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 PALGRAVE
STUDIES IN
LITERATURE,
SCIENCE AND
MEDICINE

Gut Feeling and Digestive

Health in Nineteenth-Century
Literature, History and Culture

EDITED BY MANON MATHIAS

AND ALISON M. MOORE
Palgrave Studies in Literature, Science and Medicine

Series Editors
Sharon Ruston
Department of English and Creative Writing
Lancaster University
Lancaster, UK

Alice Jenkins
School of Critical Studies
University of Glasgow
Glasgow, UK

Catherine Belling
Feinberg School of Medicine
Northwestern University
Chicago, IL, USA
Palgrave Studies in Literature, Science and Medicine is an exciting new
series that focuses on one of the most vibrant and interdisciplinary areas
in literary studies: the intersection of literature, science and medicine.
Comprised of academic monographs, essay collections, and Palgrave
Pivot books, the series will emphasize a historical approach to its sub-
jects, in conjunction with a range of other theoretical approaches. The
series will cover all aspects of this rich and varied field and is open to new
and emerging topics as well as established ones.

Editorial board
Steven Connor, Professor of English, University of Cambridge, UK
Lisa Diedrich, Associate Professor in Women’s and Gender Studies,
Stony Brook University, USA
Kate Hayles, Professor of English, Duke University, USA
Peter Middleton, Professor of English, University of Southampton, UK
Sally Shuttleworth, Professorial Fellow in English, St Anne’s College,
University of Oxford, UK
Susan Squier, Professor of Women’s Studies and English, Pennsylvania
State University, USA
Martin Willis, Professor of English, University of Westminster, UK

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14613
 Manon Mathias · Alison M. Moore
Editors

Gut Feeling and

Digestive Health in
Nineteenth-Century
Literature, History
and Culture
Editors
Manon Mathias Alison M. Moore
University of Glasgow Western Sydney University
Glasgow, UK Penrith, NSW, Australia

Palgrave Studies in Literature, Science and Medicine

ISBN 978-3-030-01856-6 ISBN 978-3-030-01857-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01857-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018957693

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Wellcome Library no. 35068i

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

The editors gratefully acknowledge the following individuals and institu-

tions for enabling this book to become a reality: Manon Mathias would
like to thank the following organizations for supporting the symposium:
the British Academy; the British Society for Literature and Science; the
Society for the Study of French History; the Society for French Studies;
and the University of Aberdeen School of Language, Literature, Music,
and Visual Culture. Both editors thank the Palgrave anonymous review-
ers for their helpful suggestions for improvement of this volume.
Alison M. Moore thanks Western Sydney University for providing a
Women’s Fellowship toward undergraduate teaching-relief in 2016 on
the theme of ‘Transcending the Science-Humanities Divide’, and the
British Academy for supporting her travel to the first ‘Gut Feeling’ sym-
posium organized by Manon Mathias in Aberdeen, May 2017. Alison
would also like to thank a termite’s tiny intestinal micro-organisms that
all danced an interactive wonder of inconceivable complexity before her
eyes when she misread the laboratory instruction and put water on her
slide instead of ethanol while studying physiology at the University of
New England in 2013. This experience opened a whole new world of
curiosity for her in microbiology and physiology, producing an openness
to inter-disciplinary collaboration.

v
 Contents

1 The Gut Feelings of Medical Culture 1

Manon Mathias and Alison M. Moore

2 The Great American Evil—Indigestion: Digestive

Health and Democratic Politics in Walt Whitman 15
Tripp Rebrovick

3 The “Second Brain”: Dietetics and Ideology

in Nineteenth-Century France 37
Bertrand Marquer

4 Situating the Anal Freud in Nineteenth-Century

Imaginaries of Excrement and Colonial Primitivity 55
Alison M. Moore

5 Food for Thought: Consuming and Digesting

as Political Metaphor in French Satirical Prints 85
Dorothy Johnson

6 Being “Hangry”: Gastrointestinal Health

and Emotional Well-Being in the Long
Nineteenth Century 109
Emilie Taylor-Brown

vii
viii    Contents

7 Visceralism and the Superior Mind in French

Medicine and Literature, 1750–1850 133
Anne Vila

8 Digestion and Brain Work in Zola and Huysmans 155

Manon Mathias

9 Textual (In)Digestions in Flaubert, Zola

and Huysmans: Accumulation, Extraction, Regulation 177
Larry Duffy

10 Hygiene, Food and Digestion in Post-Unified Italy:

Paolo Mantegazza’s Medicine in the Kitchen
and Beyond (1861–1900) 205
Cristiano Turbil

11 The State and the Stomach: Feeding the Social

Organism in 1830s New England 225
Molly S. Laas

12 Food Faiths: Gut Science and Spiritual Eating 243

Catherine L. Newell

Index 261
 Contributors

Larry Duffy University of Kent, Canterbury, UK

Dorothy Johnson University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
Molly S. Laas University of Göttingen Medical School, Göttingen,
Germany
Bertrand Marquer University of Strasbourg and Institut Universitaire
de France, Strasbourg, France
Manon Mathias University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Alison M. Moore Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
Catherine L. Newell University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
Tripp Rebrovick Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
Emilie Taylor-Brown St Anne’s College, University of Oxford, Oxford,
UK
Cristiano Turbil Historian of Science and Medicine, King’s College
London, London, UK
Anne Vila University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

ix
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Gustave Dore’s illustration of Gargantua for the 1928

Garnier edition of Rabelais’ text that Freud read before
the dream described in The Interpretation of Dreams, 8th
edition. Wikimedia Commons 65
Fig. 5.1 Anonymous, Le Ci-Devant Grand Couvert de Gargantua
moderne en famille, 1791, engraving, Bibliothèque Nationale
de France, Paris 90
Fig. 5.2 Les formes acerbes, etching attributed to a drawing of Lafitte
after Poirier de Dunkerque, 1795, Bibliothèque nationale
de France, Paris 92
Fig. 5.3 Anonymous, Un monstre à trois têtes désignant les trois états
de l’aristocratie, colored etching, 1790, British Museum,
Trustees of the British Museum 93
Fig. 5.4 James Gillray, Un petit souper, à la Parisienne;—or—A Family
of Sans-culottes Refreshing After the Fatigues
of the Day, colored etching, 1792, British Museum,
Trustees of the British Museum 95
Fig. 5.5 Jacques-Louis David, The English Government, 1794,
engraving, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 99
Fig. 5.6 Jacques-Louis David, The Royal Army of Jugs, 1794,
engraving, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 99
Fig. 5.7 Honoré Daumier, Gargantua, December 16, 1831,
lithograph. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 103

xi
 CHAPTER 1

The Gut Feelings of Medical Culture

Manon Mathias and Alison M. Moore

There is no doubt that the idea of gut health having systemic effects on
human physiology is an ancient one, as countless health enthusiasts today
pronounce with reference to supposed quotations from Hippocrates.1
But in the nineteenth century, a critical mass of doctors, psychiatrists,
novelists, artists, ethnographers, politicians, and religious leaders all
began to consider that digestive function principally influenced both
emotion and cognition, often dynamically engaging with such ideas
across wide disciplinary divides. Such reflections on the relationship
between the digestive system and the mind spread far beyond medical
journals and clinical practices, representative of the new popular enthusi-
asm for scientific thought in nineteenth-century cultures, which resulted

1 On the modern “invention” of Hippocratic medicine, see Cantor, “Introduction: The

Uses and Meanings of Hippocrates”; King, “Hippocrates Didn’t Write the Oath, so Why Is
He the Father of Medicine?”.

M. Mathias (*)
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
A. M. Moore
Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

© The Author(s) 2018 1

M. Mathias and A. M. Moore (eds.), Gut Feeling and Digestive
Health in Nineteenth-Century Literature, History and Culture,
Palgrave Studies in Literature, Science and Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01857-3_1
2 M. MATHIAS AND A. M. MOORE

in a broad range of genres through which evocation of the gut was imag-
inatively expressed.
This book is about that shifting focus on gut health in its relation to
the mind and emotion, as epitomized in the English-language expres-
sion that refers to intuition as “gut feeling”. But it is also a book about
the emergence of this medical concept throughout literary, artistic, reli-
gious, nationalist, and ethnographic forms of representation. Embedded
in this expression is the notion that the gut is the first part of the body
to respond to the environment, producing an emotional sixth sense that
then governs rational thought processes. This concept is not so foreign
to our current physiological models in which the intestinal tract from
mouth to anus is described as an exterior organ that mediates between
the outside world and the internal viscera, with the intestinal epithelium
providing an immunological gateway between self and other.2 But our
current medical models too have recently been undergoing an important
shift toward even greater systemic emphasis on the importance of diges-
tive function and intestinal microbiota.
In fact, we are living in an exciting moment for ideas about the diges-
tive system since there is currently an explosion of scientific research
in relation to the “gut-brain axis”, suggesting that the gut microbi-
ome may have a much larger role in human physiology than was pre-
viously realized, influencing not only gastrointestinal health itself, but
also obesity, metabolic health,3 the immune system,4 cognitive function,
mental illness, and neurodegenerative diseases.5 In alternative health

2 Silverthorn,
Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach, 698.
3 Belei
et al., “The Relationship Between Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver disease and
Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth Among Overweight and Obese Children and
Adolescents”; Vrieze et al., “Transfer of Intestinal Microbiota from Lean Donors
Increases Insulin Sensitivity in Individuals with Metabolic Syndrome”; and Müller et al.,
“Gastrointestinal Transit Time, Glucose Homeostasis and Metabolic Health: Modulation
by Dietary Fibres.”
4 Tripathi et al., “Intermittent Hypoxia and Hypercapnia, a Hallmark of Obstructive

Sleep Apnea, Alters the Gut Microbiome and Metabolome”; Armstrong and Armstrong,
“Interactions of Gut Microbiota, Endotoxemia, Immune Function, and Diet in Exertional
Heatstroke.”
5 Magnusson et al., “Relationship Between Diet-Related Changes in the Gut Microbiome

and Cognitive Flexibility”; Nguyen et al., “Overview and Systematic Review of Studies of
Microbiome in Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder”; and Westfalls et al., “Microbiome,
Probiotics and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Deciphering the Gut Brain Axis.”
 1 THE GUT FEELINGS OF MEDICAL CULTURE 3

communities over the past ten years, there has been an immense growth
of popular interest in matters relating to the gut, as evidenced by the
emergence of functional medicine in the USA, which has a strong focus
on intestinal balance as the key to health and longevity. The opening
pages of the work Unconventional Medicine, by the American functional
health clinician Chris Kresser (one of the most influential figures of that
movement) begins with the story of a child patient whose profound
behavioral problems were found to correlate with severe intestinal bacte-
rial imbalance, managed finally by a drastic change of diet.6 The success
of the bestselling book Gut, the Inside Story (2014) by the German gas-
troenterology PhD student, Giulia Enders, is a clear indication of how
much questions of intestinal health are now seen as central among read-
ers of books about health.7 Popular interest in questions relating to the
“gut-brain axis” proposed by increasing numbers of scientific researchers
has been stimulated in recent years by the publication of articles on the
web-based Nature.com8 and in The Lancet.9 It has now become common
to hear even popular health enthusiasts cite the fact that there are more
microbial cells in our bodies than the cells of the human body itself.10
The implications of how we understand our “selves” is clearly suggesting
a new vision of the human as multi-genomic, individualized as much by
the composition of our gut micro-organisms as by our personalities, con-
stituted as much by the life-forms living inside us as by our own genetic
inheritance. There has also been a growth of interest specifically in ideas
about the relationship between gut function and mental health, as a
result of scientific work that has shown that the vagus nerve mediates
neurotransmitter balance via the enteric nervous system, which was pop-
ularized in a series of recent articles in the web-based Psychology Today.11

6 Kresser, Unconventional Medicine.

7 Enders, Gut.
8 https://www.nature.com/collections/dyhbndhpzv, accessed 12 October 2017.

9 http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-1253(17)30147-4/

fulltext, accessed 12 October 2017.

10 Yong, I Contain Multitudes.

11 https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-athletes-way/201708/the-microbi-

ome-gut-brain-axis-relies-your-vagus-nerve, accessed 12 October 2017; https://www.

psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-waves/201606/what-we-have-second-brain-the-mi-
crobiota-gut-brain-axis. http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langas/article/PIIS2468-
1253(17)30147-4/fulltext, accessed 12 October 2017.
4 M. MATHIAS AND A. M. MOORE

Central to this area of scholarship, which has boomed since the turn
of the twenty-first century, is the importance of transnational team
research, as biochemists, neurologists, endocrinologists, immunologists,
gastroenterologists, and microbiologists from different parts of the world
work together on questions such as the potential links between the gut
and depression, cognitive decline, or mental illness. In our book, we
have taken a similar approach toward our humanistic inquiry into nine-
teenth-century ideas about “gut feeling”. Bringing together eleven
scholars with wide interdisciplinary expertise, this volume examines lit-
eral and metaphorical digestion in a range of spheres in nineteenth-­
century life and asks why digestive health mattered for modern culture.
Focusing on Northern America and Europe from the perspectives of lit-
erary studies; history of science and medicine; art history; politics; eth-
nography; and religious studies, we have targeted three central questions:
Which meanings were given to the digestive system in the writings and
culture of this period? How did these meanings differ between particular
national contexts or transfer across them globally? How do these find-
ings help us better understand the relationship between the body and the
mind?
By looking at digestive health from a historical and cultural perspec-
tive, this volume offers distinctive insights into an emergent area of med-
icine that now so emphatically integrates the body, the mind, and the
emotions. However novel the new gut-brain axis science may seem, in
fact many individuals who engaged with medical thought in the nine-
teenth century drew intuitive conclusions of a similar nature. And just as
today we see the gut taking center stage in popular health movements,
so too in the nineteenth century it was an area of medicine particularly
amenable to vulgarization. Of course, nineteenth-century explanations
of the role of digestion in cognition, emotion, personality, and general
health were speculative and often widely imaginative in contrast to the
well-formulated mechanistic models suggested by scientists today.
But we should not fall prey to the easy tendency to mock the past as
a means of elevating our present achievements. Without the creative cul-
tural imagination of “gut feeling” elaborated in the culture of the long
nineteenth century, it seems unlikely that medical researchers would ever
have thought to look for ways in which digestion regulates other physi-
ological functions, including those within the brain, or notice evidence
of it doing so. Scientists do not operate in a vacuum but are embedded
in cultural traditions and discourses, using both their left and right brain
 1 THE GUT FEELINGS OF MEDICAL CULTURE 5

hemispheres to produce hypotheses that are triangulations of both deduc-

tive and inductive processing, both logical and intuitive reflection.12
Until now there has been little attempt to contextualize current ideas
about the gut in scientific thought via a retrieval of older cultural dis-
courses of “gut feeling”. In fact, there has been strikingly little contri-
bution to the emerging reimagination of gut health from scholars in the
humanities. Since 2000, there has been a growing interest in food stud-
ies, a field populated mainly by historians and sociologists, which consid-
ers issues such as anorexia, obesity, and the social significance of eating
practices.13 Literary and cultural studies scholars have also shown great
interest in corporality in recent decades, such as the consideration of lit-
erary texts themselves as “bodies”, and the reading of the body as a tex-
tual surface or performative act.14 Within medical history, there has been
some interest in the history of the stomach, mainly focusing on gastric
illness, constipation, and neurology.15 But none of these areas has taken
the operations of the digestive system as the central focus of inquiry.
Over recent decades, interdisciplinary approaches have been successfully
applied to the body in areas such as disability studies, history of sexuality,
and the history of contagious disease,16 but the time is now ripe to bring
such a methodology to bear on digestive health.
Whereas many studies privilege either the medical or the cultural, this
study draws attention to the dynamic flows between medical thought
and culture, highlighting, in particular, the importance of emotion in
questions of gut health, as reflected in the title’s reference to “gut feel-
ing”. The volume suggests a new approach to corporality by looking at

12 See McGilchrist, The Master and His Emissary.

13 Forth and Carden-Coyne, eds., Cultures of the Abdomen; Wagner and Hassan, eds.,
Consuming Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century; Coveney, Food, Morals and Meaning;
and Fischler, L’homnivore.
14 Butler, Bodies That Matter; Grosz, Volatile Bodies. For examples of studies which

explore the relations between text and body in particular authors, see, for example,
Goellner and Murphy, eds., Bodies of the Text; Harrow, Zola, The Body Modern; and
Georgopoulou, The Body as Text in Shakespeare’s Plays.
15 Miller, A Modern History of the Stomach; Whorton, Inner Hygiene; and Salisbury and

Shail, eds., Neurology and Modernity.

16 Roulstone, Disability and Technology; Fischer and Toulalan, eds., Bodies, Sex and Desire

from the Renaissance to the Present; Bladerston and Guy, eds., Sex and Sexuality in Latin
America; Moore, ed., Sexing Political Culture in the History of France; and Rütten and
King, eds., Contagionism and Contagious Diseases.
6 M. MATHIAS AND A. M. MOORE

the mid-lower body and its functions, but with a rigorous focus on the
digestive system, rather than the important but much-studied questions
of obesity or anorexia. In so doing, it advances the humanistic study of
digestive health, an area of research which is today attracting major sci-
entific attention, yet whose historical and cultural significance remains
relatively unexplored.
By concentrating on this part of the body, our study challenges the
existing literature on food in the nineteenth century, which has mostly
examined gastronomy or social attitudes to eating rather than gastric
health, regarded as puerile, unsavory, or simply irrelevant because it is
assumed (incorrectly) to vary little across time and place. By opening up
a cultural exploration of gastrointestinal health, the volume reveals its
essential importance not only in current medicine and science but also
in past politics, literature, art, ethnography, psychiatry, emotional health,
intellectual processes, morality, and spirituality. As this list shows, the
range of sources considered in the volume is broad, requiring an equally
broad multi-disciplinary expertise, comprising literary studies, history of
emotions, history of science and medicine, religious studies, politics, art
history, and the history of anthropology and ethnography. Combined
with this rich range of methodologies is a focus on changing views of
the digestive system in nineteenth-century culture, as all chapters address
the significance of gastric well-being in the period and its implications for
our understanding of mind and body.
This is the first book then to consider digestive health in the nine-
teenth century from these mulitple combined angles. Each chapter
focuses on a particular cultural context, time period, individual, text,
visual material, or social theory, but all chapters address the meanings and
significance of digestive health in modern culture. Given the centrality of
the stomach in France in this period, especially in the fields of preven-
tive medicine, alienist thought, gastronomy, and the novel—four fields in
which the country was a leading force at this point—several essays take
a French focus. These concerns, however, are part of a broader inter-
national discussion surrounding the place of the digesting body within
modern society, and the volume examines the different permutations of
this theme in other emerging industrial nations, in particular Northern
America, Germanic Europe, Italy, colonial Australia, and Britain.
It was during the nineteenth century that the growth of sedentary
forms of middle-class labor in these countries prompted new med-
ical concerns about digestion and constipation, and research into
 1 THE GUT FEELINGS OF MEDICAL CULTURE 7

gastrointestinal ailments focused on the links between the stomach and

the brain both in the sense of cognitive capacity and mental health.
Modern society’s dualistic relationship with food and eating also began
to solidify in our period of focus. The ethical and moral understanding of
eating—derived from ancient Greek and Medieval Christian societies—
continued to provide the basis for individual and political engagements
with the notion of digestive health as a question of “hygiene”. At the
same time, biochemical, physiological, and nutritional discoveries rapidly
changed the scientific understanding of digestion and began to ration-
alize the eating process with unprecedented levels of detail. This com-
bination of both a rich moral and mechanistic understanding of food
continues to influence our conflicted relationship with the digesting
body today. It was also in the nineteenth century that cities throughout
the industrializing world faced crises in their urban sewerage systems that
were ill-equipped for the sudden population increases that were occur-
ring. These crises produced “great stinks” that brought excrement into
popular representation in new ways.
This was also the moment at which nation-states formed and
expanded their power through imperial conquest, and medicine became
increasingly intertwined with the state both at the metropolitan national
level and in the colonies. Colonial power brought new and exotic food
consumption possibilities to the burgeoning middle classes of the indus-
trialized cities. Within these contexts, digestion became political, liter-
ally, and figuratively. Finally, the 1800s witnessed an explosion of literary,
journalistic, and culinary writings on food, eating, and health, and a
rapid rise in public literacy led to an expanding market for such materials.
The volume focuses on these key trends by concentrating on digestion
in relation to science, politics, and literature, providing a vital starting
point for cultural and historical work on the emerging interdisciplinary
field of gastrointestinal health. It will appeal to scholars and students of
mind and body studies in literature, history, religious studies, the history
of medicine and science, and visual studies, but also to health practition-
ers interested in the history of the digesting body.
Section One analyzes the importance of digestion on both a literal
and figurative level within different spheres of political discourse, from
French satirical prints to colonialist accounts of subjugated cultures.
Tripp Rebrovick’s essay offers an excellent example of the intersections
between politics, literature, and science in the mid-nineteenth century
and the importance of both the moral and the rational in questions of
8 M. MATHIAS AND A. M. MOORE

digestive health. Introducing readers to a newly discovered manu-

script by poet Walt Whitman, Rebrovick explores Whitman’s reshaping
of humoral medicine in the language of nutrition science and argues
that digestion was political for Whitman both in the sense of national
American health and individual virtue. Bertrand Marquer’s piece further
examines the connections between digestion, politics, and literature by
exploring the concept of the second brain and the importance of physiol-
ogy in nineteenth-century French literature and ideology.
Alison Moore broadens the scope of the inquiry by considering the
anal dimension of Freud’s theories about civilization, arguing that these
were heavily informed by nineteenth-century colonialist, ethnographical
and anthropological studies in their discussion of excrement in “primi-
tive” cultures. Her essay reveals the essential importance of reflections on
defecation within Freudian thought but shows that this dimension has
not hitherto been appropriately contextualized. Dorothy Johnson culmi-
nates this section on politics by demonstrating the role of digestive meta-
phors as a form of political critique in French art, influenced not only by
caricatural prints from the French Revolution but also by British satirists.
The essays in Section Two offer new understandings of the connec-
tions between digestive processes and the process of writing, such as the
metaphorical ingestion of medical discourses in naturalist novels or the
links made between gastric ailments and the literary mind. The first essay
in this section continues to draw inter-continental comparisons, as Emilie
Taylor-Brown examines what was considered to be the peculiarly English
phenomenon of dyspepsia, viewed as absent from France and Italy in
this period due to their gastronomic culture. The essay engages explic-
itly with the question of emotion and sensibility through the notion of
being “hangry”, a recurring phenomenon in nineteenth-century debates
on the relationship between the digestive and psychiatric systems. Anne
Vila further probes the question of psycho-gastric links in an essay
which explores the belief—held by physicians and literary writers in the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries—that the viscera might
be at the very root of intellectual and aesthetic processes. Focusing on
Voltaire, Diderot, and Balzac, Vila’s essay shows the prevalence of mind-
body connections especially in French conceptions of the writer at this
point.
Manon Mathias develops the exploration of relations between litera-
ture, mind, and body by reading French novels from the second half of
the century. Her essay compares these novels with contemporary health
 1 THE GUT FEELINGS OF MEDICAL CULTURE 9

manuals and demonstrates their shared interest in the links between

poor digestion and intellectual ability. Mathias argues that both catego-
ries of text seem to celebrate this link but shows that novelists Zola and
Huysmans also drew on images of digestion and excretion to write about
the release from physicality, in a paradoxical codependence. Many essays
in the volume explore the slippage between literal and metaphorical
digestion, and Larry Duffy furthers this exploration by looking at cases
of actual indigestion in late nineteenth-century French novels and the
concurrent, metaphorical ingestion of medical discourses by naturalist
writers. His essay thus argues for the centrality of digestion in thinking
about the development of discourses of knowledge.
Section Three, examining the place of digestion within nutrition sci-
ence, comparative anatomy, and physiology, considers how the evolv-
ing understanding of digestion intertwined with the political, literary,
and moral spheres. Opening this final section, Cristiano Turbil’s essay
on post-unification Italy considers the elaboration and dissemination of
knowledge by revealing the importance of food science and digestion in
Italian public health policy in the 1860s and 1870s. He uses this discus-
sion as a basis for examining the communication of medical advice in the
Italian popular context. Public health is similarly at the center of Molly
Laas’s essay, but this time in the context of 1830s New England and with
a focus on the laborer. Laas examines the use of comparative anatomy
by reformer Sylvester Graham and physician Luther Bell in debates sur-
rounding “proper” diet for workers, debates which ultimately revolved
around questions of social structure and national morality. It is therefore
shown that digestive health was at the center not only of science and
medicine but also of political and national discourse.
The final essay in the collection, Catherine Newell’s discussion of
Sylvester Graham’s science, continues the focus on national health
and also ties in with the other sections’ focus on the moral and politi-
cal dimension of digestion and the importance of writing and language
in this debate. However, it also brings in the question of spirituality, as
Newell considers Graham’s diet and popular adherence to it as a form
of spiritual belief. Her essay shows how Graham used physiological
and nutritional science as a basis for theories of spiritual well-being and
argues that this particular combination continues to influence and inform
certain conceptions of health and wellness in the twenty-first century.
Given the tight focus of the volume, which arises directly from a work-
shop aimed at publication, there are several interconnections between
10 M. MATHIAS AND A. M. MOORE

sections and within individual essays. For example, the political dimen-
sion is examined not only in Section One but also in many essays in
Section Three, and in several essays, the scientific and the literary are nat-
urally intertwined.
The volume has a broad geographic scope, with chapters focused on
French culture (Marquer, Johnston, Vila, Mathias, and Duffy), several
on the USA (Rebrovick, Laas, Newell), one on England (Taylor-Brown),
one on Italy (Turbil), and one spanning Germanic, American, British,
French, and Australian sources (Moore). The slight concentration of
focus on French culture is a product of the topic in question: France
was a striking example of fascination with questions of the gut during
the nineteenth century, in part due to its strong materialist intellectual
heritage, the importance of realist currents in its literary traditions, and
the crises of its urban development and disease epidemics producing a
sudden growth in medical knowledge of bacteria and intestinal illnesses.
These crises were important drivers of the microbial discoveries of Louis
Pasteur and the international medical shift toward a “germ theory” of
disease in 1850–1870. The sudden changes in lifeways of the rapidly
growing sedentary middle classes in this period also meant that those
cultures with the most urban development faced new problems of intes-
tinal health on a mass scale, hence the preponderance of representations
from France, England, and the USA.
This collection of essays does not offer a history of only one part of
the digestive system: Such studies already exist such as Ian Miller’s A
Modern History of the Stomach (2011), and James Whorton’s Inner
Hygiene (2000) with its focus on constipation; nor does it focus uniquely
on the emergence of medical specialists of the gut such as W.F. Bynum’s
edited collection, Gastroenterology in Britain (1997).17 Neither is this
a book on food studies in the sense of cuisine, gastronomy, eating cus-
toms, eating disorders, or weight management. The focus is specifically
on the digestive system: the volume concentrates on modern Western
culture as an intellectual space in which a distinct set of practices and
attitudes toward the gut began to solidify in the nineteenth century,
particularly the tensions between the physical and the moral, emo-
­
tional, or psychological. The book does not intend to offer a survey of

17 Miller, A Modern History of the Stomach; Whorton, Inner Hygiene; and Bynum, ed.,

Gastroenterology in Britain.
 1 THE GUT FEELINGS OF MEDICAL CULTURE 11

attitudes toward digestive health in Western culture in general, and the

approach is not one of comprehensive coverage. Rather, it highlights
specific national contexts—especially France, Britain, and the USA—
where strong preoccupations with questions of digestion appeared dur-
ing the nineteenth century as well as considering the global exchanges
across cultures in relation to such questions. Politics, science, and liter-
ature are shown to be important domains in which this preoccupation
manifested itself, in tandem with each other and with different areas of
nineteenth-century life including visual culture, spirituality, and emotion.
One of the aims of the book is to open up further lines of inquiry,
and we gesture to the role of digestion in further areas such as sport,
education, or the popular media that appear rich for exploration by
other scholars. More work also needs to be undertaken on the history of
gut-mind connections in non-Western cultures, particularly in Chinese,
Vedic, and indigenous medical knowledges. A further fruitful line of
scholarly inquiry would be to consider whether the rich literary engage-
ments with gut health persists in today’s cultural productions such as
novels, artworks, and films. In short, we hope that this collection will
inspire further scholars to engage in research on digestive well-being
from a humanities perspective, paving the way for a genuinely interdisci-
plinary approach to gut health.

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 CHAPTER 2

The Great American Evil—Indigestion:

Digestive Health and Democratic
Politics in Walt Whitman

Tripp Rebrovick

In 1858, writing under the pseudonym Mose Velsor, Walt Whitman

published a series of thirteen essays entitled “Manly Health and
­
Training” that covered a range of subjects relating to nutrition, health,
and regimen. This study situates Whitman’s essays within dietetic debates
of the mid-nineteenth century and focuses in particular on Whitman’s
response to the works of the German chemist Justus von Liebig and the
American moral reformer Sylvester Graham. Liebig and Graham pro-
vided Whitman with the critical concepts that structured and informed
his inquiry. Throughout the essays Whitman advanced two central and
connected claims, first, that indigestion was “the great American evil”
threatening the health of the American body politic and, second, that the
healthiest diet consisted almost exclusively of meat. Whitman’s concern
about widespread indigestion tracked Liebig and Graham closely, but his
resistance to vegetarianism, I contend, is best understood as a rejection

T. Rebrovick (*)
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA

© The Author(s) 2018 15

M. Mathias and A. M. Moore (eds.), Gut Feeling and Digestive
Health in Nineteenth-Century Literature, History and Culture,
Palgrave Studies in Literature, Science and Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01857-3_2
16 T. REBROVICK

of the Christian moralism, typified by Graham, that usually accompanied

vegetarianism in the nineteenth century.
As I will explain shortly, mid-nineteenth-century Euro-American die-
tetic discourse was in the midst of a fundamental transformation. The
classical tenets of humoral medicine were being slowly abandoned in
favor of the principles articulated by the modern sciences of chemis-
try and biology. In light of this context, “Manly Health and Training”
(hereafter MH&T) deserves a close study for a few reasons. First, it
exemplifies and testifies to the fading power of humoral dietetics as an
explanatory regime whose recommendations nevertheless continued to
be authoritative even after its epistemic sources had lost their credibility.
Whitman rehearses the standard humoral advice about moderate diet and
exercise, but he justifies his recommendations by drawing on the new sci-
entific understandings of the body. I focus on Whitman’s liminal position
throughout the essay in order to demonstrate and substantiate a point
I have made elsewhere about the history of dietetic discourses.1 A die-
tetic discourse, I argue following Foucault, constitutes its own unique
object of knowledge and gives rise to distinct practices that assume the
existence of that object.2 Discourses, however, are not “hermetically
sealed, monolithic truth regimes”3 but structured sets of concepts and
practices that can and do overlap. Sometimes they reinforce each other,
sometimes they conflict. Whitman’s essays exemplify this permeable char-
acteristic of discursive formations. Second, MH&T clarifies many of the
mysterious references to food and diet from Whitman’s signed poetry
and prose by revealing the poet’s influences and interlocutors. With one
prominent exception (to be discussed below), Whitman’s references to
food and diet in Leaves of Grass (1892) and Democratic Vistas (1871)
are consistent with the ideas and prescriptions of MH&T. And third,
MH&T explicitly connects proper diet, healthy digestion, and bod-
ily fitness to broader debates concerning political virtues and formulae
for successful democratic institutions. Whitman argued, in line with the
dietary reformers of his day, that widespread indigestion was a pressing
political problem preventing American citizens from reaching their full-
est potential, perfection, and health. Digestion was political for Whitman

1 Rebrovick, “The Politics of Diet: ‘Eco-Dietetics,’ Neoliberalism, and the History of

Dietetic Discourses.”
2 Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge; and, the Discourse on Language.

3 Taylor, “Foucault on Freedom and Truth,” 279.

 2 THE GREAT AMERICAN EVIL—INDIGESTION … 17

insofar as healthy bodies required proper diet, while democracy, in

turn, required a host of healthy bodies able to fully digest their food.
Whitman’s essays demonstrate the political work of digestion and cul-
tural understandings thereof.

Liebig and Graham
Before the emergence of nutrition science in the nineteenth century,
the dominant dietetic discourse in European medicine was the system
of humoral medicine.4 According to the tenets of humoral medicine, all
entities in the cosmos—food and the human body included—were com-
posed of four specific properties or qualities (hot, cold, wet, and dry).
Humoralism thereby understood digestion as the assimilation of the
qualities of the food by the eater.5 With the rise of nutritionism, how-
ever, food and the human body came to be understood as sets of com-
ponents or nutrients, i.e., collections of chemicals rather than collections
of qualities.6 Chemical constituents (eventually encompassing carbohy-
drates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals) replaced the four humors
(blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) as the building blocks of
both food and the body. Human bodies ceased to be balanced organic
systems assimilating the qualities of their foods and became instead
motors or machines requiring food as fuel.
A central figure in effecting this transition was the German chem-
ist Justus von Liebig. In particular, Liebig revolutionized the fields of
plant and animal nutrition, first, by arguing that plants required miner-
als and not just organic matter to grow, and, second, by describing ideal
human diets in terms of their nutritional or chemical components rather
than in terms of their agreement with the temperament or constitution
of the eater. In his text Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and
Physiology (1842), Liebig argued that plants required minerals, especially
nitrogen, in order to grow.7 In the Familiar Letters on Chemistry (1843),
Liebig’s more widely circulated and popular text, he explained his new

4 Temkin, Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy.

5 Shapin, “‘You Are What You Eat.’”
6 Scrinis, “On the Ideology of Nutritionism”; Scrinis, Nutritionism; and Shapin, “‘You

Are What You Eat.’”

7 Liebig, Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and Physiology.
18 T. REBROVICK

theories of digestion to general audiences.8 Liebig’s conclusions about

plant nutrition paved the way for industrial agriculture and its use of
chemical fertilizers, while his theories of animal nutrition helped end the
reign of humoral dietetics and cement nutritionism as the dominant die-
tetic regime. In order to contextualize Liebig’s innovations, I will now
survey in more detail the dominant theory of digestion that prevailed in
humoral medicine.
According to the humoral doctors, Galen especially, digestion is a
linear sequence that includes the heating of food within the stomach
in a process typically known as concoction. In this model, indigestion
and other stomach problems are explained by a dearth of natural heat
in the stomach, either because the body’s heat is being used elsewhere
for another activity like thinking or walking, or because the body’s over-
all stores of heat are low due to old age or disease. Even Kant accepted
as fact that “intellectual work diverts vital energy from the stomach and
bothers it.”9 According to the humoral model, the body is endowed with
a finite amount of natural heat and vital spirits to consume over its life-
time. Moderating food intake, then, could prolong life by limiting the
amount of heat used to consume and digest food.
With Liebig, however, digestion ceased to be a linear sequence.
Instead, digestion became bifurcated into two distinct, parallel pro-
cesses, one supplying nutrients for the reproduction of bodily tissue, and
the other supplying energy by means of respiration. In Familiar Letters,
Liebig divided “all the substances which constitute” food “into two
great classes.”10 The first class contributes to the “nutrition and repro-
duction of the animal body,”11 while the second helps create “animal
heat” by combusting with the oxygen in the air.12 In Liebig’s system,
rather than consuming or using up the body’s vital spirits, digestion
created new heat for the body to use. The body’s store of heat was no
longer finite but was replenished at each meal. Rather than analogiz-
ing the stomach to a candle, as the humoral authors often did, Liebig

8 Liebig, Familiar Letters on Chemistry and Its Relation to Commerce, Physiology, and

Agriculture.
9 Kant, The Conflict of the Faculties (Der Streit Der Fakultäten), 199.

10 Liebig, Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, 64.

11 Ibid.

12 Ibid., 70.
 2 THE GREAT AMERICAN EVIL—INDIGESTION … 19

compared the stomach to “a furnace which we supply with fuel.”13

Liebig’s furnace metaphor is especially significant for its comparison of
the human body to an artificial machine rather than an organic body.
Understood as a machine, the human body’s powers and capabilities
could be known and studied through quantification and thereby be
manipulated in order to achieve maximum productivity. According to
the mechanical model of the body, fatigue resulted from a lack of energy
in the body rather than a constitutional or moral defect. Liebig’s nutri-
tional chemistry, in this manner, helped complete the modern rejection
of Aristotelian teleology and natural philosophy.
Of equal significance, moreover, was Liebig’s focus on the compo-
nents or nutrients of food, rather than the qualities, and the consequent
emphasis on the quantification of proper diets.14 Liebig’s divisions of
foods into classes eventually morphed into the contemporary division
between proteins, carbohydrates, and fats (vitamins and minerals were
not discovered until the 1920s), and quantification of these compo-
nents was quickly incorporated into diet recommendations. By the turn
of the twentieth century, definite amounts of specific nutrients were
recommended in popularly distributed nutrition tables.15 This sort of
dietary knowledge vastly expanded the possibilities of what Foucault
has called “biopolitics.”16 With the discovery of various components of
foods, populations could be known, represented, and mapped according
to their quantifiable nutritional needs. A population, for example, can
be known and represented as an aggregate number of calories needed
per day. Lastly, the reduction of food to chemical constituents enabled
dietary advice to be targeted to human bodies in general in contrast to
the humoral emphasis on tailoring diet to individual temperament or
constitution.
Liebig, moreover, was known not only for his popular texts, but also
for the commodities that bore his name. After experimenting with differ-
ent kinds of plant fertilizer, Liebig turned his attentions to commercial
food products. In the 1860s, his company began to sell and market one

13 Liebig, Familiar Letters on Chemistry and Its Relation to Commerce, Physiology, and

Agriculture, 74.
14 Rebrovick, “The Politics of Diet: ‘Eco-Dietetics,’ Neoliberalism, and the History of

Dietetic Discourses”; Scrinis, Nutritionism; and Shapin, “‘You Are What You Eat.’”
15 Cullather, “The Foreign Policy of the Calorie”; Levine, School Lunch Politics.

16 Foucault, Security, Territory, Population.

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119—Two-Handed Mat. By Jos. E. Badger.
120—Mad Trail Hunter. By Harry Hazard.
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125—The Girl Captain. By Jos. E. Badger.
126—Yankee Eph. By J.R. Worcester.
127—Silverspur. By Edward Willett.
128—Squatter Dick. By Jos. E. Badger.
129—The Child Spy. By George Gleason.
130—Mink Coat. By Jos. E. Badger.
131—Red Plume. By J. Stanley Henderson.
132—Clyde, the Trailer. By Maro O. Rolfe.
133—The Lost Cache. J. Stanley Henderson.
134—The Cannibal Chief. Paul J. Prescott.
135—Karaibo. By J. Stanley Henderson.
136—Scarlet Moccasin. By Paul Bibbs.
137—Kidnapped. By J. Stanley Henderson.
138—Maid of the Mountain. By Hamilton.
139—The Scioto Scouts. By Ed. Willett.
140—The Border Renegade. By Badger.
141—The Mute Chief. By C.D. Clark.
142—Boone, the Hunter. By Whittaker.
143—Mountain Kate. By Jos. E. Badger, Jr.
144—The Red Scalper. By W J. Hamilton.
 145—The Lone Chief. By Jos. E. Badger, Jr.
146—The Silver Bugle. Lieut. Col. Hazleton.
147—Chinga, the Cheyenne. By Edward S. Ellis.
148—The Tangled Trail. By Major Max Martine.
149—The Unseen Hand. By J.S. Henderson.
150—The Lone Indian. By Capt. C. Howard.
151—The Branded Brave. By Paul Bibbs.
152—Billy Bowlegs. The Seminole Chief.
153—The Valley Scout. By Seelin Robins.
154—Red Jacket. By Paul Bibbs.
155—The Jungle Scout. Ready
156—Cherokee Chief. Ready
157—The Bandit Hermit. Ready
158—The Patriot Scouts. Ready
159—The Wood Rangers.
160—The Red Foe. Ready
161—The Beautiful Unknown.
162—Canebrake Mose. Ready
163—Hank, the Guide. Ready
164—The Border Scout. Ready Oct. 5th.
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