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more beautiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which
are not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath,
the Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not
considered superior to the German and Italian.
A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually
distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos.
That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have noticed
among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give
in this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it
relates to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as
there is quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those
who are eager to know more of this interesting department of natural
history, I will not go into details.
Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C.
About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to
the world the views then extant on this subject, gathered largely from
the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its
beauty and elegance—would that as much could be said for the
subject matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A
little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his
observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder,
who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous
opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this,
he added opinions of his own, which were not only without
foundation, but were often the perfection of absurdity.
After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress in
natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning, we
find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in
the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects,
also, "The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary,
Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on
the insect transformations. They also revived the study and practice
of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by Aristotle, as
the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray also gave
special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by
Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his
discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated
dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"—all life from eggs—which was completely
established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the
middle of the 18th century, the great Linnæus—"the brilliant Star of
the North"—published his "System Naturæ," and threw a flood of
light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects
was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of
wings. This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his
conclusions were remarkably correct. Linnæus is noted for his
accurate descriptions, and especially for his gift of the binomial
method of naming plants and animals, giving in the name the genus
and species, as, Apis mellifica. He was also the first to introduce
classes and orders, as we now understand them. When we consider
the amount and character of the work of the great Swede we can but
place him among the first, if not as the first, of naturalists.
Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné) was Geoffroy, who
did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last half of the
century appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGeer,
who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings and
jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him in
unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says: "He united in himself the
highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a
scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian
of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a
spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is
such an ability to observe, as was possessed by the great DeGeer.
Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of
France, whose experiments and researches are of special interest to
apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the
natural history of bees. Especially to be commended are his method
of experimenting, his patience in investigation, the elegance and
felicity of his word pictures, and, above all, his devotion to truth. We
shall have occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable
worker in the great shop of insect-life frequently in the following
pages. Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special interest.
Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and elucidation of
parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of reproduction—as it
occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, though he did not discover
that our bees, in the production of drones, illustrate the same
doctrine. Though the author of no system, he gave much aid to
Réaumur in his systematic labors.
At this same period systematic entomology received great aid
from Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained
the development of a caterpillar. His descriptions and illustrations are
wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is
studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of
God."
We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a student of
Linnæus—who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was
revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of
America were revolutionizing government. He made the mouth
organs the basis of his classification, and thus followed in the path
which DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the
latter while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders
are no improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, as were his
old master's. In his description of genera—where he pretended to
follow nature—he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists
to study parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish
affinities, he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and
should be thoroughly studied by all entomologists.
Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest
"Roman of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we
have so frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is
called the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts,
transformations, in fact, all the organs—the entire structure. He gave
us our Family Apidæ, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered,
he described several of the species of this genus. In our study of this
great man's work, we constantly marvel at his extensive researches
and remarkable talents. Lamark, of this time, except that he could
see no God in nature, did very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier,
of Napoleon's time, and the learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since
then we have had hosts of workers in this field, and many worthy of
not only mention but praise; yet the work has been to rub up and
garnish, rather than to create. So I will close this brief history with a
notice of authors who are very serviceable to such as may desire to
glean farther of the treasures of systematic entomology; only
remarking that at the end of the next chapter I shall refer to those
who have been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy
and physiology of insects, especially of bees.

VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF

ENTOMOLOGY.
For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects
—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustrations are very full
and perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, of
all the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but
can be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores.
Kirby and Spence—Introduction to Entomology—is a very
complete work. It treats of the classification, structure, habits,
general economy of insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is
an invaluable work, and a great acquisition to any library.
Dr. Packard's Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable work,
and being American, is specially to be recommended.
The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley,
will also be found of great value and interest.
 CHAPTER II.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of insects;

then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology of the honey-
bee.

ANATOMY OF INSECTS.
In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions
(Fig, 2): the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs,
the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the
antennæ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives
support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of
legs; and the abdomen, which is composed of a variable number of
rings, and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when
present to the sting. Within the thorax there are little more than
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables
them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within
the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, by far the
greater and more important portions of the alimentary canal, and
other important organs.

ORGANS OF THE HEAD.

Of these the mouth organs (Fig, 6) are most prominent. These

consist of an upper lip—labrum—and under lip—labium—and two
pairs of jaws which move sidewise; the stronger, horny jaws, called
mandibles, and the more membranous, but usually longer, maxillæ.
The labrum (Fig. 6, l) is well described in the name upper lip. It is
attached, usually, by a movable joint to a similarly shaped piece
above it, called clypeus (Fig. 6, c), and this latter to the broad
epicranium (Fig. 6, o), which contains the antennæ, the compound,
and, when present, the simple eyes.
The labium (Fig, 15) is not described by the name under lip, as its
base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the tongue. The base is
usually broad, and is called the mentum, and from this extends the
tongue (Fig. 15, a) or ligula. On either side, near the junction of the
ligula and mentum, arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called the
labial palpus (Fig. 6, k k), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the
angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the paraglossæ (Fig.
15, d), one on either side. These are often wanting.
 Fig. 6.

Head of Bee much magnified.

o—Epicranium m—Jaws.
e e—Compound m x—2d Jaws.
eyes. k k—Labial
a a—Antennæ, palpi,
c—Clypeus. t—Ligula.
l—Labrum.
The jaws or mandibles (Fig, 6, m, m) arise one on either side just
below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. These work
sidewise instead of up and down as in higher animals, are frequently
very hard and sharp, and sometimes armed with one or more teeth.
A rudimentary tooth (Fig, 21, b) is visible on the jaws of drone and
queen bees.
Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther back,
are the second jaws or maxillæ (Fig. 6, m x), less dense and firm
than the mandibles, but far more complex. They arise by a small
joint, the cardo, next this is a larger joint, the stipes, from this
extends on the inside the broad lacinia (Fig, 20, c) or blade, usually
fringed with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while on the
outside of the stipes are inserted the—from one to several jointed—
maxillary palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two
joints, and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in
some of the beetles, there is a third member running from the stipes
between the palpus and lacinia called the galea. The maxillæ also
move sidewise, and probably aid in holding and turning the food
while it is crushed by the harder jaws, though in some cases they,
too, aid in triturating the food.
These mouth parts are very variable in form in different insects.
In butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they are
transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups forms a hard,
strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the mosquito and bed-bug.
In all the other insects we find them much as in the bees, with the
separate parts varying greatly in form, to agree with the habits and
character of their possessors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius
detected these varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of
the insect, and no wonder, too, that in their use they were so
successful in forming a natural classification.
Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these parts
and studying their form and relations for himself. By getting his
children interested in the same, he will have conferred upon them
one of the rarest of blessings.
To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully pin it
to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between the eyes. Now
separate the parts by two needle points, made by inserting a needle
for half its length into a pine stick the shape of a pipe-stem, leaving
the point projecting for an inch or more. With one of these in each
hand commence operations. The head may be either side up. Much
may be learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but in
all cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will be of great
value. The best lens is one of Tolles', sold by Mr. Stoddard, of the
Boston optical works. These are very excellent and thus high priced,
costing $14.00. Gray's triplet hand-lenses are very good, are cheap,
and can be procured for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle
should have a hole through it to permit of mounting it above the
object, so that it will hold itself. Tolles' lenses are easily mounted, in
a stand which any one can contrive and make in twenty minutes. I
value my Tolles' lens even more highly than my large compound
microscope, which cost $150. Were I obliged to part with either, the
latter would go.
I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, which they
enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would much rather that my
boy would become interested in such study, than to have him
possessor of infinite gold rings, or even a huge gold watch, with a
tremendous charm. Let such pleasing recreation gain the attention of
our boys, and they will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden
us with anxiety and fear.
The antennæ (Fig, 6, a, a) are the horn-like jointed organs
situated between or below and in front of the large compound eyes
of all insects. They are sometimes short, as in the house-fly, and
sometimes very long, as in the grasshoppers. They are either
straight, curved or elbowed (Fig, 6). In form, too, they are very
various, as thread-like, tapering, toothed, knobbed, fringed,
feathered, etc. It is known that a nerve passes into the antennæ, but
their exact function is little understood. That they serve as most
delicate touch organs no apiarist can doubt. That they serve as
organs of smell or hearing is not proved. That insects are conscious
of sounds I think no observing person can doubt. It is proved by the
call of the katy-did, the cicada and the cricket. What apiarist, too, has
not noticed the effect of various sounds made by the bees upon their
comrades of the hive. How contagious the sharp note of anger, the
low hum of fear, and the pleasant tone of a new swarm as they
commence to enter their new home. Now, whether insects take note
of these vibrations, as we recognize pitch, or whether they just
distinguish the tremor, I think no one knows. There is some reason to
believe that their delicate touch-organs may enable them to
discriminate between vibrations, even more acutely, than can we by
use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a colony of hybrids,
while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If insects can appreciate with
great delicacy the different vibratory conditions of the air by an
excessive development of the sense of touch, then undoubtedly the
antennæ may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could
only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnæus and
Bonnet. Siebold thinks, as the antennæ receive but one nerve, and
are plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. Kirby
has noticed that some moths turn their antennæ towards the
direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that antennæ
are organs of hearing. Grote, for a similar reason, thinks that the
densely feathered antennæ of the males of various night moths,
serve both for smell and hearing. Prof. A. M. Mayer and Mr. C.
Johnson (see American Naturalist, vol. 8, p. 574) have by various
ingenious experiments, proved conclusively, that the delicate,
beautifully feathered antennæ of the male mosquito are organs of
hearing.
That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond
question. How quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the
scavenger the filth, and the bee the precious nectar.
I have reared female moths in my study, and have been greatly
surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to find my room
swarming with males. These bridegrooms entered an open window
in the second-story of a brick building. How delicate must have been
the sense by which they were led to make the visit, and thus made to
grace my cabinet. Bees, too, have been known to dash against a
shutter behind which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of
their perception of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are
carried by the air, and must reach the insect through this medium. Is
it not probable, that the various breathing mouths of insects are also
so many noses, and that their delicate lining membranes abounding
with, nerve filaments, are the great odor sentinels? This view was
maintained by both Lehman and Cuvier, and explains this delicate
perception of scents, as the breathing mouths are large and
numerous, and most so in insects like bees and moths, which are
most sensitive to odors. How quickly the bees notice the scent of a
strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor of the venom. I have
known a bee to sting a glove, and in a trice the glove would be as a
pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Sometimes the bees will dart
for many feet, guided by this odor. Yet the odor is very pungent, as I
have frequently smelt the poison before I felt the sting. I have tried
the experiments of Huber and Lubbock, and know that such insects
as bees and ants will take no note of food after the loss of their
antennæ. But we must remember that this is a capital operation.
With loss of antennæ, insects lose control of their motions, and in
many ways show great disturbance. Is it not probable then that
removing the antennæ destroys the desire for food, as does
amputation with ourselves? Kirby believes with Huber, that there is a
scent organ. Huber's experiments on which he based this opinion
are, as usual, very interesting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in
oil of turpentine—a substance very repugnant to bees—to various
parts of a bee engrossed in sipping honey. The bee made no
objection, even though it touched the ligula, until it approached the
mouth above the mentum, when she became much disturbed. He
also filled a bee's mouth with paste, which soon hardened, after
which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near it. This was not so
conclusive, as the bee may have been so disturbed as to lose its
appetite. I have experimented a good deal, and am inclined to the
following opinion: The antennæ are very delicate touch-organs or
feelers, and are so important in their function and connection that
removal produces a severe shock, but further we know but little
about their function, if they have other, and from the very nature of
the problem we will find it very difficult of solution.
The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are always
present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, which may
or may not be present. When present there are usually three, which
if we join by lines, we will describe a triangle, in the vertices of whose
angles are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely
but one.
The simple eyes (Fig, 4, f f f) are circular, and possess a cornea,
lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight.
From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam, which
consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they concluded that
vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct, though by them the
insect can distinguish light. Some have thought that these simple
eyes were for vision at slight distances. Larvæ, like spiders and
myriapods, have only simple eyes.
The compound eyes (Fig, 2, e) are simply a cluster of simple
eyes, are situated one on either side of the head, and vary much in
form and size. Between or below these are inserted the antennæ.
Sometimes these last are inserted in a notch of the eyes, and in a
few cases actually divide each eye into two eyes.
The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig, 4), most two-wing
flies and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably separated, as in
the worker-bees (Fig, 5). The separate facets or simple eyes, of
each compound eye, are hexagonal, or six-sided, and in the
microscope look not unlike a section of honey-comb. The number of
these is prodigious—Leeuwenhoek actually counted 12,000 in the
eye of a dragon-fly—while some butterflies have, over 17,000. The
compound eyes are motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical
shape, they give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are
capable of adjustment to accord with different distances, and it has
been supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to their hives,
and the awkward work they make in finding a hive when moved only
for a short distance, that their eyes are best suited to long vision.
Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments
with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. Honey
was placed on a blue strip, beside several others of various colors.
In the absence of the bees he changed the position of this strip, and
upon their return the bees went to the blue strip rather than to the old
position. Our practical apiarists have long been aware of this fact,
and have conformed their practice to the knowledge, in giving a
variety of colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that
bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight
distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which would
occur if position alone was guide.

APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX.

 The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of the
thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera have but two,
and some insects—as the worker ants—have none. The front or
primary wings (Fig, 3, A) are usually larger than the secondary or
hind wings (Fig. 3, B), and thus the mesathoracic or middle ring of
the thorax, to which they are attached, is usually larger than the
metathorax or third ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of
veins (Fig, 3), covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or
veins are variable in number, while towards the extremity of the wing
are more or less cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into
more or less cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and quite
important in classifying. Especially useful are the cells in the second
row, from the frontal or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-
costal cells. Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig, 3,
A, 1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs or veins
consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one forming an air tube, the
outer one carrying blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings
we often find hooks, to attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, B, a).

Fig. 7.

Thorax of Bee magnified three

times.
a, a, a—Muscles. b, b—Crust.
The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly located in
the thorax (Fig, 7, a, a, a), whose strength, as well as the rapidity of
the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid are really beyond
computation. Think of a tiny fly outstripping the fleetest horse in the
chase, and then marvel at this wondrous mechanism.
The legs (Fig, 2, g, g, g) are six in number in all mature insects,
two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. These are long or
short, weak or strong, according to the habit of the insect. Each leg
consists of the following joints or parts: The coxæ (Fig. 24), which
move like a ball and socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of
the body-rings. Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, the
large, broad femur (Fig. 2, g′, 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, g′, 2),
frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called tibial spurs,
and followed by the from one to five-jointed tarsi (Fig. 2, g′, 3, 3, 3, 3,
3). All these parts move freely upon each other, and will vary in form
to agree with their use. At the end of the last tarsal joint are two
hooked claws (Fig. 2, g′, 4), between which are the pulvilli, which are
not air-pumps as usually described, but rather glands, which secrete
a sticky substance which enables insects to stick to a smooth wall,
even though it be above them. The legs, in fact the whole crust, is
more or less dense and hard, owing to the deposit within the
structure of a hard substance known as chitine.

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I have

noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the thorax. They
vary in form and position to accord with their use. The mechanism of
contraction is the same as in higher animals. The ultimate fibers of
the voluntary muscles, when highly magnified, show the striæ or
cross-lines the same as do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and
are very beautiful as microscopic objects. The separate muscles are
not bound together by a membrane as in higher animals. In insects
the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should expect,
they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In insects of swiftest
flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig, 7, a, a, a) is almost entirely
composed of muscles; the œsophagus, which carries the food to the
stomach, being very small. At the base of the jaws, too, the muscles
are large and firm. The number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet
counted over 3,000 in a single caterpillar, nearly eight times as many
as are found in the human body. The strength, too, of insects is
prodigious. There must be quality in muscles, for muscles as large
as those of the elephant, and as strong as those of the flea, would
not need the fulcrum which the old philosopher demanded, in order
to move the world. Fleas have been made to draw miniature cannon,
chains, and even wagons many hundred times heavier than
themselves.
The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known,
except in position. As in our bodies, some are knotted or have
ganglia, and some are not.
The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral side of the
body (Fig, 8), separates near the head, and after passing around the
œsophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the ganglia, which
serves as a brain. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and in
squeezing out the viscera of an insect are easily visible.
The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. The
heart is a long tube situated along the back, and receives the blood
at valvular openings along its sides which only permit the fluid to
pass in, when by contraction it is forced towards the head and
emptied into the general cavity. Thus the heart only serves to keep
the blood in motion. According to the best authorities, there are no
special vessels to carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they
necessary, as this nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary
canal, and thus easily receives nutriment, or gives waste by
osmosis, everywhere surrounds the tracheæ or air-tubes—the
insect's lungs—and thus receives that most needful of all food,
oxygen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, everywhere touches
the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital operations of the
animal require.
The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or
corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher animals,
and which give our blood its red color. The function of these discs is
to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried everywhere through the
body by the ubiquitous air-tubes of insects, we see the discs are not
needed. Except these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and
nourished as are other organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely
fluid, in all normal conditions, and contains not the organs
themselves or any part of them, but only the elements, which are
absorbed by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, to be
scientific, are assimilated. As the blood of insects is nearly destitute
of these discs, it is almost wholly fluid, and is almost wholly made up
of nutritious substance.

Fig. 8.

Nervous System of the Drone

magnified four times.
The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already been
referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spiracles or breathing
mouths, which vary in number. These are armed with a complex
valvular arrangement which excludes dust or other noxious particles.
These spiracles are lined with a delicate membrane which abounds
with nerves, which were referred to in speaking of them as smelling
organs. From these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig, 2, f, f′),
which breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect
organism. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main
tracheæ, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into large
air-sacks (Fig. 2, f). Insects often show a respiratory motion, which in
bees is often very marked. Newport has shown that in bees the
rapidity of the respiration gauges the heat in the hive, and thus we
see why bees, in times of severe cold, which they essay to keep at
bay by forced respiration, consume much food, exhale much foul air
and moisture, and are liable to disease. Newport found that in cases
of severe cold there would be quite a rise of mercury in a
thermometer which he suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. In
the larva state, many insects breathe by fringe-like gills. The larval
mosquito has gills in form of hairy tufts, while in the larval dragon-fly
the gills are inside the rectum, or last part of the intestine. This
insect, by a muscular effort, draws the water slowly in at the anus,
when it bathes these singularly-placed branchiæ, and then makes it
serve a further turn by forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent
darting ahead. Thus this curious apparatus not only furnishes
oxygen, but also a mode of motion. In the pupa; of insects there is
little or no motion, yet important organic changes are taking place—
the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, is soon to
appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal imago. So
oxygen, the most essential—the sine qua non—of all animal food, is
still needed. The bees are too wise to seal the brood-cell with
impervious wax, but rather add the porous capping, made of wax
and pollen. The pupæ no less than the larvæ of some two-wing flies,
which live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the
vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupæ of the
mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time when it shall
unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, has a similar arrangement
to secure the gaseous pabulum.
The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, as in
our own class of animals, varies very much in length and complexity,
as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As in mammals and birds,
the length, with some striking exceptions, varies with the food.
Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have a short alimentary canal,
while in those that feed on vegetable food it is much longer.

Fig. 9.

Alimentary Canal.
o—Honey stomach. b—True stomach.
c—Urinary tubes. d—Intestine.
The mouth I have already described. Following this is the throat
or pharynx, then the œsophagus or gullet, which may expand, as in
the bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach (Fig, 9, o), may have
an attached crop like the chicken, or may run as a uniform tube as in
our bodies, to the true stomach (Fig. 9, b). Following this is the
intestine—separated by some into an ileum and a rectum—which
ends in a vent or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in
larvæ that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this is a
viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly into the
gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in building their
structures. With it and mud some wasps make mortar; with it and
wood, others their paper cells with it and wax, the bee fashions the
ribbons that are to form the beautiful comb.
Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which
secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes the
passage of food.
 The true stomach (Fig. 9, b) is very muscular, and often a
gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with teeth. The
interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting the gastric juice
which is to liquify the food, that it may be absorbed, or pass through
the walls of the canal into the blood. Attached to the lower portion of
the stomach are numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, c) though Cuvier,
and even Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the
mucous glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas.
The intestine when short, as in larvæ and most carnivora, is
straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, while in most
plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its course. Strange as it
may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are beautiful in form,
and of others pleasant to the taste. In some caterpillars they are
barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue, and if fossilized,
would be greatly admired, as have been the coprolites—fossil feces
of quadrupeds—if set as gems in jewelry. As it is, they would form no
mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as the Aphides or plant-lice,
the excrement, as well as the fluid that escapes in some species
from special tubes called the nectaries, is very sweet, and in
absence of floral nectar, will often be appropriated by bees and
conveyed to the hives. Imagination would make this a bitter draught,
so here, as elsewhere in life, the bitter and sweet are mingled. In
those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, two-
wing flies and bugs, the feces are watery or liquid, while in case of
solid food the excrement is solid.

SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS.

I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby gives

as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though Newport gives
them as one and the same. . In many insects these seem absent. I
have also spoken of the mucous glands, the urinary tubules, etc.
Besides these, there are other secretions which serve for purposes
of defense: In the queen and workers of bees, and in ants and
wasps, the poison intruded with the sting is an example. This is
secreted by glands at the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks
(Fig, 25, c), and extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I
know of no insects that poison while they bite, except it be
mosquitoes, gnats, etc., and in these cases no special secreting
organ has been discovered. Perhaps the beak itself secretes an
irritating substance. A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are
covered with branching spines, which sting about like a nettle. We
have two such species. They are green, and of rare attraction, so
that to capture them is worth the slight inconvenience arising from
their irritating punctures. Some insects, like bugs, secrete a
disgusting fluid or gas which affords protection, as by its stench it
renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a hungry bird or half-
famished insect passes them by on the other side. Some insects
secrete a gas which is stored in a sack at the posterior end of the
body, and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger threatens
thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a retreat. I
have heard the little bombardier beetle at such times, even at
considerable distances. The frightful reports about the terrible horn
of the tomato-worm larva are mere nonsense. A more harmless
animal does not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two,
used to bring them to me last summer, and fondle them as
admiringly as would their father upon receiving them from the
delighted children.
If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that need
be feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage even they,
are seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon.

SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS.

The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig, 10, a) which are
double organs. There may be from one, as in the drone bee, to
several, as in some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In
these vesicles grow the sperm cells or spermatozoa, which, when
liberated, pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas-deferens
(Fig. 10, b, b), into the seminal sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in
connection with mucous, they are stored. In most insects there are
glandular sacks (Fig. 10, d) joined to these seminal receptacles,