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Responding to Domestic Violence
6th Edition
To the millions who endure and survive and to those who protect and support.
Responding to Domestic Violence
The Integration of Criminal Justice
and Human Services
6th Edition
Eve S. Buzawa
University of Massachusetts, Lowell
Carl G. Buzawa
Attorney
Barbara Hart
Pennsylvania Coalition Against Domestic Violence
With contributions from Evan D. Stark

Rutgers University, Newark
FOR INFORMATION: Copyright © 2022 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, no part of this
2455 Teller Road work may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in
a database or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected] All third-party trademarks referenced or depicted herein are included solely for
the purpose of illustration and are the property of their respective owners.
SAGE Publications Ltd. Reference to these trademarks in no way indicates any relationship with, or
endorsement by, the trademark owner.
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road Printed in the United States of America
London, EC1Y 1SP
ISBN 978-1-5443-5127-8
United Kingdom
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
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Marketing Manager: Victoria Velasquez 22 23 24 25 26 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
BRIEF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments xix
About the Authors xxi
CHAPTER 1 • Introduction: The Role and Context of Agency

Responses to Domestic Violence 1
PART I • WHAT IS DOMESTIC VIOLENCE? 27

CHAPTER 2 • Matters of History, Faith, and Society 29
CHAPTER 3 • The Extent and Impact of Domestic Violence 63
CHAPTER 4 • Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence 97
PART II • THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESPONSE 133

CHAPTER 5 • Coercive Control: Contributed by Evan Stark 135
CHAPTER 6 • Special Populations at Risk 163
CHAPTER 7 • Selective Screening: Barriers to Intervention 207
CHAPTER 8 • Domestic Violence Legislation 243
CHAPTER 9 • Policing Domestic Violence 277
CHAPTER 10 • Prosecuting Domestic Violence: The Journey

From a Roadblock to a Change Agent? 333
CHAPTER 11 • The Judicial Response 377
CHAPTER 12 • Civil and Criminal Protection Orders 421
PART III • THE SOCIETAL RESPONSE 461

CHAPTER 13 • Community-Based and Court-Sponsored
Diversions 463
CHAPTER 14 • Victim Services 499
CHAPTER 15 • Intimate Partner Stalking: A Rapidly

Evolving Problem 525
v
CHAPTER 16 • The Coercive Control of Children,
and the Institutional Response: Contributed by Evan Stark 555
CHAPTER 17 • Conclusion: Toward the Prevention and

Control of Domestic Violence: Challenges and Opportunities 593
References 621
Index 685
DETAILED CONTENTS
Acknowledgments xix
About the Authors xxi
CHAPTER 1 • Introduction: The Role and Context of Agency

Responses to Domestic Violence 1
The Domestic Violence Revolution—The Shelter Movement 1
Origins of the Battered Women’s Movement 1
The Domestic Violence Revolution: Research on Wife Abuse 6
The Domestic Violence Revolution—Community Collaboratives 9
Coordinated Community Response 9
The Domestic Violence Revolution—The Middle Years 11
The Domestic Violence Revolution—Is It a Success? 13
Future of the Movement: Criminal Justice Challenges 17
Should Criminal Justice Interventions Be Victim-Centered? 19
The Domestic Violence Revolution: Challenges Before Us 20
COVID-19 and Its Long-Term Impact 21
Note on Terminology 23
PART I • WHAT IS DOMESTIC VIOLENCE? 27

CHAPTER 2 • Matters of History, Faith, and Society 29
Chapter Overview 29
Historic Attitudes on Domestic Violence 30
English Common Law and European History 30
Nineteenth-Century European Advances 32
Early American Strategies and Interventions 33
Domestic Violence Reforms in the 1800s 35
The Continuing Importance of History 36
The Historical Pull Back 37
The Religious Basis for Abuse 38
The Old Testament: The Dawning of the Patriarchy in a Biblical Sense 38
The New Testament: A More Subtle Role 39
Medieval Christianity 40
Why Religion Remains Important 41
The Effect of Religion on Potential Batterers 42
The Effect of Religion on the Behavior of Victims of Domestic Violence 45
Domestic Violence Rates Among the Faithful 46
Can Religion Become Part of the Solution? 47
Do Societies Hold Different Standards for Some Religious Communities? 48
vii
The Impetus for Change 48
Political Pressure and the Feminist Movement 49
The Role of Research in Promoting Change 51
Early Research 51
The Evolution of Research Supporting the Primacy of Arrest 52
Specific Deterrence 53
General Deterrence 53
The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment 54
The Replication Studies 55
Omaha, Nebraska 55
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 56
Charlotte, North Carolina 56
Colorado Springs, Colorado 57
Miami, Florida 57
Reanalysis and Reaction to the Replication Studies 58
Legal Liability as an Agent for Change 59
Summary 61
Discussion Questions 61
CHAPTER 3 • The Extent and Impact of Domestic Violence 63

Chapter Overview 63
The Nature and Extent of Domestic Violence 64
Official Domestic Violence Data Sources 65
Supplemental Homicide Reports 65
Sexual Assault 66
Unofficial Survey Data 67
The National Family Violence Survey and the Conflict Tactics Scale 67
Controversies Over Definitions 72
Statutorily Defined Relationships 72
Domestic Violence Offenses 73
Stalking as Coercive Control 74
Age 77
Marital Status 77
Socioeconomic Status 77
The Impact of Domestic Violence 78
Injuries 78
Psychological and Quality-of-Life Effects on Victims 80
Homicides and Suicides: The Toll on Human Life 81
Suicide and Suicidality 86
Economic Impact 88
Domestic Violence in the Workplace 89
The Impact on Children and Adolescents 91
The Specialized Problem of Stalking in Intimate Relationships 93
The Impact of Stalking 94
Summary 95
CHAPTER 4 • Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence 97
Chapter Overview 97
The Complexity of Analyzing Intimate Partner Abuse 97
Individual-Focused Theories of Violence 99
The Role and Use of Batterer Typologies 99
Classifying Batterers by Severity and Frequency of Abuse 99
Typing Batterers by Their Generality of Violence and Psychopathology 100
Who is Most Risk of Battering? 104
Biology and Abuse: Are Some Batterers “Pre-wired” for Abuse? 104
A Question of the Mind? 107
Biological- and Psychological-Based Fear and Anxiety 108
Can Psychology Explain Domestic Abuse? 109
Personality Disorders and Mental Illness 109
Anger Control and the Failure to Communicate 110
Low Self-Esteem 110
Conflict Resolution Capabilities and the Failure to Communicate 111
“Immature” Personality 112
Is Substance Abuse the Linkage Among Sociobiological, Psychological,
and Sociological Theories? 112
Are Certain Families Violent? 116
Family-Based Theories of Violence 117
Learning Theory 118
Sociodemographic Correlates of Violence and Vulnerable Populations 120
Poverty and Unemployment 120
The Social Critique Perspective on History, Laws, and Religion 123
The Feminist Perspective 123
Is Domestic Violence Merely an Extreme Form of Social Control? 124
The Development of Treatment Programs Based on Feminist Theories 125
Modifications and Challenges to the Theory of a Sexist Society 126
Can Feminist Insights Be Integrated With Other Theories? 127
Summary: Is a Synergy of These Theories Possible? 129
Conclusion 131
PART II • THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESPONSE 133

CHAPTER 5 • Coercive Control: Contributed by Evan Stark 135
Chapter Overview 135
Background 136
Coercive Control: The Model 138
The Technology of Coercive Control 138
Violence 139
The Continuum of Sexual Coercion 140
Intimidation 141
Stalking 142
Degradation 143
Control 143
Isolation 144
The Materiality of Control 144
Coercive Control and Risk of Fatality 145
Measuring Coercive Control 145
New Research Directions 148
Violence and Control 149
The Adaptation of Coercive Control in Criminal Law 150
England: A Case Study: The Crisis in Domestic Violence Policing
and the Incorporation of Coercive Control into Legislation 151
The Response from Government 151
Critical response 153
Is “More Law” an Example of “Criminalization?” 156
Policing Coercive Control 157
Conclusion: The Future of Coercive Control Legislation 160
Questions for Discussion 160
CHAPTER 6 • Special Populations at Risk 163

Racial and Ethnic Variations 163
The Black Population 163
The Hispanic Population 166
The Indigenous Population 169
Asian Americans 170
Intimate Partner Violence Among South Asian Americans 172
Teen Dating Violence 173
Impact of Teen Dating Violence 174
Teen Dating Violence Risk Factors 174
Pregnant Women and Reproductive Coercion 175
Victims With Disabilities 176
Domestic Violence in the Military and Law Enforcement 178
Lautenberg Amendment (USC 18 U.S.C. Section #922 (d) (9)
and 18 U.S.C. Section #922 (g) (9)) 178
Domestic Violence in the Military 179
The Official Response of the Military to Domestic Violence 181
Why Is There Substantial Underreporting of Military-Related Domestic Violence? 183
Domestic Violence in Law Enforcement 184
Which Officers Commit Domestic Violence? 187
A Model for Law Enforcement Agencies to Follow? 189
The Role of Gender 190
Violence Among LGBTQ Partners 190
Gender Differences in Same-Sex Intimate Partner Violence
and Coercive Control 193
Intimate Partner Violence in Transgender Relationships 194
Other Sexual Identities 195
Men as Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse 196
The Meaning of Female Violence 197
Summary 205
CHAPTER 7 • Selective Screening: Barriers to Intervention 207
Victim Case Screening 208
The Failure to Report Crime 208
Current Statistics on Victim Reporting 208
Factors Affecting the Decision to Call Police 213
Degree of Injury 213
Cohabitation Status 214
Social Class 214
Ethnicity and Race 216
Immigration Status 216
Presence of Children 217
Offender Substance Abuse 217
Sex and Gender 217
Fear of Reprisal 218
The Role of Victim Satisfaction in Reporting Revictimization 219
Why Has Victim Reporting Stalled? 220
Belief that Domestic Violence is a Private Matter 221
Structural and Behavioral Aspects of Police Impacting Victim Screening 221
Bystander Screening 222
The Police Response 222
Role of Call Screening and Response Time 224
Why Police Culture Did Not Historically Consider Domestic
Abuse “Real” Policing 225
Organizational Disincentives 226
Historic Structural Impediments to Police Action 226
Are Domestic Violence Calls Extraordinarily Dangerous to the Police? 228
Prosecutorial Screening Prior to Adjudication 229
Traditional Patterns of Nonintervention by Prosecutors 229
Prosecutorial Autonomy 230
The Reality of Budgetary Pressures 230
Prioritizing Prosecutorial Efforts to Targeted Offenses 231
The Impact of These Constraints on the Prosecutorial Response 231
Unique Factors Limiting Prosecutorial Effectiveness 232
Screening as a Result of Organizational Incentives 232
Case Attrition by Victims: Self-Doubts and the Complexity of Motivation 233
Victim Costs in Prosecution 235
The Impact of Victim-Initiated Attrition 236
A Judicial Annoyance: Handling Battling Families 236
Case Disposition by the Judiciary 238
The Decision to Access Victim Services 240
Summary 242
CHAPTER 8 • Domestic Violence Legislation 243

State Domestic Violence–Related Laws 243
Early Changes in Laws 243
Statutory Removal of Procedural Barriers to Arrest 244
Expansion of the Grounds for Arrest to Include Violations of Protective Orders 244
The Creation of Domestic Violence–Specific Crimes 244
More Recent Statutory Amendments 245
Statutes and Policies Mandating or Preferring Arrest 249
Rationale for Mandating Police Arrest 250
The Federal Legislative Response 251
Initial Efforts 251
The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 251
The VAWA Reauthorization Act of 2000 254
Federal Efforts to Combat Stalking 258
Ancillary Legislation Relevant to Victims of Domestic Violence 259
The Affordable Care Act (The ACA) 259
Future Legislation 263
The Quest for International Legal Reform and Human Rights 264
The Context for a Broader Response to Woman Abuse 265
Coercive Control in Europe 265
Broadening the Application of Human Rights Doctrine 267
The Istanbul Convention 268
Addressing the Normative Gap 271
Turkey: An Example of Trickle-Down Reform 272
Reform in the United Kingdom: England and Wales 273
CHAPTER 9 • Policing Domestic Violence 277

How Do Police Decide Whether to Arrest? 277
The Impact of Policies Mandating or Favoring Arrest 278
Variations in Police Use of Mandatory Arrest 278
Discretion to Arrest in Domestic Violence Cases 279
Is Police Discretion Applied Fairly? 280
Situational Factors Affecting Arrest 281
Key Situational and Incident Characteristics 282
Offender Absence When Police Arrive 283
Characterization of a Crime as a Misdemeanor or a Felony 283
Who Called the Police? 284
Presence of Weapons 285
Location 285
Injury 285
Repeat Offenders 285
Presence of Children 286
Existence of a Formal Marital Relationship 286
Perceived Mitigating Circumstances 287
Victim-Specific Variables in the Arrest Decision 288
Victim Preferences 288
Victim Behavior and Demeanor 288
Victim Lifestyle 289
Victim Vulnerability 290
Police Perception of Violence as Part of Victim’s Lifestyle 290
Sex of the Victim and Offender: A Changing Story? 291
Are Increased Rates of Female Arrests Warranted? 292
Same-Sex and Sexual Minority Couples 294
Race 295
Offender-Specific Variables in the Decision to Arrest 295
Criminal History 295
Offender Specific Variables in the Arrest Decision 296
Offender Behavior and Demeanor 296
LGBTQ 298
Variations Within Police Departments 298
Gender Differences 299
Officer Age and Arrest 300
Officer Race 300
Do Organizational Policies and Training Mediate the Impact of
Mandatory and Presumptive Arrest Statutes? 301
Impact of Policies 302
Police Policies and Practices in Great Britain 303
The Importance of Both Formal and Informal Training 303
Current Training 305
Organizational Priorities 307
Dedicated Domestic Violence Units and Arrests 308
Current Use of Risk Assessment Instrument Tools Guiding
Police Actions 308
Limitations of Risk Assessment 311
Do Community Characteristics Effect Police Responses 315
Police and Advocate Collaborations 315
Urban, Suburban, and Rural Variation 316
The Controversy Over Mandatory Arrest 318
Advantages for Victims 318
Societal Reasons Favoring Mandatory Arrest Practices 318
Controversies Regarding Mandatory Arrest 319
Have Increased Arrests Suppressed Domestic Violence? 319
The Costs and Unintended Consequences of Arrest 321
The “Widening Net” of Domestic Violence Arrest Practices 321
Unanticipated Costs of Arrest to the Victim 323
Is a Mandatory Arrest Policy Justified in the Context of Victim Needs? 325
Victim Preferences 325
The Increase in Dual Arrests 326
The Violent Family and Dual Arrests 326
Does Failure to Follow Victim Arrest Preferences Deter
Future Reporting? 328
The Limitations of Police Arrests in Response to Stalking 329
Summary 332
CHAPTER 10 • Prosecuting Domestic Violence: The Journey

From a Roadblock to a Change Agent? 333
Victims’ Reasons for Prosecution 334
Strength of Victim Motivations 336
Case Attrition by Victims 338
Prosecutor Reasons for Prosecution 339
Strength of Prosecutor Motivation 341
Organizational Factors That Affect Prosecution Decisions 344
Prosecutor Response to New Arrest Policies 345
The Changing Prosecutorial Response 346
No-Drop Policies 348
Genesis of “No Drop” Policies 348
“Vertical” Prosecution 350
Evidence-Based Prosecution 351
Child Protection Through Aggressive Prosecution Policies 355
Victims Charged With Child Endangerment 356
Victim Advocacy 358
Research on Victim Advocacy 361
Evidence of Effectiveness of Aggressive Prosecution Policies 364
Philosophical Issues With Aggressive Prosecution Policy 365
Further Critique of “Aggressive” Prosecution 367
Can “Aggressive” Policies Be Justified Based on Superior Results? 368
Does an “Aggressive Prosecution” Policy Disempower Victims? 369
The Likelihood of Conviction 371
Are There Effective Alternatives to “Aggressive Prosecution”? 372
Summary 375
CHAPTER 11 • The Judicial Response 377

Strengthening the Judicial Knowledge Base 378
Speed of Cases 379
The Judicial Role in Sentencing 380
Variability in Case Disposition 382
Why Does Such Variation Exist? 383
Are Different Domestic Violence Offenders and Victims
Treated Consistently? 384
Consistency in Sentencing 384
Sentencing Patterns for Domestic Compared to Non–domestic
Violence Offenders 387
Domestic Violence Courts: The Focus on Victim Needs and
Offender Accountability 389
The Variety of Domestic Violence Courts 394
Types of Domestic Violence Courts 394
Is Any Organizational Model of a Domestic Violence Court Preferable? 396
The Goals of Domestic Violence Courts 398
What Factors Contribute to a Successful Domestic Violence Court? 399
Perceptions of Judicial Empathy and Fairness 399
Resource Availability Constrains Domestic Violence Courts 399
Do Domestic Violence Courts Operate as Intended? 401
Monitoring Batterer Compliance 402
Can Domestic Violence Courts Address Known Outcome Limitations? 404
Family Courts 406
Innovations in Idaho and New York State 408
Evaluations of the New York State Innovations 412
Kings County Felony Court 412
New York Misdemeanor Domestic Violence Court Reforms 413
Summary 418
CHAPTER 12 • Civil and Criminal Protection Orders 421

History of Civil Protection Order Law 421
Relief Available in Civil Protection Orders 423
Accessibility of Civil Protection Orders 424
The Failure of Enforcement 426
Effectiveness of Civil Protection Orders 428
Systemic Improvements of Civil Protection Orders 431
Overview of Civil Protection Orders 432
Firearms Protection Order Practice 433
Overview of Firearms Research 433
Firearms Federal and State Laws 436
Effectiveness of Firearms Protection Orders 439
Firearms Restrictions: The California Experience 442
Workplace Protection Orders 443
Research on Workplace Violence 443
Workplace Protection Order Policy, Law and Practice 444
Effectiveness of Workplace Protection Orders 447
Elder Abuse Protection Orders 449
Prevalence of Elder Abuse 449
Competing Perspectives on Elder Abuse 450
Elder Abuse in the Criminal Justice System 451
The Elder Justice Act of 2010 452
Protection Orders for Elder Intimate Partner/Domestic Violence Survivors 452
Effectiveness of Vulnerable Adult Protection Orders 455
Criminal Protection Orders 455
Summary 457
PART III • THE SOCIETAL RESPONSE 461

CHAPTER 13 • Community-Based and Court-Sponsored
Diversions 463
Restorative Justice Approaches 463
Mediation as a Form of Restorative Justice 466
Domestic Violence Mediation Programs 467
Advantages of Mediation 469
Does Mediation Actually Reduce Intimate Partner Violence? 469
Limits of Mediation 470
Can the Inherent Limitations of Mediation Be Addressed? 472
When and How Should Pretrial Mediation Occur? 474
Family Group Conferencing and Peacemaking Circles 477
Batterer Intervention Programs 480
Advantages of Batterer Intervention Programs 480
Program Characteristics 482
Do Batterer Intervention Programs Work? 485
Alternatives to the Duluth Model 487
Program Initiation and Duration 488
Program Content 489
Continued Involvement of the Judicial System 492
Program Completion as a Marker for Successful Outcomes 493
Should Batterer Intervention Programs Be Better Targeted? 495
Summary 497
CHAPTER 14 • Victim Services 499

Context of the Birth of the Movement 499
Battered Women’S Safe Homes and Shelters 500
Rights of Survivors in “Empowerment” Models of Domestic
Violence Services and Advocacy 508
Principles of Practice for Advocacy in Domestic Violence Centers 509
Evaluation of Domestic Violence Services and Advocacy 509
Evaluation of Residential Domestic Violence Services 509
Evaluation of Non-Residential Domestic Violence Services 512
Evaluation of the “Empowerment Model” of Services and Advocacy 512
Civil Legal Advocacy 513
Criminal Defense of Battered Women 515
Web-Based Domestic Violence Assistance 516
Community-Based Domestic Violence Programs 518
National Domestic Violence Technical Assistance 521
State Domestic Violence Coalitions 522
Summary and Challenges for the Future 523
CHAPTER 15 • Intimate Partner Stalking: A Rapidly Evolving

Problem 525
Stalking Defined 525
Overview of Stalking Research 526
Prevalence of Stalking 529
Who Is at Greatest Risk? 530
Context of Stalking 532
The Impact of Stalking 532
The Limitations of Police Arrests in Response to Stalking 534
Stalking Legistlation 539
Federal Stalking Law 539
State Anti-stalking and Cyberstalking Legislation 541
Initial Statutes 541
The Model Code Provisions and the Second Wave of Anti-Stalking
Statutes 544
Recent Trends in Stalking Laws 545
The Most Significant Gaps in Anti-stalking Legislation Relate
to Changing Technology 549
Effectiveness of Stalking Protection Orders 550
CHAPTER 16 • The Coercive Control of Children,

and the Institutional Response: Contributed by Evan Stark 555
The Nicholson Case 557
How Many Children Are We Talking About: Two Approaches 558
Domestic Violence and Children’s General Well-Being 561
Child Abuse and Domestic Violence 563
Witnessing Domestic Violence 564
Modeling Domestic Violence 565
The Limits of the Research and Future Direction 568
Putting Exposure in Context 569
The Coercive Control of Children 570
Violence in the Context of Coercive Control 570
Sexual Abuse in the Context of Coercive Control 571
Witnessing as Punishment and Strategy in Coercive Control 572
Coercive Control and Psychological Abuse 573
Other Elements of Coercive Control of Children: Intimidation,
Isolation, and Control 574
Intimidation 575
Isolation 575
Control 576
Diminished Capacity for Caretaking 578
Children’s Engagement 578
A Failure to Protect: The Coercive Control of Hedda Nussbaum 578
The Institutional Response 580
The Child Welfare System 580
Ms. Nicholson Vs. the City of New York 581
ACEs-Based Intervention as a Response to the Coercive Control
of Children 583
Background 584
Summary 589
What Can Be Done? 591
CHAPTER 17 • Conclusion: Toward the Prevention and

Control of Domestic Violence: Challenges and Opportunities 593
Domestic Violence and Societal Stress: The Coronavirus Example 596
Increased Use of Risk-Assessment Tools 599
Risk Assessment Factors and Intimate Partner Homicide 599
Risk Factors Identifying Recurrent Abuse 601
Can We More Effectively Help Stalking Victims? 607
Training 607
Stalking Risk Assessments 608
Proposed Statutory Changes: A Proposed Model Stalking Code 608
Have We Overcriminalized Domestic Violence? 610
Is There a Viable Alternative? 615
Placing a Focus on Victim Safety Rather Than Arrest 617
Summary 620
References 621
Index 685
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
F irst and foremost, we honor the individuals who have suffered terrible violence, coercive
constraints, terroristic threats, and enduring trauma or loss of life inflicted by intimate
partners. The authors recognize the courage of those who refused to remain silent, submissive
to the spouses and partners and society that relegated them to closets of shame and despair,
tolerating the unspeakable abuse condoned by society and its institutions of subordination.
We gratefully recognize the courageous people who listened to the voices of survivors
and began the revolution, the movement to end the violence and subordination of intimate
partners. Most especially we humbly acknowledge the battered women who were the first to
step up to expose the scourge of woman battering and call upon the nation of feminist activists
to bring an end to domestic terrorism. The risks they took were enormous. The change they
demanded ultimately transformed (and continues to mobilize fundamental metamorphosis of)
gender roles and rights across the globe.
For practitioners and scholars of all disciplines dedicating your lives, careers, and study to
intimate partner violence and various strategies to protect and serve victims and/or to reform
perpetrator beliefs and behavior, you have contributed immeasurably to this revolution over
the past 45 years of the movement. The authors are profoundly indebted to you and honored
to have played some small part with you as colleagues and teachers. For those signing up to
participate in this justice and liberation movement, we welcome you with a tad bit of envy and
curiosity about your rich opportunities for innovation and investigation and your trans-
formative contributions to the revolution. To those with whom we have labored closely, alas,
you are too many to name. We treasure you. Thank you.
CHALLENGE TO OUR READERS

To those of all ages, gender identities, races, economic and social classes, cultures, faiths,
national origins, health circumstances and disabilities, many of whom remain invisible and
underserved by the US legal systems, criminal and civil, human services, and victim advocacy/
domestic violence programs, may this volume encourage readers to enlarge your vision and
passion to forge new and reform current justice remedies, systems of accountability for
perpetrators, and delivery of survivor-defined advocacy and support for victims. To scholars
and researchers, may this text persuade you to investigate the nuances of intimate partner
abuse and of effective legal, advocacy, cultural, and support systems to interrupt and end
violence. To all, recognize that practitioners/professionals have conflated the experiences of
survivors. We must expand our understanding of the realities and needs of all survivors, and,
for example, begin to identify the differences as well as similarities of transgender, bisexual,
gay, lesbian, cisgender intimate partner violence.
NEW TO THIS EDITION

This is the sixth edition of this book documenting the evolution of the movement, as each
edition, itself, evolves. We complement the emphasis on criminal justice intervention with
xix
chapters on civil legal protections, child custody, the impact of domestic violence on children,
child welfare interventions, community engagement, victim services, and the role of risk
assessment in societal response to domestic violence. We broadened the focus to reflect the
powerful realization that relying so heavily on criminal justice response may not prove to be as
effective as was initially hoped.
The reader will find considerable changes in this volume from previous editions. Most
notably, there is a greater focus on victims. As a result, there are several new chapters
including the chapter “Special Populations at Risk,” a chapter entitled “Victim Services,” and
a chapter on “Coercive Control.” In addition, because of the growing awareness of the
problem of stalking, we now have a new chapter entitled “Intimate Partner Stalking,” which
focuses on this important issue. There is also a new chapter, “Civil and Criminal Protection
Orders,” and all remaining chapters have been substantially or completely rewritten in
accordance with the growing body of research in the field.
xx ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Eve Buzawa, PhD, is Professor Emerita in the School of Criminology & Justice Studies at
the University of Massachusetts Lowell. She served as Chair of the School from 1995 to 2013,
and Director of the School from September 2013 to June 2016 when she retired. Dr. Buzawa
received her Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Rochester and her Master’s and
Doctoral degrees from the School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University. Dr. Buzawa
has authored and edited numerous books, journal articles, and monographs in the field of
domestic violence. She has also served as a Principal Investigator on several federally funded
research projects as well as directing numerous state-funded research and training projects.
Dr. Buzawa’s expertise encompasses the issue of domestic violence in the United States
and globally. She has served as a consultant, trainer, and speaker to numerous agencies and
organizations throughout the world and was the recipient of a Fulbright Award in 2016. Dr.
Buzawa is Past President of the Society of Police and Criminal Psychology, Past President of
the Northeast Association of Criminal Justice Sciences, and past Board Member for the
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences.
Carl Buzawa, JD, is a retired attorney. He served as Senior Vice President—Contracts,

Legal, and Compliance at Textron Systems. He received his BA from the University of
Rochester, his MA from the University of Michigan, and his JD from Harvard Law School.
With Eve Buzawa, he is the author of numerous books and articles on the topic of domestic
violence.
Barbara J. Hart is an attorney, advocate, scholar, organizer, and public policy analyst. She is
among the multitude of women activists who cofounded the battered women’s movement in
the mid-1970s. Commencing in 1978, she shepherded efforts to draft and implement civil
protection order statutes across the country. For 30 years thereafter she fostered an informal
national network of advocates, attorneys, and judges who collaborated in the development of
state and federal law (i.e., criminal, civil, family, and administrative), public policy, litigation
strategies, and “best practice” professional guidelines designed to protect, restore, and liberate
domestic violence survivors. For upwards of 25 years, she directed several national technical
assistance initiatives on “violence against women” and has consulted in numerous venues on
research related to violence against women.
Ms. Hart is a cofounder of several groundbreaking organizations, including but not
limited to the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, the National Clearinghouse for
the Defense of Battered Women, the Battered Women’s Justice Project, the National Center
on Protection Orders and Full Faith and Credit, and the Domestic Violence Resource
Network. Ms. Hart has authored several hundred papers on domestic violence, some of which
appear in a collection of her work on the BISCMI.org website.
Ms. Hart established the Batterer Intervention Services Network of Pennsylvania,
convening accountability and monitoring meetings among BIP providers and women’s
advocates. Her efforts served as a national model for collaborative work between survivor
advocates and BIP providers. She organized the first national meeting addressing both the role
of men in the domestic violence movement and standards for BIP services.
She coauthored several sections of the federal Violence Against Women Act(s). She was
on the team that developed the Model Code on Family Violence for the National Council of
Juvenile and Family Court Judges. She convened the panel of representatives from a dozen or
xxi
so Indian nations to produce Violence Against Native Women: A Guide for Practitioner
Action. She also participated in the design and analysis of the first multistate study on batterer
intervention programs (BIPs) for the National Institute of Justice (NIJ).
She served as a consultant and speaker for numerous federal, state, and local agencies. She
has received numerous awards and honors, among them are several from Presidents Clinton,
Bush, and Obama.
In retirement, she continues to write monthly columns for The National Bulletin on
domestic violence prevention.
She was battered. Her partner’s violence propelled her into organizing for justice for
battered women.
xxii ABOUT THE AUTHORS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The Role and Context of Agency Responses to Domestic Violence
THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE REVOLUTION—THE SHELTER

MOVEMENT
Origins of the Battered Women’s Movement

While the most powerful social justice movements (e.g., labor, civil rights, anti-poverty,
peace, and black power movements) of the 1960s produced intense commitment, particularly
among young adults, to political, social, and economic change to promote equality and to end
poverty, racism, and war, the poverty and inequities faced by women, particularly single
women heads of households, were largely ignored. As justice movements gained ascendency in
the public consciousness and discourse of the nation, women began to raise questions about
the lack of proclamations embracing economic and social justice or equality for women. In
fact, the leadership of these justice movements was almost exclusively male, whether by design
or merely as a continuation of the powerful norms enforcing the second class status of women.
Few male leaders (and ordinary men) eschewed the disparagement of women, and many
ridiculed women’s demands for equality. For example, most men raised no alarm or objection
to the words of one civil rights leader, Stokely Carmichael, in 1964—“The only position for
women in the (civil rights) movement is prone.”
By the mid-60s many women grew impatient and outraged at the subordination of
women in all things public and private, political and governmental, economic and social.
Women’s groups emerged. Many were conversational—consciousness-raising groups
(composed of college-educated, politically left, self-identified feminists) and junior women’s
clubs (educated women, across a broad political spectrum, with few identifying as feminists)—
in which women considered personal and political issues. They reviewed books and political
commentary. They considered the privilege and entitlement claimed by male partners,
coworkers, and leadership in both political and civic organizations. Discussions were wide-
ranging about men’s expectations of sexual pleasuring by wives/girlfriends with limited to no
reciprocity, unwanted sex, the burden of exclusive responsibility for housework and child-
rearing, inferior wages and authority compared to male counterparts, legal limitations and bias
against women in financial matters (e.g., purchasing cars, renting housing, or obtaining
credit), hurdles in gaining admission to professional graduate studies, and the exclusion of
women in movement leadership. Some women revealed they had been raped. Some battered.
Some divorced. Others were struggling in troubled relationships. Few women reported
equality, even in supportive partnerships.
Women, inspired by these critical conversations, began to act—to assist women
marginalized, immobilized, or harmed by the men in their lives. To that end, they established
crisis hotlines, women’s centers both on college campuses and within communities, temporary
1
safe home networks, safe-escort services for college women, and women’s political caucuses.
What they learned as they honed their skills in organizing services for women was extraordi-
nary. Knowledge built on knowledge, and skill upon skills. They embraced the adage—“The
personal is political.” The women’s movement was born in nooks and crannies across the
country.
Betsy Warrior, a formerly battered wife, joined a “consciousness raising” group, Cell 16,
in 1968. Members examined the subordination of women by men within and beyond intimate
relationships. They began advocating for equal pay for women, affordable childcare, and
reproductive rights. The group campaigned against unpaid labor by homemakers, wife abuse,
and the inequality of women in the workforce. Within 1 year, Betsy produced several articles
of economic analysis; the most influential of which was Housework: Slavery or a Labor of Love?
in which she posited that wife beating was an occupational hazard of the housewife who,
because of being deprived of monetary remuneration for her labor, lacked resources and
recourse to escape “male-patterned violence.”
Contemporaneous with Betsy’s experience and 600 miles west, Barbara Hart was being
battered. Persuaded by women colleagues in Students for a Democratic Society, she joined
their women’s consciousness-raising group. She was the only woman in the group to reveal
that she had been battered. The other women were stunned and offered her shelter in their
homes where she devised plans for leaving her violent partner. Stalked and kidnapped several
times by her batterer, she fled across the country to Washington, DC. A childhood friend
provided shelter. Shortly thereafter and in Barbara’s first semester in law school, the house-
mate’s former husband, a severe batterer, abducted the friend’s young daughter. Barbara and
the men in her law school team began lawyering, persuading the criminal and civil courts and
the FBI to restore the daughter to her mother. Eighteen months later, the child was returned.
The team founded a women’s legal clinic at the law school. The clinic fast became a tutorial
on sexual and intimate partner violence, subjects not appearing elsewhere in the law school
curriculum.
Marjory Fields established the matrimonial unit at South Brooklyn Legal Services in
September, 1971. Her education on domestic violence began immediately as most clients were
battered women desperately seeking protection from violent partners. Marjory identified gaps
in the NYS civil protection order law, and successfully prevailed upon state legislators to
amend expanded relief into the law. News of the extraordinary safeguards for abused women
in the NY law spread like wildfire among poverty law programs across the country. A flood of
requests for law reform consultation arose. Marjory met with legal services organizations and
legislators in 34 states to advise on both statutory language and strategy to move legislation to
enactment. In 1976, and thereafter in quick succession, all 50 states and territories enacted
civil protection order laws. See Chapter 12 within.
On a May afternoon in 1972 a woman telephoned Women’s Advocates in St. Paul,
Minnesota. She needed shelter. Sharon Vaughan (2009), a founder of the St. Paul program,
recalls:
The call was … from Emergency Social Services. A worker said a woman was at the
St. Paul Greyhound bus station with a two-year-old child. To get a job, she had
traveled 150 miles from Superior, Wisconsin, with two dollars in her pocket. What
were we expected to do? Where would they stay after two days at the Grand Hotel?
One of the advocates borrowed a highchair and stroller and we took them to the
apartment that was our office. These were the first residents we sheltered. The two-
year-old destroyed the office in one night because all the papers were tacked on low
shelves held up by bricks. His mother didn’t talk about being battered; she said she
wanted to go to secretarial school to make a life for her and her son. She tried to get
a place to live, but no one would rent to her without a deposit, which she didn’t
have… . After a couple of weeks, she went back to Superior, and every Christmas for
2 RESPONDING TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

several years sent a card thanking Women’s Advocates for being there and enclosed
$2.00, the amount she had when she came to town. (p. 3)
Meanwhile, Tillie Black Bear of the Lakota Sioux Rosebud Nation formed the White
Buffalo Calf Women’s Society, a spiritual group of women seeking safety, justice, and well-
being for women and children on the reservation. They housed battered women and children
in their homes. They honored battered women in the traditional “women’s dances” at cele-
brations of the Rosebud Nation. Tillie regularly packed her van with Society members and
her daughters for what was to become regular trips to Washington, DC to educate Congress
and various federal agencies of the entrapment of battered women in relationships with violent
partners and to seek support for funding of battered women’s programs.
In 1974, Betsy Warrior wrote Working on Wife Abuse (later entitled Battered Women’s
Directory), the first international directory of individuals and programs advocating for battered
women. It was 30 pages long. Eight editions followed, with the last in 1989; it became 300
pages. The Directory provided statistics on wife abuse, articles on the history of work on behalf
of battered women, discussion of the motivations and utility of male-patterned violence, a
review of the legal options available, papers by men working to combat sexism by counseling
abusive men, and a bibliography on woman abuse as well as advice from emergency room
doctors treating battered women. It included guidelines for setting up shelters, hotlines and
support groups for battered women. Published long before the age of computers, email, and
social media, the Directory became an important aid to networking among communities of
women organizing to end intimate partner violence.
Deep in the heart of Texas, Debby Tucker and friends started the Austin Rape Crisis
Center in 1974. Within 2 months of opening the Center in the Episcopal Seminary, the room
which had been used as a bedroom for overnight “crisis line” volunteers was converted into
emergency housing for women raped by their husbands or partners and afraid to go home.
Visiting priests suggested that the Center needed more suitable arrangements to shelter
battered women. A committee was formed, and by June 1977, the Austin Center for Battered
Women opened.
Activists in Oakland, CA and NYS filed class actions against their respective police
departments in 1976, charging gross failure to protect battered women and to comply with
arrest laws. Scott v. Hart sought a change in the Oakland Police Department nonarrest policy
on response to domestic violence. The OPD’s “Training Bulletin on Techniques of Dispute
Intervention” stated that the role of law enforcement is as a “mediator and peacemaker” rather
than an enforcer of the law. The OPD settled in 1979, agreeing to stop training officers to
avoid arrest in domestic violence cases, to treat each case on its own merits, to allow the
plaintiff’s attorneys to do weekly squad trainings with the police, to hand out resource cards to
victims, and to donate money to local battered women’s shelters. The NYPD similarly settled
Bruno v. Codd before it went to trial. The two lawsuits inspired advocates for battered women
to confront the nonarrest practices in many other locales. Laws authorizing warrantless arrest
upon a determination of probable cause in domestic violence misdemeanor cases were enacted
thereafter.
In 1976, battered women’s advocates in Pennsylvania concluded that an alliance of all the
shelters and domestic violence service centers in the state could harness their collective power
to transform the consciousness and discourse of the public about domestic violence, to engage
all sectors of the community in efforts to stop the violence, to expand justice-making within
the legal system, and to gain funding for support of domestic violence programs. They also
recognized that each organization had much to learn from each other for building programs
that would provide battered women with the support and resources needed to escape the
violence and to achieve safety, security, and justice. To these ends, they formed the first
statewide network of domestic violence programs, the Pennsylvania Coalition Against
Domestic Violence. One intense conversation of the founders was—What do we call this
CHAPTER 1 • INTRODUCTION 3
phenomenon of wife abuse in a way that might be more politically expedient, or in other
words—less radical or feminist, as we approach governmental bodies for law and policy
changes in addition to funding, and as we reach out to philanthropic sources, the public, and
battered women. “Domestic violence” seemed to work. The term was vague, but it didn’t
describe any other phenomenon in the public discourse of the time. They believed that
“domestic violence” could be readily understood to be violence toward women by their
intimate partners. The name distinguished the issue from “family violence” which until that
time focused on child abuse. The term was a hedge against anti-feminist attacks. It was clear to
the founders that much political work would be necessary to convince the public that women
were suffering dreadful violence and coercive controls by their current or former husbands or
boyfriends. At the time, common belief was that women were exaggerating or causing any
partner-based violence they experienced. Some Coalition members objected to what was seen
as pandering to the victim-blaming beliefs of the dominant culture. The pragmatists prevailed.
The term “domestic violence” is now understood world-wide to be, at the very core, violence
against women in intimate partnerships, and it now includes recognition that men and
people in bisexual and same-sex relationships may also be targeted for abuse by their intimate
partners. (Other terms for “domestic violence” have been adopted. “Intimate partner
violence” became the “term of usage” advanced by researchers, and “gender-based violence” is
the term in process of reaching movement recognition for the “woman abuse” or “wife abuse”
of movement origins.)
In Bethel, Alaska, a community accessible only by cargo planes and fishing boats, in 1977
a group of women, later known as the Tundra Women’s Coalition, began outreach and
education on the alarming incidence of sexual assault and other violent crimes against women
in their community. That fall, they opened a crisis-line in the home of a volunteer. They
renovated a Quonset hut leased from the town and opened a shelter for battered women and
children in 1979.
In Boston, batterers were calling battered women’s hotlines, some attempting to locate
their abused partners and others ostensibly seeking help to end their violence. Women’s
advocates at Transition House and Respond asked their male partners and friends to do
something with the men battering intimate partners. The men—most in their mid-
20’s—responded, sometimes with trepidation, but with deep concern that whatever they
developed would not further endanger battered women. In 1977 they founded EMERGE, the
first abuser education and group counseling program for men in the world. Accountability to
battered women was a fundamental organizing principle. To that end, EMERGE reached out
to the battered partners of their clients to inform them about the EMERGE curriculum, to
support women’s safety, to inquire about risks to survivors posed by abusers, and to refer
survivors to battered women’s programs. The EMERGE collective sought feedback on their
work from both battered women and women’s advocates.
Unlike most domestic violence organizations in the country at that time, Refuge House
was organized in 1977 as a traditional social service agency rather than as a grassroots,
explicitly feminist, organization. The victim advocate in the office of the state attorney in the
2nd Judicial Circuit of Florida, Beth Rom-Rymer, was the inspiration for the shelter in the Big
Bend area of northwest Florida. Newly arrived from Chicago, Beth was familiar with the
burgeoning shelter movement there. She put out a call to community leaders, urging the
critical need for a domestic violence shelter. The five individuals who accepted her invitation
to a planning meeting represented the Leon County Commission, the community mental
health center, the state attorney’s office, the sheriff’s office and Florida State University. The
group anticipated that securing start-up funding would be challenging. It was not. They were
encouraged to apply for a grant from the federal Law Enforcement Assistance Administration
under the auspices of the local Community Development Block Grant agency. They did and
were immediately awarded a $10,000 grant. With this seed money Refuge House rented a
house and hired a director.

Over the Pacific, Kokua Kalihi Valley (community health center) opened the Shelter for
Abused Spouses on Oahu in 1978. Initially, residents were either very reticent to speak about
their experiences or they spoke fearfully about the tyranny of their husbands’ abuse and their
deep dread that abusers would find them and retaliate for the “betrayal” of leaving. As sur-
vivors shared housework, food preparation, and childcare or negotiated often crowded shelter
spaces, they talked of their experiences. Conversation brought encouragement. Conversation
enriched problem-solving. Peer support groups became a vibrant part of shelter life. Support
group conversations were steeped in the culture and experience of Hawaiian, Asian, and
Pacific Islander battered women. Observing that mainland video clips did not speak to the
heart and lives of Hawaiian survivors, Nanci Kreidman, a cofounder of the shelter, produced a
video “Too Many Lickins: Spouse Abuse in Hawaii.”
Across the United States by the mid-70s, “Listen to the voices of battered women!”
became an expression of solidarity with survivors, an organizing refrain, and a call to allies to
embrace the leadership of survivors in the domestic violence movement. The National Com-
munications Network for the Elimination of Violence Against Women, AEGIS: the Magazine on
Ending Violence Against Women, Response, and SANEnews, told the stories of battered women
and the work of the movement. Hearings before legislative bodies and government agencies
were held in many states. The Take Back the Night Marches in local communities included
“speak-outs” by survivors.
In 1977, the first White House meeting on domestic violence began with battered women
speaking of their experiences. Domestic violence conferences in communities and states,
nationally and internationally, brought the voices of battered women to public policymakers,
journalists, justice system professionals, faith leaders, and social service practitioners. In 1978,
the US Commission on Civil Rights convened hearings on domestic violence. Testimony was
offered by a broad spectrum of domestic violence experts—researchers, attorneys, healthcare
providers, journalists, domestic violence program advocates, community leaders, and battered
women. Hundreds attended. Among the attendees were more than 100 advocates for battered
women. The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence was formed by these advocates
meeting in the nooks and crannies (and even the women’s bathrooms) of the Commerce
building before, between, during, and after the compelling testimony of the day. Energy was
high. Preliminary goals, structure, and leadership of NCADV were identified. In 1980, the
first national conference of NCADV was held at the National 4H Center in Washington, DC;
550 advocates from 49 states attended.
The vignettes above are by no means a history of the early battered women’s movement.
Rather, they are very brief descriptions depicting the organic growth of the movement
throughout the United States in its first decade. Susan Schechter authored the definitive
history of the early movement in “Women and Male Violence: The Visions and Struggles of
the Battered Women’s Movement (Schechter, 1982).”
During the next five decades, women across the country (e.g., women battered and raped,
community organizers, professional women, YWCA staff, attorneys, social workers, aca-
demics, college students, and lesbian activists) established safe homes, shelters, transitional
housing, legal clinics, childcare, economic literacy courses, and many other services for sur-
vivors of domestic violence throughout the United States. Since 2006, the National Network
to End Domestic Violence (NNEDV), a professional association of state, territorial and tribal
domestic violence coalitions, produced a national census of domestic violence organizations,
the array of services provided, and the number and demographics of adult, youth, and children
survivors of domestic violence assisted. The NNEDV 2019 CENSUS obtained data from 88%
of the 1887 domestic violence programs in the United States through a 24-hour survey in
September 2019. More than 77,000 adult and child victims were assisted daily, with almost
43,000 victims accessing temporary shelter and 34,262 survivors receiving nonresidential
assistance, including counseling, safety planning, legal advocacy and representation, financial
literacy education and development, children’s groups, transportation, health services,
language access, immigration representation, and crisis hotline support. While many programs
attempted to deliver comprehensive assistance, few were able to provide a full range of service.
More than 11,000 requests for service could not be met; 68% of which were for emergency
shelter or housing. Funding shortfalls resulted in the loss of almost 800 components of program
services across the country in 2019; for example, 109 programs reduced or eliminated legal
advocacy or representation (National Network to End Domestic Violence, 2020).
The battered women’s movement has forged a revolution that circles the globe. The
societal response to victims of domestic violence and offenders—of all races, faiths, economic
classes, physical and mental abilities, genders,1 sexual orientations, and ages and in thousands
of neighborhoods from massive urban environments to remote rural enclaves—challenges
men’s age-old prerogative to hurt, demean, control or otherwise subjugate their female
partners. In addition to the proliferation of community-based services for victims, the revo-
lution includes three other major components that are the focus of this text: (1) criminal and
civil laws and justice system responses to domestic violence; (2) resources to protect and
restore abused women and their children and to hold perpetrators accountable and committed
to intimate partnerships free of violence and other coercive controls; and (3) the development
of a vast and exponentially growing base of knowledge on every facet of abuse and corre-
sponding societal responses.
By 2018, police in the United States were arresting women arrested for abusing male or female partners
more than 507,000 people for domestic violence is increasing. “Dual arrests” of both partners routinely
crimes annually (Reaves, 2017). Most arrested for occur in a minority of jurisdictions.
domestic violence are male, although the number of
THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE REVOLUTION: RESEARCH ON

WIFE ABUSE
Research on domestic violence was also an important component of the early days of the
“battered women’s movement.” Before the 1970s, figures on the incidence (Gelles, 1983). The
index of the Journal of Marriage and the Family did not contain a reference on violence,
let alone family, spouse, or partner abuse, between its inception in 1939 through 1969.
Feminist research made a stunning debut in the first decade of the movement. Scholars
sought to describe and document violence toward wives by their husbands. Battered Wives
(1976) by Del Martin sparked intense public interest, validating the experience of survivors,
and drawing other scholars to investigate what had been a largely invisible and tolerated
practice of men toward their wives. Drawing on historical, social, and legal research,
Ms. Martin deftly exposed the extent and seriousness of wife abuse. In the Introduction to the
1981 edition (Martin, 1981), Dianna E. H. Russell (1982) opined:
Battered Wives is written not only for those working to change the law, reform social
agencies, provide housing for battered women or the victims of this form of male
violence, but every single one of us who needs to understand this phenomenon lest
those fortunate enough not to have been victims participate unwittingly by our
silence in the perpetration of this crime… . Battered women must speak up, and this
book should make it easier for them to do so, and easier for all of us to hear and
respect what they have to say.

Dianna Russell, herself a feminist scholar, political commentator, and organizer, brought
rape within marriage into public discourse in the 1970s. Her first book, The Politics of Rape:
The Victim’s Perspective (1974), provided a provocative lens into the misogynist culture and
societal structures sustaining rape and other sexual violence against women. She asserted that
rape is a display of socially constructed masculinity (Russell, 1975). Among her many other
books, Rape in Marriage (1982) was groundbreaking and remains the definitive scholarship on
intimate partner sexual assault (Russell, 1982). She was an organizer of the first International
Tribunal on Crimes Against Women in 1976 in Brussels, Belgium. Attended by 2,000 women
from 40 countries, victims testified to their experiences of numerous forms of violence and
oppression inflicted because of their gender. Russell first defined “femicide” as “the killing of
females by males because they are female” (Russell, 1982).
Rebecca and Russell Dobash offered trail breaking scholarship on woman battering in
Violence Against Wives: A Case Against the Patriarchy (1979). The methodology employed by
the Dobashes sharply contrasts with that of leading empiricists investigating wife battery
through survey research utilizing probability sampling (see Straus, Gelles, and Steinmetz,
below) as discussed in Chapter 3 infra. They developed a process of contextual analysis,
linking historical and contemporary factors, coupled with the interactional, institutional, and
cultural aspects of wife battering, and the meanings and interpretations that men and women
attach to events of wife battery. They conducted and analyzed in-depth interviews with 109
survivors residing in shelter and a content analysis of 34,724 police and court records. They
reviewed historical documents, media coverage and informal interviews with agencies
providing assistance to battered women (Dobash & Dobash, 1979).
The Dobashes draw the reader into the findings of their investigation through a
comprehensive review of the historical development of the patriarchal nuclear family and its
hierarchical power structure. They concluded that patriarchy requires the subordination of
women and thereby produces mandates for wife abuse. They discredit the then prevailing
notion that men who batter their wives are crazy, evil, aberrant, alcoholic, weak, or
marginalized individuals, and unable to manage their anger. They found instead that battering
is normal conduct of normal men who embrace patriarchal philosophy and beliefs. They
demonstrate how men who believe that patriarchy is their right, that marriage entitles them
to unrestricted control over their wives, and that violence is a permissible means of achieving
and maintaining that control, in fact exercise their prerogatives as husbands when they
brutally punish wives for any lapse in behavior inconsistent with the expectations of battering
husbands (Dobash & Dobash, 1979).
Anne Flitcraft and Evan Stark pioneered investigation, also in the 1970s, into the health
risks and consequences of wife battering and the responses of emergency medicine professionals
and institutions to survivors (Stark & Flitcraft, 1979). Their research examined the medical
records of 481 women who visited an emergency room in a major urban hospital in a period of
1 month. Fully 10% of the women were identified as battered and another 15% were classified
as likely to have been victims. The records contained prior ER visits, hospitalizations, clinic
appointments, and social and psychiatric services. The 1,419 trauma events (i.e., injuries)
reported to this hospital ranged in frequency from 1 to greater than 20 per patient; 75 injuries
were derived from battering and another 340 injuries were inflicted on the women within the
“probable” or “suggestive” of domestic violence categories. The importance of the context of
the violence inflicted on these women became important upon drilling down though the
medical histories before the month of the ER visit that triggered their involvement in the study.
The sum of past and present injuries showed that almost half of the injuries among the patients
in the “probable” category were domestic violence inflicted, and 25% of the injuries were caused
by domestic violence perpetrated against the women who fell within the “suggestive” category.
The overarching finding was—“Battering (is) an ongoing process of repeated brutaliza-
tion.” Other medical problems were identified; 3 of 100 nonbattered women had attempted
suicide, while 26 of 100 battered women had made such attempts. The differences between
nonbattered and battered women were significant and included drug and alcohol abuse,
psychiatric emergency service, community mental health assistance, state hospital admissions,
and psychosocial labeling. The responses of medical personnel to women identified as bat-
tered were prescriptions of minor tranquilizers or pain medicine. As to referrals for psychiatric
services, only 4% of the nonbattered women were referred compared with 15% of the women
identified as battered. Further, medical personnel frequently characterized women with
“pseudopsychiatric” labels in the absence of overt psychological disorders. The researchers
conclude that these erroneous labels appear to stick, and the patients thereafter suffer stigma
that diminishes future referral options and impedes the delivery of effective treatment.
The activism of the Flitcraft and Stark (a medical doctor and sociologist/social worker)
team in the domestic violence movement began in the summer of 1975 when they visited an ally
in the anti-war movement in St. Paul, MN, Sharon Vaughn, the founder of the Women’s
Advocates shelter, above. The experience was so profound that Anne, who was in medical school
and required to undertake a research project, chose original research on wife abuse rather than
research in process with her faculty mentor. She was required to undertake a literature review
on her topic as a first step in the approval process for her project. She found one article only, in
Lancet, cataloguing injuries sustained by women visiting an E. R. while in shelter in the United
Kingdom. Within 3 years Anne was testifying before the US Commission on Civil Rights and
Congress. She remains astonished that federal policy was based on her exploratory student
research. The hearings were a springboard for her advocacy for battered women with the
American Medical Association, the American College of Physicians, and beyond. Anne and
Evan also became cofounders of the battered women’s program and the University of Con-
necticut Health Care Center’s Domestic Violence Training Project in New Haven.
Arguably, the researcher most read by advocates and the public is Lenore L. E. Walker.
The trajectory of individual domestic violence episodes derived by Walker, a clinical psy-
chologist, from a sample drawn from her clients, became the almost universal explanation of
the experience of battered women and the motivation of batterers upon the publication of
Walker’s The Battered Woman (Walker, 1979). The book became a best seller, read by many
advocates who shared Walker’s findings with colleagues providing a broad array of services to
battered women or perpetrators. It was the book cited with authority by credentialed psy-
chologists and expert witnesses for much of the following 15 years. Walker found a three-part
explanation of battering inflicted by men on their intimate partners: phase 1, “tension-
building” in the batterer; phase 2, an explosion of violence; and phase 3, a period of tranquility
or at least nonviolence, named “the honeymoon phase.” “Tension-building” included
increased agitation, heightened criticism, or threats targeted at the battered woman or her
children, greater demands for service or subjugation, an uptick in surveillance, expectations
that the battered partner would meet the batterer’s unspoken need even before he had
formulated the need himself. When tension was high, some act of the battered woman or
stressor in the work or family life of the batterer would cause a tipping point at which time the
batterer would inflict one act or an extended episode of physical violence. If the violence ran
its course (i.e., if it wasn’t interrupted by some powerful third party or event like a police visit
to the home, or the survivor appeasing the assailant sufficiently by her obeisance or pro-
testations of fidelity, or the batterer’s physical exhaustion precipitated by the infliction of
violence), the abuser would possibly become contrite or experience a period of calm which
sharply contrasts to the “tension-building phase,” or the batterer performs some task long
promised but unfulfilled, or the assailant becomes (from his perspective) romantic, which often
is experienced by the battered woman as “make-up” sex or rape. Any of the seemingly contrite
behavior of the abuser ostensibly provides the victim with a period of rest and a reduction in
vigilance. This three-part process became widely known as “the cycle of violence.”
As battered women began to deny that phases 1 and 3 happened or to discern other
patterns of violence unique to their batterers, or as battered women experienced no such pattern
to the abuse, whether predictably repeated or not, the strength of Walker’s explanation abated.

When advocates and other allies of battered women listened, many ceased teaching this “cycle
of violence” and asked that people “listen to the experiences” told by battered women.
This ubiquitous explanation of woman battering also receded when Batterer Intervention
Programs (BIPs) no longer embraced “anger management” as the central reason for battering
intimate female partners. Shortly into the turn of the first decade, the “Visions Forum” a
gathering of founders of BIP programs from Oakland to Atlanta, Boston to Duluth, Ft. Wayne
to San Raphael met to discuss the work of men to end violence against women, most particularly
battered women. Along with discussions about community organizing among men allies and
challenging sexism, racism and patriarchy in public discourse, the group eschewed the “cycle of
violence” explanation of domestic violence and began to adopt men’s use of their patriarchal
entitlement to “power and control” over women partners as the fundamental explanation for
battering. The revised Duluth BIP curriculum set forth the reasons for making this change, and
soon many BIPs in the country had adopted the Duluth curriculum or a modification thereof.
Undaunted by the challenges to her formulation of the “cycle of violence,” Walker
turned her attention to investigation of the reasons that battered women might assault or kill
their battering partners. The Battered Woman Syndrome (1984) created a quasi-psychological
medical condition in which a battered woman exposed to severe violence rather that acting in
pure self-defense or defense of others acts from a type of “diminished capacity” or “post-
traumatic stress disorder” to assess the reality of the peril posed by a batterer to life and limb.
A battered woman operating under the syndrome acts subject to misapprehensions about the
actual danger posed by her batterer and thus is unable to benefit from the protections of the
criminal law that creates a full or affirmative defense to a charge of homicide, attempted
homicide, or recklessly endangering the life of the batterer (Walker, 1984).
Walker’s application of the battered woman syndrome in the defense of O. J. Simpson seemed
to many to be a gross perversion of the syndrome. Walker lost significant credibility as an expert,
and the National Clearinghouse for the Defense of Battered Women became the “go-to” legal
experts on defense strategies for battered women criminally charged for using violence against
their batterers. Pursuant to passage of the “Violence Against Women Act,” Congress ordered an
investigation of the syndrome as a valid and useful legal construct in the defense of battered
women who are charged with violence against their partners. The US Department of Justice, in
conjunction with other federal agencies, published a report (1996) finding that “the ‘battered
woman syndrome’ does not adequately reflect the breadth or nature of the scientific knowledge
now available concerning battering and its effects. There were also concerns (by researchers and
criminal justice professionals) that the word ‘syndrome’ carried implications of a malady or
psychological impairment” (US Department of Justice, May, 1996).
This overview of research in the 1970s briefly describes the most influential of the
investigations into “woman abuse.” The scholarship of these social scientists was foundational
for the rich and robust inquiry that has followed. In no small way, the research of this decade
introduced “wife abuse” to the academy, as well as to the American public, rendering a great
service to battered women and the movement by legitimizing “domestic violence” as a social
problem worthy of study and by lending their substantial support to revolutionary changes to
end the scourge of violence against women in this country.
THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE REVOLUTION—COMMUNITY

COLLABORATIVES
Coordinated Community Response

By the end of the 1970s, it became apparent that changes in the rest of the criminal justice
system did not automatically follow. Law enforcement and advocates could not do it
alone. They needed the cooperation of the rest of the criminal justice system for domestic
violence intervention to be effective. Conversations expanded. “Coordinated Community
Response” became the approach chosen by many communities. CCRs, as they were
commonly known, became the forum for many criminal justice agencies (e.g., police, bail
system, pretrial services, jail administrators, prosecution, courts, probation and parole, crime
victim assistance agencies) and the battered women’s program to sit down together to:
consider their respective missions, philosophy and goals, to hear about the processes and
strategies used by the various agencies to implement their mandates, to identify any conflicts
or tensions that might be compromising their work, to estimate the effectiveness of the
current state of policy and practice within and between the agencies, to listen to feedback of
battered women and advocates about their experiences in navigating the CJS and changes they
recommended, to establish a clear mission and goals for the CCR, to examine their respective
policies and procedures, forms (e.g., intake, reports, assessments, evaluations, checklists,
brochures and other marketing products, etc.) as to their complementarities or conflicts, and
to propose changes to the overall design and implementation of the entire CJS, to acquire
funding to make the changes, to gain “buy-in” of the leadership of each agency, to access
funding to cover the costs of changes proposed, to construct an implementation timeline and
process, and ultimately to make the changes and evaluate the coordination of the whole CJS.
Both the vision and power of the leaders of the CCR must be clear and robust to move this
whole process along. Likely leaders are often presiding judges or executives in the police or
prosecutor’s office.
Organizers learned that patience is required, as is fortitude, for the process is slow and
change is often incremental. And even when the process is completed, the persistent adher-
ence to the resultant policies and procedures requires supervision, periodic training, and
transparency of all participants in the CCR for “a domestic violence crime is rarely fully
resolved with the first intervention.”
The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project (DAIP), through the leadership of Ellen Pence
and Michael Paymar, became the authority on CCR development. See the DAIP website for
further description of CCRs. PRAXIS International, the City of St. Paul, MN and DAIP
developed the Duluth Blueprint for Safety in 2007 which they describe as “a first-of-its-kind
comprehensive approach for addressing domestic violence in the criminal legal system”
(PRAXIS International, City of St. Paul, MN, and Domestic Abuse Intervention Project, 2007).
One final community collaboration. Men began to organize to forge a world free of
patriarchal domination and violence against women and girls. The National Organization for
Men Against Sexism (NOMAS) began as a loose-knit spontaneous social movement in the
early 1970s. In 1975, a group of men who were enrolled in a women’s studies course at the
University of Tennessee held what they announced as “The First National Conference on
Men and Masculinity,” in Knoxville, TN. Annual conferences followed. M & M was informal
in its structure. M & M became NOCM, the National Organization of Changing Men. It
adopted a pro-feminist, gay-affirmative, anti-racist philosophy supporting the enhancement of
men’s lives. Its successor organization, the National Organization of Men Against Sexism
(NOMAS) has a global reach and continues to encourage social activism and analysis across a
range of anti-sexist men’s issues, including ending violence against women.
In the late 1970s, the Batterer Intervention Services Network of Pennsylvania, an affil-
iation of education and counseling programs to engage men who batter their wives and
girlfriends in the process of change toward nonviolence and equality in intimate partnerships,
was organized. Programs were struggling to figure out the approaches they should take to
facilitate the process of change, not only for men who used violence and abuse to control their
partners, but also for men who wanted to create partnerships with women based in equality
and respect, free from sexist beliefs and practices. They recognized that all men, not just
battering men, benefit from living in a “culture of control”2 of women, and that all women,
not just battered women, endure the oppressions of patriarchal dominance and the limited

opportunities inherent therein. The BIS Network remained informally organized. Mem-
bership was eclectic—faith-based, self-help, educational, psychiatric, and the greater men’s
movement. While a variety of curricula were explored, the Network never endorsed any
particular program but created voluntary program standards and a peer-monitoring approach
to accountability to battered women and domestic violence programs. The Network hosted
the 1981 Visions Forum, a national dialogue on appropriate roles of men in all aspects of the
work to end violence against women.
And so it began—the battered women’s movement. This overview only touches on the
gestation, birthing, preliminary organizing, and extraordinary accomplishments of the people who
dedicated their lives to ending woman abuse in the first decade of this powerful social revolution.
THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE REVOLUTION—THE MIDDLE YEARS

In the 1980s the work of the movement rested heavily on reforming criminal justice and civil
legal interventions. Advocates found both systems wanting. While the law did not impose a
reduced standard of protection and accountability, domestic violence policy and practice were
inferior. Investigations were shoddy. Recordkeeping was cursory. Decision-making was
inconsistent. Crime victims were treated poorly. Victim-blaming was standard fare. Survivor
credibility was suspect. Adverse consequences, both individual and societal, went unchecked.
Profound dissatisfaction with the criminal justice system precipitated two change
strategies.
1. Advancing “victim rights” in criminal justice processes.

2. “Normalization” of criminal justice response to domestic violence.
Victim activists began to organize. They constructed a platform of “victim rights.”
The rights of crime victims enumerated were:
· The right to be treated with dignity, respect, and · The right to restitution from the offender.
sensitivity.
· The right to prompt return of personal property.
· The right to be informed.
· The right to a speedy trial.
· The right to protection.
· The right to enforcement of victims’ rights.
· The right to apply for compensation.
National Center for Victims of Crime (2020)
Victims’ Rights (victimsofcrime.org)
In 1982, California was the first state to amend their constitution to guarantee crime
victim rights. Every state has since enacted a crime victims’ bill of rights, and most have
incorporated victim rights into their constitutions.3 Battered women were intended to share in
these rights.
Notwithstanding this reform, it was apparent that victims continued to receive short
shrift from criminal justice agencies. The culture of the criminal justice system subordinated
the interests of victims to those of sector components. Victim preferences as to arrest,
prosecution, sentencing, incarceration, and reentry were largely ignored. Research reported by
Cannavale and Falcon confirmed that victims of crime were not being treated well by the
criminal justice system. Thus, victims were not cooperating with prosecutors, resulting in
unsuccessful prosecutions (Cannavale & Falcon, 1976). Advocates began to understand that
securing “victim rights” as a matter of law would not eliminate victim resistance absent changes
in criminal justice system policies and practice. At the very least, the movement demanded that
criminal justice response to domestic violence must be similar to system treatment of other
crimes of violence. This approach was known as “normalization.” But “normalization” was not
likely to be successful without “buy-in” from leadership at the top. Only when all sectors
demonstrably respected victim interests and included victim input in decision-making was it
possible to gain the cooperation of victims in the criminal justice process.
The first opportunity for gaining critical leadership support at the highest levels came
with US Attorney General William French Smith’s appointment of a “Task Force on Family
Violence” in 1982. The Task Force held hearings in six major jurisdictions around the
country. One thousand people gave testimony. In preparation for the hearings, a cadre of
leading advocates devised and distributed a “think piece” for local activists to consider in
drafting their testimony. As a result, testimony was similar at each hearing, and the com-
monality of themes across the country enhanced the credibility and power of victim and
advocate testimony. A report was issued from the Task Force in September 1984 (Task Force
Members, September, 1984). It was met with great acclaim. The report overview highlighted
three improvements foundational for criminal justice reform on family violence.
1. Family violence should be responded to as criminal activity.

2. Law enforcement officials, prosecutors, and judges should develop a coordinated
response to family violence.
3. Communities should develop a multi-disciplinary team to investigate, process,
and treat all incidents of family violence… (Task Force Members, September,
1984, p. 18).
Detailed recommendations followed for each sector of the criminal justice system,
offering an ambitious framework for change. One recommendation that was particularly
helpful in establishing the legitimacy of victim inclusion and victim advocate participation in
domestic violence criminal process was: “The full participation of the victim is necessary at
all critical stages of the criminal justice process. To obtain that participation, a coordinated
response should include a victim advocate… who educates the victim about the operation of
the criminal justice system and makes referrals to appropriate services and victim compen-
sation programs; keeps the victim informed on the progress in the case; and ensures that the
victim is consulted on decisions regarding plea bargaining, sentencing, and restitution” (Task
Force Members, September, 1984, p. 22).
The findings of the Minneapolis Police study on the deterrent effect of arrest for
domestic violence perpetrators that same year gave exponential impetus to reform within law
enforcement (Sherman & Berk, 1984b).
Congress passed two pieces of significant funding legislation in this time period.. The
Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) provided states block grants by which they could distribute
revenues to criminal justice system agencies for system improvement, including system-based
and shelter-based victim advocacy. States were given discretion in deciding how to distribute the
funds allocated to them. The “Family Violence Prevention and Services Act” of 1984 provided
for population-based grants to states to fund “core services” (e.g., emergency housing, food,
transportation, counseling, and childcare) of domestic violence programs. It also funded the
National Domestic Violence Hotline and five national technical assistance centers.

Thus, with these two pieces of funding legislation, major reform in the criminal and civil
criminal justice systems began and shelter services expanded and gained stability. Perhaps the
most influential piece of criminal and civil justice legislation on domestic and sexual violence,
the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 as substantially amended and reauthorized in 2000,
2005, and 2013, will be covered in depth in Chapter 11.
Complementary reforms in various sectors have attempted to enhance the predictability
and consistency of the justice response by guiding or restricting discretion in decisions made
in justice venues, e.g., whether to arrest or prosecute offenders, factoring domestic violence
in decisions regarding custody or divorce, combining criminal and family court response to
domestic violence by creating “integrated” courts, and constructing “one-stop” models of
service delivery for victims.
Since the millennium, several thousand localities now host collaborative efforts, often
designed as “Family Justice Centers,” to serve survivors of domestic violence. FJC partners
typically include shelters, court services, law enforcement, local businesses, child protection
agencies, and a range of economic, health, and social service organizations in one facility.
“One-stop-shops” offer ease of access for survivors to obtain assistance needed at one location,
sometimes during one visit, acquiring essential protections, economic supports, health ser-
vices, and appropriate referrals, thus being relieved of multiple trips on various days to
different agencies spread throughout the jurisdiction. Hope for survivors is said to be a by-
product of the spirit and cooperation of FJC services.
Recent years have brought new voices in support of victims. Leading politicians, celebrities
of all stripes (TV, movie, music, professional sports, gaming, and social media stars), Fortune
500 executives, technology sector giants, clerics, print and broadcast media personnel, and even
queens and kings have eschewed these crimes against women. Some among these privileged
elites harnessed their fears and stepped into the spotlight, revealing victimization heretofore
too shocking, potentially jeopardizing of careers or compromising of precious family privacy.
Bystanders are interrupting violence against women and lending assistance to victims.
Other changes are in process. Attacks on victim credibility have diminished substantially
in the media, although victim-blaming still deters many victims from pursuing legal redress.
Racism, sexism, and xenophobia in the culture, and consequently in the legal system, are being
examined as never before. Strategies to confront unequal justice are being considered in every
judicial district. Likewise, in the media.
THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE REVOLUTION—IS IT A SUCCESS?

By many standards, the domestic violence revolution has been an unqualified success. This is
true whether one looks at the amount of public money directed at the problem, the degree to
which politicians across a broad spectrum have embraced its core understanding of male
violence and female victimization, the global reach of domestic violence work, the vast
knowledge base that has accumulated about abuse, or the degree to which family law and
criminal justice have moved domestic violence to the top of their agendas. Indeed, it would be
hard to find another area of family life or criminal activity in these last decades that has
commanded anything like the resources or personnel that have flowed to the civil and criminal
justice systems on behalf of victims of abuse. Further, domestic violence has had a substantial
effect on policy and practice in the fields of health, education, and child welfare. Similarly, the
dominance of the discourse on domestic violence in all spheres of communication (e.g.,
internet, broadcast, print, and social media) has grown exponentially each decade of the
movement. Despite this, we note that domestic violence rates remain quite high, and by most
available measures, have actually increased since 2017 suggesting that we have a long way still
to go before declaring victory.
In fact, while the goals of justice reform initiatives, and many others innovations reported
within this volume, are to transform societal response to affect justice and safety for domestic
violence survivors and accountability and desistance of perpetrators, the efficacy of new laws,
policies, practices, and programs is hard to measure directly.
First, defining the “success” of the work of any sector or individual in the civil and criminal
justice systems is difficult. Thus, “success” is not easy to measure. Beyond this, “success” is a
complex phenomenon. Does one evaluate a particular practice or a cluster of practices in a
sector, the method of delivery of the practice, the timing and consistency of professionals
utilizing the method, the differences and similarities of the perspectives of supervisors and
clients, the comparative importance of the practice in the overall goals of the sector, etc.? Is it
measured by victim satisfaction? And how is “success” defined in constructing meaningful
research about each and any of these issues?
One approach to investigating “success” is through case studies. This method, which is
really oral history or documenting work of professionals, is little more than an anecdotal
description of intervention strategies and outcomes. While storytelling is a crude method of
exploring “success,” yet it can be helpful in identifying apparently effective practices that can
be the basis for building theory and constructing tools for more scientific measurements of
“success.”
Professional Performance Evaluation. Three case studies reveal the importance of oral
history for defining “success” in evaluation of the performance of individuals in one sector of
the criminal justice system. Here, law enforcement.
Case study 1. A police officer noticed that an acquaintance looks peaked and
distressed. Upon approaching her for conversation, he discovered that she had a
black eye. She reported that her husband punched her the day before. The officer
proposed to arrest the husband. The survivor strongly opposed. She told him that
unless her husband was incarcerated for a long period after conviction, she would be
in greater danger, even lethal danger, if the husband was merely convicted of one
simple assault. However, if arrest could potentially achieve a long-term custodial
sentence, the survivor would enthusiastically support the prosecution of her
husband. The officer agreed. With the victim’s assistance, he began a course of
surreptitious investigation into all the crimes of the husband within the statutes of
limitations. He identified upwards of 20 misdemeanors. The prosecutor agreed
to take most to trial. The wife cooperated. The prosecutor persuaded the bail
commissioner to hold the husband in custody pre-trial. The husband was
convicted and sentenced to 99 years in prison. The survivor, her family,
professionals in the criminal justice system, and the public agreed that the
outcome of the police action was a success. Yet, the amount of police labor was
extraordinary and not sustainable—and not suitable to universal application.
However, one element of police action—the principle that police officers listen to
victims and incorporate their preferences into decision-making—clearly was
successful and susceptible to routine practice by responding officers. And if
considering the efficacy of investigation or evidence collection, the officer’s
conduct was highly successful. If measuring victim protection, the officer would
earn high marks.
Case study 2. The senior officer in a remote state trooper barracks offered to
transport a battered woman anywhere within a 2-hour radius of her home at any
time. The battered woman called upon the officer three times, twice to drive her to
her sister’s and once to a shelter. The survivor accessed safe, permanent housing
while at the shelter. Two years later, she advised the officer that her husband was
leaving her alone and had not assaulted her since her move to shelter. Protection was

the goal of both the victim and the officer; and the officer delivered protection
successfully through transportation, not a common yardstick for success.
Case study 3. A battered woman, the wife of a police officer, was considering the
possibility of seeking a protection order against her husband. She did not want her
husband to lose his job, but she feared he would as they lived in the same mid-size
city and in the district where the husband was employed and assigned to patrol. The
attorney suggested that she could arrange an interview for the survivor with the
Deputy Chief to tell him: • why a protection order was not incompatible with the
husband’s continued service, • the wife’s belief that her husband would obey a
standard protection order, • that she was going to ask that he be evicted from the
marital home. The attorney and survivor met with the Deputy Chief. He agreed to
retain the officer despite the protection order, but on three conditions—the husband
would meet for a counseling session weekly with the Deputy Chief, the husband
would transfer to another patrol district, and there would be no violations of the
order. The wife agreed. An order issued. Counseling occurred weekly for the first 4
months of the order. The husband agreed to reassignment. At the end of one year,
the order was dropped and the parties reconciled. Five years later, the husband was
still employed as an officer, there was no repeat violence, and the marriage was
working by all accounts. By several measures of success—the survivor’s consultation
with her attorney and the Deputy Chief, the protection order, and the counseling
with the employer were all successful. Only the husband’s compliance with the
protection order would typically be a marker of success, once again revealing
that measuring success must be nuanced to fairly assess the impact of system
interventions.
These case studies demonstrate that “success” can be measured and illustrated on an
individual case basis. Thus, one of the important lessons learned in the early days of criminal
justice work by the movement was that relationship-building is essential to effectively advocate
for battered women.
Contemporaneous with building relationships in aid of improved criminal justice system
response, advocates engaged in civil legal work to protect survivors. The movement was also
committed to enhancing other systemic responses to the needs of battered women. To that
end, advocates undertook myriad law reform initiatives. Among these were preserving the
privacy and maintaining the confidentiality of battered women.
Privacy and Confidentiality Protection. Preserving the confidentiality of communications
between survivors and battered women’s advocates in domestic violence services was a
stunning “success” of the movement. In 1982, the first confidential privilege statute protecting
the conversations and records of battered women was enacted in Pennsylvania (Title 23, Part
VII, Chapter 61, Section 6116). Unlike the doctor–patient or psychologist–client privilege,
the advocate–survivor privilege is “absolute.” This means that none of a battered woman’s
communications with advocates about matters related to her victimization and wherever they
might occur (e.g., the shelter, the court, a restaurant, or a doctor appointment) is protected as
long as the conversation in a public place is conducted in a manner that appears to be pre-
serving privacy. Neither the police, the prosecutor, or a judge can compel the advocate to
disclose the contents of the communication or the contents of the file kept by the local
program. Even the conversations the survivor has with other participants in the activities of
the domestic violence program are protected.
When Bell Atlantic sought approval from the PA Public Utility Commission for mar-
keting a new software—Caller ID—advocates immediately recognized privacy problems with
disclosing the phone number of the caller. With Caller ID as proposed by Bell the phone
number and name of the shelter would be revealed to batterers when women called their
husbands, for example, to assure husbands that the children and the victims were staying in a
safe and secure facility after leaving. Cross directories would have enabled batterers to
discover the otherwise confidential addresses of shelters, enabling them to stalk and even
kidnap survivors. Advocates insisted on privacy protections whereby any caller could block
the transmission of their phone numbers at no cost. In 1990, the Commonwealth Court of
PA ruled in favor of the advocates’ position that unblockable Caller ID would be “an
unwarranted intrusion into the privacy of telephone customers” (New York Times (1992),
January 23, Section D:10).
Advocates sought and obtained “address confidentiality” for battered women through a
records protection and mail forwarding service. Washington’s Address Confidentiality Pro-
gram (ACP) statute was the first, enacted in 1991. Currently upwards of 40 states have
adopted this privacy legislation.
Battered women’s programs also filed a brief in the case of Planned Parenthood v. Casey.
Advocates presented an argument before the US Supreme Court that the Pennsylvania law
that restricted abortion by requiring spousal notification of a husband prior to a woman
obtaining an abortion created an undue burden on battered women survivors. The Court in
1992 struck the spousal notification requirement, thus preserving a woman’s privacy in
matters of reproduction.
VOCA, FVPSA, and VAWA, 3 federal grants programs for victims of crime, prohibit
sharing personally identifying information about victims without informed, written, reason-
ably time-limited consent. VAWA and VOCA also prohibit disclosure of any individual victim
information without written consent. Advocates and attorneys for battered women and other
crime victims prepared preliminary drafts and strongly supported these regulations and
legislation.
The National Network to End Domestic Violence (NNEDV) continues this legacy in
social change and systems advocacy for survivor privacy. See the NNEDV Technology Safety
Project https://www.techsafety.org/.
Unquestionably, the battered women’s revolution has been a “successful” leader in
initiating and implementing privacy and confidentiality protections. This endeavor is but
one of many civil law safeguards for domestic violence survivors achieved by the
movement.
Notwithstanding these individual and systemic successes, policymakers and practitioners
continue to be very interested in ascertaining evidence-based information on the prevalence,
frequency, and consequences of domestic violence. Social scientists have looked to aggrega-
tion of criminal justice data to assist in understanding the scope of domestic violence which
was, until quite recently, deemed insignificant and not worthy of substantial allotment of
revenues to affect changes in law and practice. By way of example, the amount and trends in
assaults and killing by intimate partners has offered invaluable, albeit limited, insights.4
Aggregation of Uniform Crime Report data over the last four decades shows a decline in crimes
of violence in the country, including the prevalence of domestic violence homicides.
Decreases in spousal homicides have been substantial since the enactment of VAWA in 1994:
husbands, 1995 (267/year) to 2018 (119/year) or a 55% decline; wives, 1995 (732/year) to
2018 (519/year) or a 29% decline. Yet, in 2018 wives were 81% of the victims of spousal
homicide, up from 73% in 1995. Thus, although fewer wives were killed in 2018, wives
remain at far greater risk of being killed by husbands than are husbands by wives.5 However,
the trend to lower homicides is not stable; numbers of homicides were up in the period from
2014 to 2017, but have decreased since 2018 (FBI Crime Statistics, 2020a).
Civil protection orders (CPOs) are a legal approach that was crafted to aid battered
women in erecting barriers to physical and virtual access by battering husbands (Benitez,
McNiel, & Binder, 2010). The most prevalent provisions of relief awarded in CPOs, eviction
of the batterer, “no contact” orders, and restrictions on custodial access (e.g., supervised
visitation and exchange orders), are intended as safeguards against batterer access and

recurring violence. Investigations into the efficacy of CPOs in preventing recurring violence
support a finding that use of this legal safeguard can be effective (Logan & Walker, 2009).
Although much is yet to be learned about whether the criminal justice and advocacy
services are well-positioned to reduce intimate partner homicides, preliminary evidence
suggests that the reduction in intimate partner homicides can at least partially be credited to
effective interventions with abusers and improved social and legal services for abused women
(Dobash & Dobash, 2004). The “success” of the several legal intervention approaches above
and other approaches will be reviewed extensively in various chapters in this volume.
A caveat: Measuring how justice system, human services, and community intervention
efforts affect changes in the prevalence and consequences of domestic violence remains
difficult. Some studies of interventions discussed in this text show high “success” rates, most
often when a broad spectrum of integrated services is employed. Yet, where declines in
domestic violence are documented, they are not always uniform. Nor is it necessarily clear
which enhanced program or effort explains the reported declines. It is naive to assume that
simply increasing the resources or personnel dedicated to domestic violence—adding more
dollars to policing, assigning specialized police or prosecutors or judges to interventions,
offering better education and counseling services for batterers, or increasing the number of
shelter beds available for battered women—will lead inevitably to a decrease in domestic
violence. Even if outreach and advertising of assistance for battered women is improved so
that virtually all abused women know of safeguards available locally, a battered woman may
not seek services if she believes that any sector of the helping systems is biased against women
like her as is covered in Chapter 7. We are at a point in the development of the field when we
need to replace heady generalizations (such as “arrest works”) with carefully hewn, scientif-
ically grounded observations about which elements of which interventions are effective for
which subgroups.
This text will hopefully help move readers toward science-based investigations into the
realities of domestic violence and evaluations of the efficacy of systems of intervention. This is
not to forego the lessons learned from the stories of battered women (JSI Research &
Training Institute, Inc., 2020). We are facing a decade where government and private phi-
lanthropy will likely confront structural and severe financial deficits that may divert revenues
away from human services and human rights. Lean times require new thinking on which
strategies are vitally essential and which new and historical approaches to ending the violence
should be investigated, and on inclusive strategies for transitioning—with battered women
and other survivors of gender-based violence—toward social change that promotes justice and
safety for survivors, accountability and transformation of perpetrators, and cultural norms and
beliefs supportive of equality and nonviolence in intimate partnerships.
FUTURE OF THE MOVEMENT: CRIMINAL

JUSTICE CHALLENGES
An important question we address in this book is: What has been the impact of relying so
heavily on criminal justice intervention to reduce domestic violence? Part of the answer points
to changes in rates of partner abuse as a result of criminal justice intervention, an issue to
which we give considerable attention. But equally important is how this emphasis has shaped
societal perceptions of the problem. What impact has framing domestic violence as criminal
conduct had on the willingness of individuals to get involved—to accept responsibility for
addressing abuse in their own lives; to support community efforts at prevention, mitigation, or
rehabilitation; or to intervene when observing domestic violence?
Does the view of domestic violence as a crime make it more or less likely that community
leaders (e.g., employers, coaches, educators, clergy) will intervene or only intervene by
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“Oh, give it to me, quickly,” cried Dorothy, reaching for the knife in
an agony of apprehension. “Oh, it won’t open! Yes, I have it!”
With the sharp blade she sawed feverishly at the cords.
They gave way one after another and she flung them on to the floor
of the cave.
Joe tried to get to his feet, but stumbled and fell.
“Feel funny and numb, kind of,” he muttered. “Been tied up too
long, I guess.”
“But, Joe, you must stand up—you must!” cried Dorothy
frantically. “Come, try again. I’ll hold you. You must try, Joe. They
will be back in a minute! Never mind how much it hurts, stand up!”
With Dorothy’s aid Joe got to his feet again slowly and painfully
and stood there, swaying, an arm about his sister’s shoulders, the
other hand clenched tight against the damp, rocky wall of the cave.
The pain was so intense as the blood flowed back into his tortured
feet that his face went white and he clenched his teeth to keep from
crying out.
“Do you think you can walk at all, dear?” asked Dorothy, her own
face white with the reflection of his misery. “If you could manage to
walk a little way! We have horses in the woods and it would be
harder for them to find us there. Try, Joe dear! Try!”
“I guess I can make it now, Sis,” said Joe from between his
clenched teeth. “If Tavia will help a little too—on the other side.”
“I guess so!” cried Tavia with alacrity, as she put Joe’s other arm
about her shoulders and gave his hand a reassuring squeeze. “Now
something tells me that the sooner we leave this place behind the
healthier it will be for all of us.”
“Hush! What’s that?” cried Dorothy, and they stood motionless for
a moment, listening.
“I didn’t hear anything, Doro,” whispered Tavia. “It was just
nerves, I guess.”
They took a step toward the entrance of the cave, Joe still leaning
heavily upon the two girls.
A horse whinnied sharply and as they paused again, startled, a
sinister shadow fell across the narrow entrance to the cave. They
shrank back as substance followed shadow and a man wedged his
way into the cave.
He straightened up and winked his eyes at the unexpected sight
that met them.
Dorothy stifled a startled exclamation as she recognized him. It
was the small, black-eyed man, Gibbons, known to Desert City as
George Lightly, who stood blinking at them.
Suddenly he laughed, a short, sharp laugh, and turned back toward
the mouth of the cave.
“Come on in, fellows!” he called cautiously. “Just see what I
found!”
Joe’s face, through the grime and dirt that covered it, had grown
fiery red and he struggled to get free of Dorothy and Tavia.
“Just you let me get my hands on him!” he muttered. “I’ll show
him! I’ll——”
“You keep out of this, Joe,” Dorothy whispered fiercely. “Let me do
the talking.”
Three other men squeezed through the narrow opening and stood
blinking in the semi-darkness of the cave.
One of them Dorothy recognized as Joe’s former captor, a big,
burly man with shifty eyes and a loose-lipped mouth, another was
Philo Marsh, more smug and self-sufficient than she remembered
him, and the third was Cal Stiffbold, her handsome cavalier of the
train ride, who had called himself Stanley Blake.
It took the girls, crouched against the wall of the cave, only a
moment to see all this, and the men were no slower in reading the
meaning of the situation.
Stiffbold’s face was suffused with fury as he recognized Dorothy
and Tavia, and he took a threatening step forward. Philo Marsh
reached out a hand and drew him back, saying in mild tones:
“Easy there, Stiffbold. Don’t do anything you are likely to regret.”
“So, ladies to the rescue, eh?” sneered Lightly, thrusting his hands
into his pockets and regarding the girls with an insulting leer.
“Regular little heroines and all, ain’t you? Well, now, I’ll be blowed!”
“Young ladies, this isn’t the place for you, you know.” Philo Marsh
took a step forward, reaching out his hand toward Joe. “You’re
interfering, you know, and you’re likely to get yourselves in a heap o’
trouble. But if you’ll go away and stay away and keep your mouths
closed——”
“And leave my brother here with you scoundrels, I suppose?”
suggested Dorothy.
The hypocritical expression upon the face of Philo Marsh changed
suddenly to fury at her short, scornful laugh.
“Scoundrels, is it?” he sneered. “Well, my young lady, maybe you’ll
know better than to call honest people names before you leave this
place.”
“Honest people! You?” cried Dorothy, no longer able to contain her
furious indignation. “That sounds startling coming from you, Philo
Marsh, and your—honest friends!
“Do you call it honest,” she took a step forward and the men
retreated momentarily, abashed before her fury, “to take a poor boy
away from his people, to hide him here in a place like this, to torture
him physically and mentally, to attempt to make him false to all his
standards of right——”
“See here, this won’t do!” Lightly blustered, but Dorothy turned
upon him like a tigress.
“You will listen to me till I have said what I am going to say,” she
flung at him. “You do all this—you honest men,” she turned to the
others, searing them with her scorn. “And why? So that you can force
Garry Knapp, who has the best farmlands anywhere around here—
and who will make more than good some day, in spite of you, yes, in
spite of you, I say—to turn over his lands to you for a song, an
amount of money that would hardly pay him for the loss of one little
corner of it——”
“Say, are we goin’ to stand here and take this?”
“Yes, you are—Stanley Blake!” Dorothy flamed at him, and the
man retreated before her fury. “And then, when this boy defies you,
what do you do? Act like honest men? Of course you do! You
threaten to ‘put the screws on’ until he is too weak to defy you, a boy
against four—honest—men! If that is honesty, if that is bravery, then
I would rather be like that slimy toad out in the woods who knows
nothing of such things!”
“Hold on there, you!” George Lightly started forward, his hand
uplifted threateningly. “You call us any more of those pretty names
and I’ll——”
“What will you do?” Dorothy defied him gloriously, her eyes
blazing. “You dare to lay a hand upon me or my friend or my
brother,” instinctively her arm tightened about Joe, “and Garry
Knapp will hound you to the ends of the earth. Hark! What’s that?”
She paused, head uplifted, listening.
They all listened in a breathless silence while the distant clatter of
horses’ hoofs breaking a way through the woodland came closer—
ever closer!
“Garry!” Dorothy lifted her head and sent her cry ringing through
the woodland. “We are over this way, Garry, over this way! Come qui
——”
A HORSEMAN BROKE THROUGH THE
UNDERBRUSH. IT WAS GARRY.
“Dorothy Dale to the Rescue.” Page

237
CHAPTER XXX
CAPTURED
A rough hand closed over Dorothy’s mouth, shutting off her

breath, strangling her. In an instant Tavia and Joe were similarly
gagged and helpless.
There was a silence during which their captors waited breathlessly,
hoping that the horseman had not heard the cry, would pass the cave
by.
For a moment, remembering how well the spot was concealed,
Dorothy was horribly afraid that this might actually happen. If it was
really Garry coming! If he had heard her!
But the clattering hoofs still came on. She could hear the shouts of
the riders, Garry’s voice, calling her name!
She felt herself released with a suddenness and violence that sent
her reeling toward the rear of the cave. The men were making for the
entrance, jostling one another and snarling in their efforts to escape.
The men out of sight beyond the huge rock, Dorothy and Tavia
rushed to the cave mouth, leaving poor Joe to limp painfully after
them, just in time to see the knaves disappear among the trees.
The next moment a horseman broke through the underbrush,
charging straight for them. It was Garry!
At sight of Dorothy he pulled his horse to its haunches, drawing in
his breath in a sharp exclamation.
“Dorothy! Thank heaven! I thought——”
“Never mind about us, Garry. They went over that way—the men
you are after!”
She pointed in the direction the men had disappeared and Garry
nodded. The next moment he had spurred his pony in pursuit,
followed by several other horsemen who had come up behind him.
The girls watched them go, and Joe, coming up behind them, laid a
dirty hand upon his sister’s shoulder.
“You—you were great, Sis, to those men!” he said awkwardly. “I
was awfully proud of you.”
Dorothy smiled through tears and, taking Joe’s grimy hand,
pressed it against her cheek.
“It is so wonderful to have you again, dear!” she said huskily.
They were back again in a moment, Garry and his men, bringing
with them two captives—the big-framed, loose-lipped fellow who had
first taunted Joe in the cave, and George Lightly.
By Garry’s face it was easy to see he was in no mood to deal gently
with his prisoners.
He dismounted, threw the bridle to one of the men, and
approached the big fellow whom he knew to be a tool of the Larrimer
gang.
The fellow was sullen and glowering, but Garry was a good enough
judge to guess that beneath this exterior the fellow was ready to
break.
“Now then,” Garry said coolly, as he pressed the muzzle of his
revolver in uncomfortable proximity to the ribs of his prisoner, “you
tell us what you were doing in that cave over there and you’ll go scot
free. Otherwise, it’s jail for you—if not worse. My men,” he added, in
a gentle drawl, “are just hankering to take part in a lynching party.
It’s a right smart time since they have been treated to that sort of
entertainment, and they are just ripe for a little excitement. How
about it, boys, am I right?”
There came an ominous murmur from the “boys” that caused the
prisoner to look up at them quickly and then down again at his
shuffling feet.
Lightly tried to interfere, but Garry silenced him sharply.
“You hankering to be in this lynching party, too?” he inquired,
adding gratingly: “Because if you are not, I’d advise you to keep your
mouth tight shut!”
It was not long before the captive yielded to the insistence of that
revolver muzzle pressed beneath his fifth rib and made a clean breast
of the whole ugly business. Possibly the invitation to the lynching
party had something to do with his surrender.
As he stutteringly and sullenly revealed the plot which would have
forced Garry to the sale of his lands to insure the safety of his
fiancée’s brother, Garry jotted down the complete confession in his
notebook and at the conclusion forced both his prisoners at the point
of his revolver to sign the document.
Then Garry turned to two of the cowboys, who had been looking
on with appreciative grins.
“Here, Steve, and you, Gay, take these two worms to town and see
that they are put where they belong,” he ordered, and the two boys
leaped to the task eagerly. “You others go help the boys round up the
rest of the gentlemen mentioned in this valuable document,” and he
tapped the confession with a cheerful grin. “So long, you fellows!”
They waved their hats at him, wheeled their ponies joyfully, and
were off to do his bidding.
Then it was that Garry came toward Dorothy, his arms
outstretched. It is doubtful if at that moment he even saw Joe and
Tavia standing there.
Dorothy took a step toward him and suddenly the whole world
seemed to rock and whirl about her. She flung out her hand and
grasped nothing but air. Then down, down into fathomless space and
nothingness!
Dorothy opened her eyes again to find herself in a bed whose

softness and cleanliness meant untold luxury to her. Her body ached
all over, horribly, and her head ached too.
She closed her eyes, but there was a movement beside the bed that
made her open them again swiftly. Somebody had coughed, and it
had sounded like Joe.
She turned over slowly, discovering new aches and pains as she did
so, and saw that it was indeed Joe sitting there, his eyes fixed
hungrily upon her.
She opened her arms and he ran to her and knelt beside the bed.
“Aw, now, don’t go to crying, Sis,” he said, patting her shoulder
awkwardly. “They said if I bothered you they wouldn’t let me stay.”
“I’d like to see them get you away,” cried Dorothy. “Joe, sit back a
little bit and let me look at you. I can’t believe it’s you!”
“But I did an awful thing, Dot,” he said, hanging his head. “You’d
better let me tell you about it before you get too glad I’m back.”
“Tell me about it then, dear,” said Dorothy quietly. “I’ve been
wanting to know just why you ran away.”
“It was all because of the fire at Haskell’s toy store,” said Joe,
speaking swiftly, as though he would be glad to get the explanation
over. “Jack Popella said the explosion was all my fault and he told me
I would be put in prison——”
“But just what did you do?” Dorothy insisted.
“Well, it was like this.” Joe took a long breath, glanced up at her,
then turned his eyes away again. “Jack had a fight with Mr. Haskell
over some money he picked up in the road. Mr. Haskell said he stole
it from his cash drawer, but Jack kept on saying he found it in the
road. I shouldn’t wonder if he did steal it though, at that,” Joe went
on, thoughtfully, and for the first time Dorothy looked at him
accusingly.
“You know I begged you not to have anything to do with Jack
Popella, Joe.”
The lad hung his head and flushed scarlet.
“I know you did. I won’t ever, any more.”
“All right, dear. Tell me what happened then.”
“Jack was so mad at Mr. Haskell he said he would like to knock
down all the boxes in the room back of his store just to get even. He
asked me to help him and—just for fun—I said sure I would. Then he
told me to go on in and get started and he would come in a minute.
“I knocked down a couple of boxes,” Joe continued, after a
strained silence. “And then—the explosion came. Jack said I was to
blame and—the—the cops were after me. I wasn’t going to let them
send me to prison,” he lifted his head with a sort of bravado and met
Dorothy’s gaze steadily. “So—so I came out West to Garry.”
“And you are going back again with me, Joe,” said his sister firmly.
“It was cowardly to run away. Now you will have to face the music!”
Joe hung his head for a moment, then squared his shoulders and
looked bravely at Dorothy.
“All right, Dot. I guess it was kind of sneaking to run away. I—I’m
awful sorry.”
The door opened softly behind them and Tavia poked her head in.
“My goodness gracious, Doro Doodlekins,” she cried, “you look as
bright as a button. First thing you know I’ll be minus a patient.”
Dorothy propped herself up on her elbow and stared at her chum.
“Tavia, we must send a telegram immediately,” she cried. “The
Major must know that Joe is safe.”
Tavia came over and smoothed her pillow fondly.
“Foolish child, did you think no one but you would think of that?”
she chided. “Garry sent one of the boys to Dugonne with orders to
send a night letter to The Cedars telling everything that happened.
That was after you fainted, you know, and we brought you here.”
“Such a foolish thing to do,” sighed Dorothy, sinking back on her
pillow. “What must Garry think of me?”
“Suppose I let him answer that for himself,” suggested the flyaway,
and before Dorothy could protest she had seized Joe by the arm and
escorted him gently from the room. A moment later Dorothy could
hear Tavia calling to Garry that he was “needed very much upstairs.”
Dorothy closed her eyes and opened them the next minute to find
Garry standing beside the bed, looking down at her. She reached out
a hand to him and he took it very gently, kneeling down beside her.
“Joe and Tavia have been telling me how you stood up to those
men in the cave, little girl. I only wish I had been there to see you do
it. We’ve got them all, by the way, and Stiffbold and Lightly and the
rest of them are where they won’t hatch any more schemes in a hurry
—thanks to you.”
“Thanks to me?” repeated Dorothy, wondering. “Garry, why?”
“I never would have discovered that cave if I hadn’t heard you call
out,” Garry explained. “That hole in the mountainside was the coziest
little retreat I ever saw.”
“Well, I’m glad if I helped a little,” sighed Dorothy. “I was afraid
you might be going to scold me.”
“Scold you?” repeated Garry tenderly. “You foolish, little brick!”
It was a long time before Garry remembered something that had
once seemed important to him. With an exclamation of dismay he
stuck his hand in his pocket and drew forth a yellow envelope.
“Here’s a telegram from The Cedars, and I clean forgot all about
it,” he said penitently. “One of the boys brought it from Dugonne
where he went to send the telegram to Major Dale. I didn’t mean to
keep it, honest I didn’t!”
“Under the circumstances, I don’t blame you in the least,” said
Dorothy demurely, as she hastily tore open the telegram.
She read it through, then turned to Garry with shining eyes.
“This is the one thing I needed to make me perfectly happy,
Garry,” she said. “Nat says that Jack Popella has been arrested for
setting Haskell’s store on fire. That automatically clears Joe of
suspicion!”
“That’s great. The poor kid has had more than his share of worry
lately. Just wait till he reads that telegram.” And to Tavia, passing the
door at that moment, he gave the yellow sheet with the request that
she convey it to Joe with all possible speed.
“Just to be comfortable and safe and happy once more,”
murmured Dorothy, as Garry came back to her. “It seems very
wonderful, Garry.”
“And my job,” said Garry softly, “will be to keep you safe and
comfortable and happy for the rest of your life!”
THE END
THE DOROTHY DALE SERIES
By MARGARET PENROSE
Author of “The Motor Girls Series,” “Radio Girls Series,” &c.
12 mo. Illustrated
Price per volume, $1.00, postpaid

Dorothy Dale is the daughter of an old Civil War
veteran who is running a weekly newspaper in a
small Eastern town. Her sunny disposition, her fun-
loving ways and her trials and triumphs make
clean, interesting and fascinating reading. The
Dorothy Dale Series is one of the most popular
series of books for girls ever published.
DOROTHY DALE: A GIRL OF TO-DAY

DOROTHY DALE AT GLENWOOD SCHOOL
DOROTHY DALE’S GREAT SECRET
DOROTHY DALE AND HER CHUMS
DOROTHY DALE’S QUEER HOLIDAYS
DOROTHY DALE’S CAMPING DAYS
DOROTHY DALE’S SCHOOL RIVALS
DOROTHY DALE IN THE CITY
DOROTHY DALE’S PROMISE
DOROTHY DALE IN THE WEST
DOROTHY DALE’S STRANGE DISCOVERY
DOROTHY DALE’S ENGAGEMENT
DOROTHY DALE TO THE RESCUE
The Motor Girls Series
By MARGARET PENROSE
Author of the highly successful “Dorothy Dale Series”
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, $1.00 postpaid.

Since the enormous success of our “Motor Boys
Series,” by Clarence Young, we have been asked to
get out a similar series for girls. No one is better
equipped to furnish these tales than Mrs. Penrose,
who, besides being an able writer, is an expert
automobilist.
The Motor Girls

or A Mystery of the Road
The Motor Girls on a Tour

or Keeping a Strange Promise
The Motor Girls at Lookout Beach

or In Quest of the Runaways
The Motor Girls Through New England

or Held by the Gypsies
The Motor Girls on Cedar Lake

or The Hermit of Fern Island
The Motor Girls on the Coast

or The Waif from the Sea
The Motor Girls on Crystal Bay

or The Secret of the Red Oar
The Motor Girls on Waters Blue

or The Strange Cruise of the Tartar
The Motor Girls at Camp Surprise

or The Cave in the Mountain
The Motor Girls in the Mountains

or The Gypsy Girl’s Secret
THE LINGER-NOT SERIES
By AGNES MILLER
12mo. Cloth. Illustrated. Jacket in full colors
Price per volume, 65 cents, postpaid

This new series of girls’ books is in a new style of
story writing. The interest is in knowing the girls
and seeing them solve the problems that develop
their character. Incidentally, a great deal of
historical information is imparted, and a fine
atmosphere of responsibility is made pleasing and
useful to the reader.
1. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THE

MYSTERY HOUSE
or The Story of Nine Adventurous Girls
How the Linger-Not girls met and formed their club seems
commonplace, but this writer makes it fascinating, and how they
made their club serve a great purpose continues the interest to the
end, and introduces a new type of girlhood.
2. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THE VALLEY FEUD

or The Great West Point Chain
The Linger-Not girls had no thought of becoming mixed up with
feuds or mysteries, but their habit of being useful soon entangled
them in some surprising adventures that turned out happily for all,
and made the valley better because of their visit.
3. THE LINGER-NOTS AND THEIR GOLDEN
QUEST
or The Log of the Ocean Monarch
For a club of girls to become involved in a mystery leading back
into the times of the California gold-rush, seems unnatural until the
reader sees how it happened, and how the girls helped one of their
friends to come into her rightful name and inheritance, forms a fine
story.
THE RADIO GIRLS SERIES
By MARGARET PENROSE

A new and up-to-date series, taking in the
activities of several bright girls who become
interested in radio. The stories tell of thrilling
exploits, out-door life and the great part the Radio
plays in the adventures of the girls and in solving
their mysteries. Fascinating books that girls of all
ages will want to read.
1. THE RADIO GIRLS OF ROSELAWN

or A Strange Message from the Air
Showing how Jessie Norwood and her chums became interested in
radiophoning, how they gave a concert for a worthy local charity, and
how they received a sudden and unexpected call for help out of the
air. A girl wanted as witness in a celebrated law case disappears, and
the radio girls go to the rescue.
2. THE RADIO GIRLS ON THE PROGRAM

or Singing and Reciting at the Sending Station
When listening in on a thrilling recitation or a superb concert
number who of us has not longed to “look behind the scenes” to see
how it was done? The girls had made the acquaintance of a sending
station manager and in this volume are permitted to get on the
program, much to their delight. A tale full of action and fun.
3. THE RADIO GIRLS ON STATION ISLAND

or The Wireless from the Steam Yacht
In this volume the girls travel to the seashore and put in a vacation
on an island where is located a big radio sending station. The big
brother of one of the girls owns a steam yacht and while out with a
pleasure party those on the island receive word by radio that the
yacht is on fire. A tale thrilling to the last page.
4. THE RADIO GIRLS AT FOREST LODGE

or The Strange Hut in the Swamp
The Radio Girls spend several weeks on the shores of a beautiful
lake and with their radio get news of a great forest fire. It also aids
them in rounding up some undesirable folks who occupy the strange
hut in the swamp.
THE BETTY GORDON SERIES
By ALICE B. EMERSON
Author of the Famous “Ruth Fielding” Series

A series of stories by Alice B. Emerson which are
bound to make this writer more popular than ever
with her host of girl readers.
1. BETTY GORDON AT BRAMBLE

FARM
or The Mystery of a Nobody
At the age of twelve Betty is left an orphan.
2. BETTY GORDON IN WASHINGTON

or Strange Adventures in a Great City
In this volume Betty goes to the National Capitol to find her uncle
and has several unusual adventures.
3. BETTY GORDON IN THE LAND OF OIL

or The Farm That Was Worth a Fortune
From Washington the scene is shifted to the great oil fields of our
country. A splendid picture of the oil field operations of to-day.
4. BETTY GORDON AT BOARDING SCHOOL
or The Treasure of Indian Chasm
Seeking the treasure of Indian Chasm makes an exceedingly
interesting incident.
5. BETTY GORDON AT MOUNTAIN CAMP

or The Mystery of Ida Bellethorne
At Mountain Camp Betty found herself in the midst of a mystery
involving a girl whom she had previously met in Washington.
6. BETTY GORDON AT OCEAN PARK

or School Chums on the Boardwalk
A glorious outing that Betty and her chums never forgot.
7. BETTY GORDON AND HER SCHOOL CHUMS

or Bringing the Rebels to Terms
Rebellious students, disliked teachers and mysterious robberies
make a fascinating story.

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About the Authors xxi

CHAPTER 1 • Introduction: The Role and Context of Agency

PART I • WHAT IS DOMESTIC VIOLENCE? 27

CHAPTER 3 • The Extent and Impact of Domestic Violence 63

PART II • THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESPONSE 133

CHAPTER 6 • Special Populations at Risk 163

CHAPTER 8 • Domestic Violence Legislation 243

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CHAPTER 11 • The Judicial Response 377

CHAPTER 12 • Civil and Criminal Protection Orders 421

PART III • THE SOCIETAL RESPONSE 461

CHAPTER 14 • Victim Services 499

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CHAPTER 17 • Conclusion: Toward the Prevention and

CHALLENGE TO OUR READERS

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