to the left (in the backward
direction)
iii. the yield of the product NH3 gas will decrease

c. decreasing the pressure

i. the backward reaction has more number of moles of gaseous
molecule and will be favoured by decreasing in pressure
ii. the position of the equilibrium will shift to the left (in the backward
direction)
iii. the yield of the product NH3 gas will decrease

NB:
I. A change (increase or decrease) of pressure will not affect the
position of equilibrium of a reaction in which the number of moles of
gaseous molecule reactants is the same as the number of moles of
gaseous molecule products
Example: H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) ∆H +ve

II. The presence (or addition) of a catalyst will not affect the position
of equilibrium because the catalyst will affect the rate of the forward
and the backward reaction equally (to the extent); the catalyst will
cause the equilibrium to be reached more quickly

Characteristics Properties of Equilibrium Reaction

i. The reactants and products are present in considerable amount
ii. The concentration of the reactants and the products does not change
with time (remain constant)
iii. The free energy change (∆G) is zero
 SOME TERMS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES: A group of organic compound which
can be represented by a general molecular formula and the formula of
each successive member differ by -CH2
e.g Alkane hydrocarbons have general molecular formula
CnH2n+2.Members CH4, C2H6, C3H8 e.t.c
The members of the homologous series have the following
characteristics
i. Exhibit similar chemical properties
ii. Can be prepared by same method
iii. Show regular graded physical properties with increasing molecular
mass
iv. They have the same general molecular formula
v. They have the same functional group
2. FUNCTIONAL GROUP: This is the atom or group of atoms or
bond which is common to and determines the chemical properties of
the members of the homologous series.
Homologous series Funtional
General Molecular group
formula and examples
ALKANE -H
CnH2n+2
n= 1 CH4 (methane)
n= 2 C2H6 ( ethane)
e.t.c
ALKENE
CnH2n C C
n= 2 C2H4 (ethene)
n= 3 C3H6 (propene)
e.t.c
ALKYNE
CnH2n-2 C C
n= 2 C2H2 (ethyne)
n= 3 C3H4 (propyne)
e.t.c
ALKANOL
CnH2n+1OH OH
n= 1 CH3OH (methanol)
n= 2 C2H5OH(ethanol)
e.t.c
ALKANOIC ACID
CnH2n+1COOH COOH
n= 0
HCOOH(methanoic acid)
n= 1 CH3COOH
(ethanoic acid)
ESTERS
CnH2n+1COOCnH2n+1 R C O
CH3COOCH3 (ethyl O R’
ethanoate)
3. EMPIRICAL FORMULA : is defined as the simplest formula that
shows the no of atoms in a compound e.g. CH2O is the empirical
formula of C6H12O6
4. MOLECULAR FORMULA: is the formula which shows the actual
no of moles of atoms in a compound
5. STRUCTURAL FORMULA: shows the arrangement of atoms in a
compound
6. ISOMERS: are organic compounds with same molecular formula
but different structural formula
 HYDROCARBONS
These are organic compounds which consist of carbon and hydrogen
only. E.g alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
1. ALKANES ( Saturated Hydrocarbons)
General Method of Preparation
By heating sodium salt of alkanoic acid with soda-lime ( a mixture of
NaOH and CaO) e.g
CH3COONa + NaOH/CaO ---------> CH4(g) + Na2CO3(s)
Sodium ethanoate heat methane
Properties of Alkanes (methane)
Physical properties
i. colourless gas
ii. slightly soluble in water
Chemical properties / reaction of alkanes (methane)
1. Combustion: alkanes burn in air to produce CO2 and H2O
CH4(g) + O2(g) ---------> CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. Substitution reaction with halogens to produce chloroalkanes in the
presence of sunlight
i. CH4 + Cl2 -----------> CH3Cl + HCl
chloro methane
ii. CH3Cl + Cl2 ------------> CH2Cl2 + HCl
di chloromethane
iii. CH2Cl2 + Cl2 -------------> CHCl3 + HCl
tri chloromethane
iv. CHCl3 + Cl2 --------------> CCl4 + HCl
tetrachloromethane
NB: This is a chain reaction initiated by the hemolytic fission of Cl 2
molecule producing free radical
. .
Cl2 --------------> Cl + Cl (JAMB)

Uses of methane
1. as fuel in homes and laboratories
2. for producing trichloromethane (chloroform) used in surgery
3. for making tetrachloromethane used as solvent for dyes and paints

ISOMERISM IN ALKANES (Branched chain isomers)

NB : Isomerism is a phenomenon in which organic compounds have
the same molecular formular but different structural formula.
Example : Write the names and structure of possible isomers of C4H10
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 n butane
(Condensed structural formula) expanded structural formula

CH3-CH- CH3
CH3 2-methyl propane
Boiling point of alkanes decreases with branching
Class exercise :
Write the structures and names of all the possible isomers of C6H14
 ALKENES (Unsaturated Hydrocarbon)
They are unsaturated hydrocarbon having a double bond (=) between
two adjacent carbon atoms.
General method of preparation
By dehydration of alkanol using concentrated H2SO4 as a dehydrating
agent.
concH2SO4
C2H5OH C2H4
-H2O
Ethanol ethene
Physical properties of ethene
1. Has a sweet smell
2. Slightly soluble in water
Chemical properties/ Reaction
1. Combustion in air or oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O
2. Addition reaction with hydrogen, halogens and hydrogen halides
(This is because they are unsaturated and they are converted to
saturated hydrocarbon) e.g
(a) with hydrogen(Hydrogenation) in the presence of nickel as catalyst
Ni
C 2H 4 + H2 C2H6
Ethene Ethane
(b) with halogens e.g Cl2 or Br2 or I2
C 2H 4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2
Ethene 1,2-dichlorothane
TEST: Alkenes decolorize brown bromine liquid because they are
unsaturated hydrocarbon. This is the test for unsaturated.
(c) with hydrogen halides (HCl, HBr, HI) at room temperature to form
halo- alkanes e.g
C 2H 4 + H 2O C2H5OH
Ethene ethanol
3. Alkenes can be hydrated to produce alkanol using excess
concentrated H2SO4 as a catalyst.
C2H4 + HI C2H5I
4. React with an oxidizing agent acidified KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 e.g
i. turns purple acidified KMnO4 colourless
ii. turns orange acidified K2Cr2O7 green.
5. Alkenes undergo polymerization reaction e.g
Ethene ------------------> polyethene
USES OF ETHENE
1. use to produce important chemicals such as ethan1,2-diol( used as
antifreeze in car engines)
2. for ripening of fruits
3. use in producing plastics
4. use in producing tetra-ethyl-lead (TEL)

ISOMERISM IN ALKENES
Write the isomers of C4H8
Structural isomers

1. CH2 CH CH2 CH3

 But-1-ene

2. CH3 CH CH CH3
But-2-ene

3. CH3 C CH2
CH3
2-methylprop-1-ene
Geometric isomers (for symmetric alkenes)

CH3 H CH3 H
C C C C
CH3 H H CH3
Cis but-2-ene trans but-2-ene
Summary :
Types of isomerism in alkenes
1. position isomerism due to change in position of the double bond e.g
but-1-ene, but-2-ene
2. branch chain isomerism due to branch alkyl group e.g 2-
methylbutene
3. Geometric isomerism due to restricted rotation of double bond in a
symmetrical alkene. e.g cis but-2-ene, trans but-2-ene.
 ALKYNE (Unsaturated Hydrocarbon)
Is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with a triple bond between two
adjacent carbon atoms
General molecular formula : CnH2n-2
Laboratory preparation of ethyne
Reaction of calcium di cabide with cold water
CaC2(s) + H2O -------------> C2H2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
Properties of Ethyne
Physical properties
has sweetish smell and insoluble in water
Chemical properties/ reactions
1. combustion in air or oxygen to produce CO2 and H=O
2. Alkyne undergo addition reaction due to the presence of
unsaturation and it is converted to saturated hydrocarbon. E.g with
(a) hydrogen using nickel as catalyst
Ni
C2H2 + 2H2 C2H6
(b) halogens using halogen carier (FeCl3) as catalyst
FeCl3
C2H2 + 2Cl2 C2H2Cl4
1,1,2,2- tetrachloroethane
NB: 2 moles of hydrogen is required to convert an alkyne to a
saturated hydrocarbon.
Alkyne will decolourize brown bromine water ( Test for unsaturation)
(c) Hydrogen halide e.g
C2H2 + 2HBr ---------------> C2H4Br2
3. Reaction with an oxidizing agent. It turns
i. acidified purple KMnO4 colourless
ii. acidified orange K2Cr2O7 to green
4. ethyne undergo polymerization to form Benzene
C2H2 --------------------> C6H6

USES OF ETHYNE
1. used in oxyacetylene flame for weldering ( oxyethylene flame)
2. for plastic making
3. as fuel in lamps
Reactions to distinguish between an alkene and an alkyne

Reagent Alkene Alkyne

1. Ammoniacal silver No reaction Whitish yellow
nitrate precipitate of silver di
carbide ( Ag2C2)
(AgNO3)
2. Ammoniacal No reaction Red precipitate of
copper I chloride copper I di carbide
(Cu2C2)
NB: Metal cabide formation takes place with alkynes having a
triple bond on the terminal carbon atom. Hence the reaction is
substitution reaction.
ISOMERISM IN ALKYNES
Write the isomers of alkyne with n= 4
General molecular Formula: C4H6
H H
HC C C C H
H H But-1-yne
H H
H C C C C H
H H But-2-yne

BENZENE
1.(a) General Molecular Formula CnH2n-6
Where n = 6
(b) Formula is C6H6
It is a cyclic or ring compound with alternating double bond between
the carbon atoms
2. Structure: A ring structure

Can also be simply represented as

3.(a) Physical Properties

It is a colourless liquid and highly toxic
(b) Chemical properties / Reactions
(1) Addition reaction with
i. hydrogen to produce cyclohexane
C6H6 + H2 ---------------> C6H6
Benzene cyclo hexane
ii. with chlorine (in the presence of sunlight) to give hexa chloro
hexane
C6H6 + 3Cl2 ------------> C6H6Cl6
(2) Substitution Reaction (in the presence of halogen carrier AlCl3,
FeCl3)
C6H6 + Cl2 --------------> C6H5Cl
Benzene chloro benzene
NB: Alkenes can have isomers structure with cyclo alkanes
e.g C3H6 – propene
cyclo propane

ALKANOLS ( ALCOHOLS)
1. General Molecular Formula CnH2n+1OH
Examples CH3OH (methanol), C2H5OH (ethanol)

2. Contain the polar functional hydroxyl group ( OH group)

3. Can be prepared from hydrocarbon(alkanols are derivatives of

hydrocarbons)
PREPERATION OF ETHANOL: This is by the hydration of ethene
with water in the presence of concentrated H2SO4 as catalyst.
conc H2SO4
C2H4 + H2O as catalyst C2H5OH
ethene ethanol
The two steps(stages) of the reaction are:
I. C2H4 + H2SO4 -----------------> C2H5HSO4
II. C2H5HSO4 + H2O --------------> C2H5OH + H2SO4
(Catalyst regenerated)
This method is used to produce industrial alcohol by petrochemical
industry.
Ethanol can also be prepared by fermentation process. This is by the
action of enzyme on starch or glucose.
C6H12O6 --------------------> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
glucose ethanol

Physical properties of alkanols

1. colourless liquids with characteristic smell and taste
2. Miscible with water (soluble in water) because hydrogen bond is
formed between the polar water molecule and the polar functional
hydroxyl group in alkanol.

ISOMERISM IN ALKANOLS (Monohydric Alkanols)

The position of the hydroxyl group in alkanols can be changed
resulting in position Isomerism. Example C4H9OH (C4H10O
molecular formular)
1. CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
1-butanol
Contains CH2OH(one alkyl group)
Primary alkanol
2. CH3CH2CHOHCH3
2-butanol
contains CHOH (two alkyl group)
secondary alkanol

3. (CH3)3COHCH
2methyl-2-propanol
Contains COH (three alkyl group)
Tertiary alkanol
NB: the number of alkyl group attached or bonded to the carbon
atom with the hydroxyl (-OH) group determine the class of
monohydric alkanol.

REACTIONS OF ALKANOLS
1. with metals (Na,Mg) to form metal alkoxide and hydrogen gas.
2C2H5OH + 2Na ----------------> 2C2H5ONa + H2
Sodium ethoxide
2. dehydration to produce an alkene using concentrated H2SO4 as a
dehydrating agent.
H 2O
C2H5OH ----------------------> C2H4
conc as dehydrating agent
Ethanol H2SO4 ethene
3. reaction with alkanol acid in the presence of mineral acid as
catalyst and heating to form ester (alkanoate) and water. The reaction
is called Esterification reaction.
C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COO C2H5 + H2O
ethanol ethanoic acid Ethylethanoate water
4. reaction with PCl5 or PCl3 to form an alkyl halide and fumes of
HCl
C2H5OH + PCl5 ---------------> C2H5Cl + POCl3 + HCl
5. Combustion of alkanol produces CO2 and H2O
CH3OH + 3O2 ------------------> 2CO2 + 2H2O
6. oxidation using acidified KMnO4 with heating (purple acidified
KMnO4 will change to colourless) with primary or secondary alkanol.
This is test for monohydric alkanols.
(a) CH3CH2OH --------> CH3CHO ---------> CH3COOH
Ethanol ethanal ethanoic acid
(primary alkanol) ( intermediate product) (final product)
(b) (CH3)2CHOH --------> (CH3)2CO OR CH3 –C –CH3
2-propanol 2-propanone O
(propan-2-ol) (propan-2-one)

Tertiary alkanol is difficult to oxidize.

The test is used to distinguish between the different types of alkanols.
An alternative test is called LUCAS TEST. This is the reaction using
zinc chloride and concentrated hydrochloric acid which gives the
fastest result(appearance of cloudness) with a tertiary alkanol.

TYPES OF ALKANOLS

Some alkanols contain more than one hydroxyl group.

(a) Monohydric alkanol contains one –OH group e.g C2H5OH

(b) Dihydric alkanol contains two –OH groups e.g

CH2OH
CH2OH ethan-1,2-diol (glycol)
(c) Trihydric alkanol contains three –OH group
e.g CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
propan-1,2,3-triol(glycerol
USES OF ALKANOL
1. as fuel ( in spirit lamp), methylated spirit is a mixture of ethanol
and methanol
2. as solvent (in perfumes,dyes and paints)
3. as antiseptic in medicine (e.g surgical spirit for sterilization)
4. in low temperature thermometer
5. for preparing other organic compounds e.g alkanoic acids,
alkanoates, alkyl halides (which are known as derivatives of alkanol)
6. ethanol is contained in alcoholic drinks (e.g beer, alcoholic wines)

7. ethan-1,2-diol(glycol) is added to the water in the radiator of

vehicles as antifreeze in cold countries because it has a very low
melting point(-117oC)

NOTE
(a) Methanol is known as wood spirit or wood alcohol. It is obtained
from destructive distillation of wood.
(b) Methylated spirit contains a mixture of ethanol and methanol. It is
called industrial spirit. It is unfit for drinking.
(c) the bacterial oxidation of ethanol will produce ethanoic acid and
water
C2H5OH + O2 ----------> CH3COOH + H2O
Therefore, if an alkanoic drink containing ethanol is left for few days
it will taste sour due to the ethanoic acid formed

(d) IODO FORM REACTION

The reaction of ethanol with iodine solution and sodium hydroxide
solution on warming will produce a yellow precipitate of iodoform
CHI3 (tri- iodo methane)
This reaction can be used to distinguish ethanol from the other
primary alcohols. (methanol, propan-1-ol, butan-1-ol) e.t.c.
ALKANOIC ACIDS

1. General molecular formula CnH2n+1COOH

Examples HCOOH methanoic acid
CH3COOH ethanoic acid
Contains polar functional alkanoic acid group C O
OH
(or –COOH) which is also called
carboxyl or carboxylic acid group
2. Prepearation of ethanoic acid: By the oxidation of primary alkanol.
Reaction of ethanol using acidified KMnO4 and heating.
CH3CH2OH ---------------> CH3COOH
ethanol ethanoic acid

Physical properties of ethanoic acid

i.it has a strong sharp irritating smelling liquid
ii. it is miscible with or soluble in water in all proportions. Vinegar is
a dilute solution of ethanoic acid.
iii. methanoic acid is contained in ant sting(e.g Bee sting)

Uses of ethanoic acid

i. as a solvent
ii. for flavouring and food preservative

Reactions of alkanoic acid

i. reacts with metal (Na, Mg) to produce H2 gas (similar to alkanol)
2CH3COOH + 2Na ----------------> 2CH3COONa + H2
ii. Reaction with PCl5 or PCl3 to produce HCl gas. (similar to
alkanol)
CH3COOH + PCl5 ---------------> CH3COCl + POCl3 +
HCl
iii. reactions with alkanol in the presence of mineral acid as catalyst
and heating to form esters (alkanoate) and water.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COO C2H5 + H2O
ethanoic acid ethanol Ethylethanoate water
Iv. reaction with Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 to produce CO2 gas with
effervescence
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 ----> 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
This is a test for the presence of alkanoic acid group –COOH
An example of alkanoic acid containing two alkanoic acid group is
ethane-dioc acid (oxalic acid) (COOH)2 or COOH
COOH (a solid
organic acid)

ALKANOATES (ESTERS)

1. Alkanoates (esters) are formed by the reaction between alkanoic

acid and alkanols by a process called Esterification.
2. Esterification is a reversible reaction of an alkanoic acid with an
alkanol using concentrated H2SO4 as a catalyst and Heating
3. Alkanoates (esters) are found in fruits (giving it a sweetish smell
e.g ethyl butanoate in banana, octyl ethanoate in pineapple), oils in
plants and as fats in animals
General Molecular Formula: CnH2n+1 COO CnH2n+1
Where n may be equal or different on both alkyl groups
Examples are:
HCOOCH3 — Methyl methanoate
CH3COOCH3 -- Methyl ethanoate
CH3COOC2H5 -- ethyl ethanoate e.t.c
4. Equations of Preparation of Alkanoates from their respective
Alkanols and Alkanoic acid (using conc H2SO4 as a catalyst and
heating)
(i) HCOOH + CH3OH HCOOCH3 +
H2O
Methanoic acid Methanol methyl methanoate water

(ii) CH3COOH + CH3OH CH3COOCH3 +

H2O
Ethanoic acid methanol Methyl ethanoate
water

(iii) CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 +

H2O
Ethanoic acid ethanol Ethyl ethanoate
water

5. I. Physical properties of alkanoates (esters): They have sweet smell

and readily soluble in organic solvents like ethanol, benzene e.t.c.
II. Chemical properties/ reactions of ethyl ethanoate
(i) Reacts with ammonia gas to form ethanamide
CH3COO C2H5 + NH3 ------------> CH3CONH3 + C2H5OH
Ethyl ethanoate Ammonia Ethanamide
Ethanol
Ethanamide formed is filtered off

(ii) Hydrolysis of alkanoate will produce the corresponding alkanol

and alkanoic acid (in the presence of dilute mineral acid )
NB: forward reaction of alkanol with alkanoic acid is Esterification,
while the backward reaction is Hydrolysis
CH3COOCH3 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH
Ethyl ethanoate water Ethanoic acid ethanol

OILS AND FATS

Oils and Fats have their origin in plants and animals and contains
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.
They are called LIPIDS or GLYCERIDES
Oils and Fats are esters (alkanoates) formed from trihydric alkanol
(glycerol) and alkanoic acid with long chain alkyl group. (e.g. Hexa
decanoic acid in palm oil C15H31COOH)
(a) Oils are usually unsaturated esters containing one or more double
carbon to carbon bond(s)
(b) Fats are usually saturated esters.
Naturally occurring oils and fats are mixtures of esters. This is the
reason why fats do not have a sharp melting oil
Oils can be converted to fats by a process called HYDROGENATION
of oil by passing hydrogen gas over oil at high temperature and high
pressure in the presence of Nickel catalyst.
H2(g)
Oil Fat (e.g. Magarine)
Ni catalyst
High Temp, High pressure
The colour of oil (e.g. palm oil) can be removed by heating it with
activated charcoal

USES OF OILS AND FATS

i. as food (to provide energy)
ii. to prepare soap ( by saponification)
iii. in paints (to hold pigments together)
iv. in vanishes (to give glossy appearance)

TEST FOR OILS AND FATS

i. If oil or fat is rubbed on a piece of paper, it will produce a
translucent spot.
ii. Sudan Test: On adding Sudan Solution, a red colouration will be
produced

SOAPS AND DETERGENT (SOAPLESS SOAP)

(a) Soap and detergent are substances that when dissolved in water
has the ability to remove dirt and grease from a surface (e.g. textile,
skin)
(b) Soap is a sodium (or potassium) salt of long chain alkanoic acid
e.g. sodium octadecanoate (C17H35COONa)

PREPARATION OF SOAP
1. Soap is prepared by the process called saponification reaction
Saponification is defined as heating fats or oil with aqueous solution
of alkali (NaOH or KOH) to form soap. The by-product is propan-
1,2,3-triol (glycerol).
( Alkaline hydrolysis of oil and Fat by heating with sodium hydroxide
solution)

Heat
Oil + NaOH Soap + Glycerol

NB: Wood ash contains NaOH

The solid soap crust (soap cake) can be separated from the glycerol by
adding concentrated solution of sodium chloride (called brine
solution) which reduces the solubility of the soap in the mixture by
the process called SALTING OUT.

DETERGENT (Soapless Soap) powder or liquid

This is produced by reacting petrochemical hydrocarbon containing a
benzene ring with tetraoxosulphate VI acid and heating it with sodium
hydroxide solution

Soap and soapless soap (detergent) have

i. Similar structure of the molecules, a covalent long hydrocarbon
chain end (tail) which dissolves in grease i.e. hydrophobic and a short
ionic end (Head) which is strongly attracted to water i.e. hydrophilic
Diagram:

Soap

Soapless detergent

ii. Similar cleansing action (or property): Soap and Soapless detergent
act as emulsifier during washing with water

Soapless detergent has an advantage over Soap in that it does not form
scum with hard water and forms lather readily
Differences between Soap and Soapless Detergent
Soap Soapless detergent
i. it is biodegradable It is non-biodegradable so
(that it can be decomposed by causes water pollution
micro organism) and does
not cause water pollution
ii. Aqueous solution of soap Aqueous solution of soapless
is alkaline detergent is Neutral
The new soapless detergents have simpler structure and contain
special enzyme which can act on blood stain and sweats stains. They
are also bio-degradable.

CARBOHYDRATES (Saccharides)
1. (a) are naturally occurring compounds e.g. cassava
(b) contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and
oxygen components are present in the same ratio 2:1 as in water.
(c) are known as hydrates of carbon with general molecular formula
Cx(H2O)y
(d) can be dehydrated by concentrated H2SO4 to form a black mass
of solid carbon. The process is called charring.
Conc H2SO4
Cx(H2O)y xC
dehydration
White crystals black solid

2. Classification of carbohydrates and their properties

Mono- Disaccharides Polysaccharides

saccharides (Dimers) (Polymers)
(Monomers)
Formula C6H12O6 C12H22O11 (C6H10O5)n
Examples Glucose (G) Maltose (G+G) Starch
Fructose (F) Sucrose (G+F) (G+G+G)
Galactose Lactose (G+Gl) Cellulose
(Gl) Glycogen
(a)
Note: (i) Glucose and fructose are isomers
(ii) Polysaccharides differ in the length and structure of the chains
(b) Properties
Monosaccharide Disaccharide polysaccharide
i. Nature Crystalline Crystalline Non- crystalline
Very sweet Sweet Not sweet
ii. Solubility Very soluble Soluble Insoluble
(cellulose)
Fairly soluble
(starch and
glycogen)
Note: (i) Starch is a food substance stored in plants cells
(ii) Cellulose is a substance of which plant cells are composed
(iii) Glycogen is food substance stored in animal cells
(iv) Starch and glycogen can be converted to soluble glucose
(v) cotton is a pure cellulose

3. Test for Glucose and Starch

Glucose Starch
Produces red precipitate (Cu2O) Produces blue-black
on warming with fehlings colouration with
solution. iodine solution
Therefore, Glucose is a reducing
sugar due to the alkanal
functional group (-CHO) which
contains oxidisable hydrogen
NB: Fructose is a non-reducing
sugar. It contains alkanone
functional group ( C=O)
 See text book for diagrams
of glucose and fructose
4. The acid hydrolysis of the dimmers and polymers by reacting with
dilute acid (in the presence of suitable enzymes as catalyst) will
produce the corresponding monomers.
(i) Maltose will produce glucose only
(ii) sucrose will produce glucose and fructose
(iii) Starch will produce glucose only
The product(s) of the hydrolysis reaction can be identified by a
process called chromatography
Fermentation is the process of breaking down or slow decomposition
of carbohydrates e.g. glucose or starch (from cassava, potato or
molasses) by the action of enzymes to form ethanol and carbon IV
oxide gas.
Fermentation of Starch to produce Ethanol
The process involves three stages
Stage 1: Starch is mixed with Hot water at 50oC followed by addition
of enzyme diastase which hydrolyses starch to maltose
Stage 2 and 3: After sometime, yeast which contains the enzyme
maltase and zymase is added to the mixture at room temperature.
a. The maltase will be hydrolysed by maltase enzyme to glucose
b. The glucose will decompose in the presence of enzyme zymase (a
catalyst) to form ethanol and carbonIVoxide gas.
The equation for the reactions for the three stages are:
STAGE 1- HYDROLYSIS
(C6H10O5)n=2 +H2O C12H22O11
Starch Diatase enzyme Maltose
50oC

STAGE 2- HYDROLYSIS
C12H22O11 +H2O C12H22O11
Maltose Maltase enzyme Glucose
 Room Temp

STAGE 3- DECOMPOSITION
C6H12O6 +H2O C2H5OH + CO2
Glucose Zymase enzyme Ethanol
Room temp

The processes take place in a period of about 3 days and the solution
which results in 8% ethanol. This is purified by fractional distillation
to produce fine products which contains 96% ethanol.
NOTE:
If cassava or yam tuber or potato or rice is the starting material, this is
peeled, crushed and cooked in water under pressure to extract the
starch.
PROTEINS
1. Proteins are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. The other elements which may be present in proteins are
sulphur and phosphorus.
2. protein is formed by the process of condensation polymerization of
amino-acids
3. (a) protein contains an amino (-NH2) group, an alkanoic acid group
(-COOH) joined by a peptide link (-CONH-) which is the bond
linking two adjacent molecules of amino-acids in the giant molecules
of protein.
(b) proteins are also known as polypeptides
Condensation polymerization of Amino-acid to form Protein
[Draw the protein diagram on the board ].

4. Acid hydrolysis of protein will produce amino-acids e.g.

H2NCH2COOH amino ethene acid (glycine)
Properties of Protein
a. Forms colloidal solution
b. coagulates on heating. The process is known as Denaturing protein
during which an irreversible process and a change in the molecular
structure or shape takes place.
Test for Protein:
Add each reagent to protein (solution of egg white in water) as
follows:
(a) Biuret Test – Violet colouration formed on adding NaOH solution
then CuSO4 solution
(b) Millon’s Test – Red precipitate formed on heating
(c) Non-hydrin Test in propanone (Acetone)- Reddish blue
colouration
NOTE(i) Enzymes and Hormones and immunoglobulin are proteins
(ii) Amino acids in aqueous solution will behave as dipolar ion called
Zwitter ion.
e.g. H2NCH2COOH H3NCH2COO-
(d) Add concentrated HNO3 to egg white solution and heat. An
intense yellow colour forms adding concentrated ammonia solution to
neutralize the acid, an orange colour will form to indicate presence of
protein.
POLYMERIZATION, POLYMERS AND PLASTICS
polymerization is a process of combining (or linking or joining) of
many small molecules called monomers to form large molecules
called polymer.

Examples: i. Ethene polymerization Polyethene

ii. Glucose Starch
iii. Amino acids protein
(monomers) (polymers)
A polymer is a large molecule formed by the combining or joining of
many molecules of monomers
METHODS OF polymerization
1. Addition polymerization occurs between monomers containing
double bonds and no substance is eliminated during the reaction.
2. Condensation polymerization involves the elimination of a simple
molecule (H2O or HCl) between each pair of monomers
-nH2O
n(C6H12O6) (C6H10O5)n
glucose starch
(monomer) (polymer)
3. polymerization reaction requires catalyst (e.g. (Nickel), pressure
and Heat

TYPES OF POLYMERS
Polymers can be grouped into:
1. Natural polymers e.g. Natural rubber, starch, cellulose, protein
2. Synthetic polymers (man-made) e.g. polythene, Perspex, terylene,
polyester, polyvinylchloride(pvc)

1. (a) Natural addition polymer: Example is natural rubber. This

contains double carbon to carbon bonds.
(b) Natural Condensation Polymer: examples are Starch, Cellulose,
and Protein
2. (a) Synthetic Additional polymers: examples are polychloroethene
(polyvinyl chloride PVC), synthetic rubber, polyphenylethene
(polystyrene), Perspex.
(b) Synthetic Condensation Polymers: examples are Nylon, Bakelite,
Terylene

PLASTICS
1.(a) Plastics means mouldable and pliable (i.e. can be bent without
breaking)
(b) Plastics are composed of very large molecules called polymers and
are named after their monomers. Some are called by trade name.
2. Synthetic plastics are polymers and they are derived from
petrochemicals as raw materials.
3. Properties and Advantages: They are,
(a) hard or soft (b) rigid or flexible (c) transparent, translucent or
opaque (d) light weight but tough and strong (e) generally good
electrical and heat insulator (f) resistant to a wide range of
environmental conditions (g) can be moulded into shapes. (These are
the properties of plastics)
Note: Natural Rubber unit (C3H8)n contains long chain like molecules.
Rubber can be made tougher by heating with sulphur. The process is
known as Vulcanization of Rubber. The sulphur reduces the double
bonds between adjacent carbon atoms in the chains and forms cross
link between chains thereby making the structure more rigid (or less
flexible) and less sticky. The elasticity of rubber is caused by coiling
of the molecule.
The monomer for natural rubber is 2-methylbuta-1,3-diene
EFFECT OF HEAT ON PLASTIC
Plastics can be classified into two group based on the effect of heat
which shows the type of linkage of their structure.
a. Thermoplastics/ Thermoplast/Thermosoftening plastics
b. Thermosetting plastics/ Thermosets
Thermoplastic Thermosetting
i. Softens when heated and i. Once molded can no longer be
hardens again when cooled. softened by heat or reshaped
ii. Has straight chain linkage in ii. At very high temperature, it
the structure will char
examples are nylon, polythene, iii. Has cross linked chain in a
polypropene, PVC, polystyrene, three dimensional rigid structure.
polyester (terylene), Example are formica, Bakelite
polytetrafluoroethene (PTFE)

USES OF PLASTICS
1. Packaging: polythene (storage tanks, detergent bottles)
2. Household appliances: polystyrene (cups, television cabinet,
electrical sockets and switch)
3. Furniture: polyurethane (foam)
4. Surface coating, PTFE (non-stick frying pan)
5. Insulation: polystyrene, PVC (floor rubber tiles, curtain rails, wall
paper, electric cable covering)
6. Electrical plugs, formica table top –Bakelite
7. Clothing- Terylene, Nylon

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
1. The chemical processes used in the early years include:
a. Making soap by heating vegetable oil (e.g. palm oil) with wood ash
(potash-KOH)
b. Producing local gin from kola nut
2. Modern chemical industries make use of chemical processes to
convert raw material into more useful products.

3. A raw material is a readily available starting chemical substance

used to manufacture more useful product by a chemical process.
Examples of raw materials are: Sea water, coal, petroleum, mineral
ores, and minerals. These are called basic raw materials obtained from
Natural resources.
Raw materials obtained from intermediate chemicals are called Basic
chemical commodities e.g. NaOH, C6H6, NH3 e.t.c.

4. Chemical industries are classified based on their characteristic into:

(a) Heavy chemicals which: (i) have high demand (ii) have (less) low
purity (iii) are produced in large quantity
Examples of Heavy chemicals are:
NaOH, KOH used in soap industries
Na2CO3 for glass industry
H2SO4 for detergent, fertilizer (e.g. ammonium sulphate) industries
HNO3 for fertilizer industry
CaCO3/CaO for cement, metallurgy industry
(b) Fine chemicals: which: (i) have high purity (ii) are produced in
small quantity (iii) are expensive
Examples of fine chemicals are: Drugs (e.g. T.c.p (trichlorophenol),
Antibiotics), perfumes & cosmetics, photographic materials, dyes &
paints, Analytical reagents (used in labs), Fuel additive (tetraethyl
lead), Anti-freeze (ethan-1,2-diol)
Fine chemicals are produced from petrochemicals

5. Necessary considerations for chemical industries are

(a) Location for site:
(i) Nearness to cheap readily available raw materials
(ii) Easy transportation
(iii) Demand for the products
(iv) Readily available labour
(v) Government policy

(b) Economy of the industry which depends on:

(i) Available raw material
(ii) Cheap transportation
(iii) cheap source of energy
(iv) Demand for the products
(v) possibility of recycling the product

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is the use of biological processes (or micro-organism)

to make useful products (such as foods, drinks, drugs e.t.c) to improve
human life and health.

The applications of biotechnology are:

1. Food biotechnology- foods and drinks processing using enzymes
(micro-organism)
a. Making garri by fermentation of cassava
b. Making bread using the enzyme in yeast
c. Production of wine e.g. the fermentation of starch to produce
ethanol
NOTE:
I. fermented liquor contains ethanol in various quantities or
percentage
II. alcoholic wine (12.1%)
III. beer (3.7%)
IV. other spirits e.g. gin (35%)
V. methylated spirit contains ethanol and methanol. It is not suitable
for drinking
VI. food biotechnology helps to produce fresher and better tasting
foods

2. Agricultural biotechnology: This helps to make plants to be

resistant to destruction by insects. It is used in crop production.

3. Pharmaceutical biotechnology (for health care): is used in the

production of antibiotics from plants (e.g. penicillin) and also for
producing diagnostic test reagents.

4. Environmental biotechnology: involves the use of biocensus

method for waste disposal and sewage cleaning and prevent or control
the environment from pollution.

5. Technical biotechnology: is used in the aspects of

a. analysis of substances
b. recycling of substances

RADIOACTIVITY
A. Discovery of Radioactivity
1. Becquerel (1896) discovered that uranium salt emitted certain
particles which blackened photographic plate. Some other elements
with similar property to uranium include Polonium, Thorium, Radium
Uranium has a mass number 238, atomic number 92. There are 92
protons and 146 neutrons in the nucleus of uranium.
2. Madame Curie gave the name Radioactivity to Becquerel’s
discovery
3. Radioactivity is the process of decay of unstable atomic nucleus
producing or emitting radiation particles (alpha particles, beta
particles and gamma particles and are large amount of energy.

4. Properties of Radiation particles

(a) Alpha particle (α) 42He
i. Is a positively charged particle
ii. Has the mass of a helium atom
iii. Can travel a short distance (few cm)
iv. can not penetrate through a piece of paper i.e. can be stopped by a
piece of paper

(b) Beta particle (β) (0-1e or 0-1β)

i. is a negatively charged particle
ii. has mass of an electron (negligible mass)
iii. can travel long distance (few meters)
iv. can not penetrate a thin sheet of aluminum metal

(c) Gamma ray (00γ)

i. has no mass
ii. has no charge
iii. can travel very long distance (many meters)
iv. cannot penetrate a thick sheet of lead metal

Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves and are similar to x-rays

Diagram Showing the Penetrating Power of Radiation Particles

B. Diagram for Radioactivity

The diagram shows:
i. The emitting of the radiation particles
ii. The behavior of each radiation particles in an electric or magnetic
field
C. Methods of Detection of Radioactivity
Radiations can be detected using the following devices
i. fogging or blackening of photographic plate
1. Gieger-muller counter
2. Scintillation counter
3. Diffusion cloud chamber
D. Half-life of radioactive particle: is the time taken for the total mass
of a radioactive substance to disintegrate to half.
E. Artificial Radioactivity:
i. Nuclear Fission: is the bombarding of a stable nucleus with a high
speed particle to become heavier unstable nucleus which then
disintegrates to form a smaller stable nuclei with the release of large
amount of energy
e.g. 3216S + 10n --------------> 3215P + 11H + energy

1 7 4 4
1H + 3 Li ----------------> 2 He + 2 He

ii. Nuclear Fusion: is the bombardment of two small fast moving

nuclei to form a heavier nucleus with the release of large amount of
energy. E.g. fusion of hydrogen isotopes
2 3
1D + 1T --------------> 42He + 10n + energy
F. Uses of Radioactivity
1. To produce nuclear energy for generating electricity in a submarine
2. To produce nuclear bomb e.g. (Atomic bomb)
3. Radio-isotopes is used in
a. Medicine: (i) to treat malignant cancer and thyroid glands (127I)
(ii) sterilize surgical instruments (59Co)
b. In agriculture to monitor the function of a fertilizer in plant growth
(31P)
c. In industries e.g. Engineering industry to trace leakage in metal
pipes (127I)
d. In archaeology to find or determine the age of plants, fossils, rocks,
minerals.
This is known as carbon-dating (14C)
G. Harzards of radioactivity. This is mostly health hazards because of
the penetrating power of the radiation particles especially gamma
rays.
(i) Damage to cells and tissues in the skin and body
(ii) Blood abnormality or disorder
(iii) sterility
NB: excess of radiation particles can kill
H. Precaution: in hospitals- stall working in radiotherapy section wear
special clothes to protect them from the effect of radiation.

NOBLE GASES
1. The elements are Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and
Radon in Group 0 or 8 of the periodic table.
2. The atomic numbers and electron structures are:
2He 10Ne 18Ar 36Kr 54Xe 86Rn

2) 2)8 2)8)8 2)8)18)8 2)8)18)18)8

2)8)18)32)18)8
3. They occur as traces(in very small quantity) in the atmosphere,
He(10-4), Ne(10-3), Ar(0.93), Kr(10-5), Xe(10-6).

Properties of Noble gases

(i) They exist as colourless monoatomic gases with weak inter atomic
forces
(ii) They have stable outer electron structure (duplet in He and octet in
Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn) which make the gases to be chemically
unreactive or inert and not forming compounds.
Recently a few compounds has been formed only by reaction in the electric discharge
tube. E.g KrF2, XeF4

3. Radon(Rn) is a radioactive gas with half life of 3.8days

Uses of Noble gases

Helium:
(i) to fill air ship(crafts) and weather balloons. It has an advantage
over hydrogen gas because it is non-inflammable.
(ii) as diluents for oxygen in divers gas cylinders being only slightly
soluble in the blood than N2 hence, less gas bubble is produced when
the diver resurfaces and danger is avoided.
(iii) in low temperature thermometers due to its very low boiling
point(-269oC)

Neon: Extensively used in electric sign lamps for coloured advertising

purpose (red/orange colour) and in discharge tubes.

Argon:
(i) in fluorescent bulbs and discharge tube for illumination
(ii) in gas filled lamps
(iii) in high temperature metallurgy process to provide an inert
atmosphere thereby preventing oxidation or surface oxide formation
of the metal (stainless steel production).

Krypton: For projection light/lamps, for airplane landing lights and in

the light house in airports.
Xenon: For bright light in photographic flash light.

Radon: As a source of alpha particle in the treatment or therapy for

cancerous growth in medicine.