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more beautiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which
are not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath,
the Carniolan or Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not
considered superior to the German and Italian.
A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually
distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos.
That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have noticed
among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give
in this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it
relates to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as
there is quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those
who are eager to know more of this interesting department of natural
history, I will not go into details.
Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. C.
About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to
the world the views then extant on this subject, gathered largely from
the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its
beauty and elegance—would that as much could be said for the
subject matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A
little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his
observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder,
who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous
opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this,
he added opinions of his own, which were not only without
foundation, but were often the perfection of absurdity.
After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no progress in
natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning, we
find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in
the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects,
also, "The Natural History of Bees." He and his English cotemporary,
Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on
the insect transformations. They also revived the study and practice
of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by Aristotle, as
the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray also gave
special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by
Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his
discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated
dictum, "Omnia ex ovo,"—all life from eggs—which was completely
established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the
middle of the 18th century, the great Linnæus—"the brilliant Star of
the North"—published his "System Naturæ," and threw a flood of
light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects
was founded upon presence, or absence, and characteristics, of
wings. This, like Swammerdam's basis, was too narrow, yet his
conclusions were remarkably correct. Linnæus is noted for his
accurate descriptions, and especially for his gift of the binomial
method of naming plants and animals, giving in the name the genus
and species, as, Apis mellifica. He was also the first to introduce
classes and orders, as we now understand them. When we consider
the amount and character of the work of the great Swede we can but
place him among the first, if not as the first, of naturalists.
Cotemporary with Linnæus (also written Linné) was Geoffroy, who
did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last half of the
century appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGeer,
who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings and
jaws, and thus discovered another of nature's keys to aid him in
unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says: "He united in himself the
highest merit of almost every department of entomology." As a
scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant historian
of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a
spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is
such an ability to observe, as was possessed by the great DeGeer.
Contemporary with Linnæus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of
France, whose experiments and researches are of special interest to
apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the
natural history of bees. Especially to be commended are his method
of experimenting, his patience in investigation, the elegance and
felicity of his word pictures, and, above all, his devotion to truth. We
shall have occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable
worker in the great shop of insect-life frequently in the following
pages. Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special interest.
Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and elucidation of
parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of reproduction—as it
occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, though he did not discover
that our bees, in the production of drones, illustrate the same
doctrine. Though the author of no system, he gave much aid to
Réaumur in his systematic labors.
At this same period systematic entomology received great aid
from Lyonnet's valuable work. This author dissected and explained
the development of a caterpillar. His descriptions and illustrations are
wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is
studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, "demonstrate the existence of
God."
We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a student of
Linnæus—who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was
revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of
America were revolutionizing government. He made the mouth
organs the basis of his classification, and thus followed in the path
which DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the
latter while Fabricius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders
are no improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct, as were his
old master's. In his description of genera—where he pretended to
follow nature—he has rendered valuable service In leading scientists
to study parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish
affinities, he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and
should be thoroughly studied by all entomologists.
Just at the close of the last century, appeared the greatest
"Roman of them all," the great Latreille, of France, whose name we
have so frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is
called the Elective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts,
transformations, in fact, all the organs—the entire structure. He gave
us our Family Apidæ, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered,
he described several of the species of this genus. In our study of this
great man's work, we constantly marvel at his extensive researches
and remarkable talents. Lamark, of this time, except that he could
see no God in nature, did very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier,
of Napoleon's time, and the learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since
then we have had hosts of workers in this field, and many worthy of
not only mention but praise; yet the work has been to rub up and
garnish, rather than to create. So I will close this brief history with a
notice of authors who are very serviceable to such as may desire to
glean farther of the treasures of systematic entomology; only
remarking that at the end of the next chapter I shall refer to those
who have been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy
and physiology of insects, especially of bees.
ANATOMY OF INSECTS.
In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions
(Fig, 2): the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs,
the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the
antennæ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives
support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of
legs; and the abdomen, which is composed of a variable number of
rings, and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when
present to the sting. Within the thorax there are little more than
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables
them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within
the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, by far the
greater and more important portions of the alimentary canal, and
other important organs.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Alimentary Canal.
o—Honey stomach. b—True stomach.
c—Urinary tubes. d—Intestine.
The mouth I have already described. Following this is the throat
or pharynx, then the œsophagus or gullet, which may expand, as in
the bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach (Fig, 9, o), may have
an attached crop like the chicken, or may run as a uniform tube as in
our bodies, to the true stomach (Fig. 9, b). Following this is the
intestine—separated by some into an ileum and a rectum—which
ends in a vent or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in
larvæ that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this is a
viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly into the
gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in building their
structures. With it and mud some wasps make mortar; with it and
wood, others their paper cells with it and wax, the bee fashions the
ribbons that are to form the beautiful comb.
Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which
secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes the
passage of food.
The true stomach (Fig. 9, b) is very muscular, and often a
gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with teeth. The
interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting the gastric juice
which is to liquify the food, that it may be absorbed, or pass through
the walls of the canal into the blood. Attached to the lower portion of
the stomach are numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, c) though Cuvier,
and even Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the
mucous glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas.
The intestine when short, as in larvæ and most carnivora, is
straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, while in most
plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its course. Strange as it
may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are beautiful in form,
and of others pleasant to the taste. In some caterpillars they are
barrel-shaped, artistically fluted, of brilliant hue, and if fossilized,
would be greatly admired, as have been the coprolites—fossil feces
of quadrupeds—if set as gems in jewelry. As it is, they would form no
mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as the Aphides or plant-lice,
the excrement, as well as the fluid that escapes in some species
from special tubes called the nectaries, is very sweet, and in
absence of floral nectar, will often be appropriated by bees and
conveyed to the hives. Imagination would make this a bitter draught,
so here, as elsewhere in life, the bitter and sweet are mingled. In
those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, two-
wing flies and bugs, the feces are watery or liquid, while in case of
solid food the excrement is solid.
The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig, 10, a) which are
double organs. There may be from one, as in the drone bee, to
several, as in some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In
these vesicles grow the sperm cells or spermatozoa, which, when
liberated, pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas-deferens
(Fig. 10, b, b), into the seminal sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in
connection with mucous, they are stored. In most insects there are
glandular sacks (Fig. 10, d) joined to these seminal receptacles,