Full Download First Aid For The Basic Sciences. General Principles Tao Le PDF
Full Download First Aid For The Basic Sciences. General Principles Tao Le PDF
Full Download First Aid For The Basic Sciences. General Principles Tao Le PDF
com
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-
for-the-basic-sciences-general-principles-
tao-le/
textbookfull
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-cases-for-the-usmle-
step-1-tao-le/
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-for-the-usmle-
step-1-2021-tao-le/
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-for-the-usmle-
step-1-2019-twenty-ninth-edition-tao-le/
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-for-the-usmle-
step-1-2019-twenty-ninth-edition-tao-le-2/
First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2020, 30th Anniversary
Edition Tao Le
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-for-the-usmle-
step-1-2020-30th-anniversary-edition-tao-le/
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-for-the-usmle-
step-1-2020-thirtieth-edition-30th-edition-tao-le/
https://textbookfull.com/product/basic-illustrated-wilderness-
first-aid-second-edition-william-w-forgey/
https://textbookfull.com/product/first-aid-for-the-usmle-
step-1-2024-a-student-to-student-
guide-34e-apr-1-2024-_-1266077200-_-mcgraw-hill-medical-34th-
edition-le/
https://textbookfull.com/product/statistics-for-the-social-
sciences-a-general-linear-model-approach-russell-warne/
General Principles
Third Edition
New York / Chicago / San Francisco / Athens / London / Madrid / Mexico City
Milan / New Delhi / Singapore / Sydney / Toronto
ISBN: 978-1-25-958702-3
MHID: 1-25-958702-9.
The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-1-25-958701-6,
MHID: 1-25-958701-0.
All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use
names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designa-
tions appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.
McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions or for use in corporate training
programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com.
NOTICE
Medicine is an ever-changing science. As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy are
required. The authors and the publisher of this work have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is
complete and generally in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes
in medical sciences, neither the authors nor the publisher nor any other party who has been involved in the preparation or publication of this work war-
rants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they disclaim all responsibility for any errors or omissions or
for the results obtained from use of the information contained in this work. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with
other sources. For example and in particular, readers are advised to check the product information sheet included in the package of each drug they plan
to administer to be certain that the information contained in this work is accurate and that changes have not been made in the recommended dose or in
the contraindications for administration. This recommendation is of particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs.
TERMS OF USE
This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms.
Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble,
reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any
part of it without McGraw-Hill Education’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the
work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.
THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES
AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUD-
ING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY
DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
ABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions
contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its
licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting
therefrom. McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall
McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from
the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply
to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
DEDICATION
To the contributors to this and future editions, who took time to share their knowledge,
insight, and humor for the benefit of students and physicians everywhere.
and
Contents
Contributing Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi CHAPTER 4. Microbiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Faculty Reviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Bacteriology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Mycology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Parasitology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Virology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
How to Contribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Microbiology: Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Antimicrobials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
CHAPTER 1. Anatomy and Histology . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cellular Anatomy and Histology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 CHAPTER 5. Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Gross Anatomy and Histology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CHAPTER 6. General Pharmacology . . . . . . . . . .417
CHAPTER 2. Biochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics . . . . . . . . . 418
Molecular Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Nucleotide Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Mutations and DNA Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 CHAPTER 7. Public Health Sciences . . . . . . . . . . 435
Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Homeostasis and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Patient Safety and Quality Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Amino Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Life Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Fed Versus Unfed State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Laboratory Tests and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Image Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
CHAPTER 3. Immunology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Principles of Immunology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
Ezra Baraban, MD Margaret MacGibeny, MS
Yale School of Medicine Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and
Class of 2016 Princeton University MD/PhD program
Nashid H. Chaudhury Class of 2020
Medical Scientist Training Program
Benjamin B. Massenburg
Yale School of Medicine
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
Class of 2020
Class of 2017
Richard Giovane, MD
Resident, Department of Family Medicine Jake Prigoff, M
University of Alabama Resident, Department of Surgery
Jessica F. Johnston, MSc New York Presbyterian Hospital
Medical Scientist Training Program
Ritchell van Dams, MD, MHS
Yale School of Medicine
Intern, Department of Medicine
Class of 2020
Norwalk Hospital
Young H. Lim
Medical Scientist Training Program Zachary Schwam, MD
Yale School of Medicine Yale School of Medicine
Class of 2020 Class of 2016
FACULTY REVIEWERS
Susan Baserga, MD, PhD Gerald Lee, MD
Professor, Molecular Biophysics & Biochemistry Genetics and Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics
Therapeutic Radiology University of Louisville School of Medicine
Yale School of Medicine
Alexandros D. Polydorides, MD, PhD
Sheldon Campbell, MD, PhD Associate Professor of Pathology and Medicine (Gastroenterology)
Associate Professor of Laboratory Medicine Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
Co-director, Attacks and Defenses Master Course
Sylvia Wassertheil-Smoller, PhD
Director, Laboratories at VA CT Healthcare System
Distinguished University Professor and
Director, Microbiology Fellowship
Molly Rosen and Maneoloff Chair in Social Medicine, Emerita
Yale School of Medicine
Department of Epidemiology and Population Health
Conrad Fischer, MD Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Residency Program Director, Brookdale University Hospital
Brooklyn, New York Howard M. Steinman, PhD
Associate Professor, Medicine, Physiology, and Pharmacology Professor, Department of Biochemistry
Touro College of Medicine Assistant Dean for Biomedical Science Education
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Matthew Grant, MD
Assistant Professor of Medicine (Infectious Disease) Peter Takizawa, PhD
Director, Yale Health Travel Medicine Assistant Professor, Department of Cell Biology
Yale School of Medicine Director, Medical Studies
Yale School of Medicine
Marcel Green, MD
Resident Physician, Department of Psychiatry George J. Trachte, PhD
Mount Sinai Health System, St. Luke’s–Roosevelt Hospital Professor, Department of Biomedical Sciences
University of Minnesota
Peter Heeger, MD
Irene and Arthur Fishberg Professor of Medicine Prashant Vaishnava, MD
Translational Transplant Research Center Assistant Professor, Department of Medicine
Department of Medicine Mount Sinai Hospital and Icahn School of Medicine at Mount
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai Sinai
Jeffrey W. Hofmann, MD, Ph Ana A. Weil, MD
Resident, Department of Pathology Instructor in Medicine
University of California, San Francisco Massachusetts General Hospital
Preface
With this third edition of First Aid for the Basic Sciences: General Principles, we con-
tinue our commitment to providing students with the most useful and up-to-date
preparation guides for the USMLE Step 1. For the past year, a team of authors and
editors have worked to update and further improve this third edition. This edition
represents a major revision in many ways.
■ Brand new Public Health and Patient Safety sections have been added.
■ Every page has been carefully reviewed and updated to reflect the most high-yield
material for the Step 1 exam.
■ New high-yield figures, tables, and mnemonics have been incorporated.
■ Margin elements, including flash cards, have been added to assist in optimizing the
studying process.
■ Hundreds of user comments and suggestions have been incorporated
■ Emphasis on integration and linkage of concepts was increased.
This book would not have been possible without the help of the hundreds of students
and faculty members who contributed their feedback and suggestions. We invite stu-
dents and faculty to please share their thoughts and ideas to help us improve First Aid
for the Basic Sciences: General Principles. (See How to Contribute, p. xiii.)
Louisville Tao Le
Boston William Hwang
Acknowledgments
This has been a collaborative project from the start. We gratefully acknowledge the
thoughtful comments and advice of the residents, international medical graduates,
medical students, and faculty who have supported the editors and authors in the de-
velopment of First Aid for the Basic Sciences: General Principles.
For support and encouragement throughout the process, we are grateful to Thao
Pham and Louise Petersen.
Furthermore, we wish to give credit to our amazing editors and authors, who worked
tirelessly on the manuscript. We never cease to be amazed by their dedication,
thoughtfulness, and creativity.
Thanks to our publisher, McGraw-Hill Education, for their assistance and guidance.
For outstanding editorial work, we thank Allison Battista, Christine Diedrich, Ruth
Kaufman, Isabel Nogueira, Emma Underdown, Catherine Johnson, and Hannah
Warnshuis. A special thanks to Rainbow Graphics, especially David Hommel, for
remarkable production work.
We are also very grateful to the faculty at Uniformed Services University of the
Health Sciences (USUHS) for use of their images and Dr. Richard Usatine for his
outstanding dermatologic and clinical image contributions.
For contributions and corrections, we thank Abraham Abdul-Hak, Mohamed Abdulla,
Zachary Aberman, Andranik Agazaryan, Zain Ahmed, Anas Alabkaa, Allen Avedian,
Syed Ayaz, Andrew Beck, Michael Bellew, Konstantinos Belogiannis, Candace
Benoit, Brandon Bodie, Aaron Bush, Robert Case, Jr., Anup Chalise, Rajdeep
Chana, Sheng-chieh Chang, Yu Chiu, Renee Cholyway, Alice Chuang, Diana
Dean, Douglas Dembinski, Kathryn Demitruk, Regina DePietro, Nolan Derr,
Vikram Eddy, Alejandra Ellison-Barnes, Leonel Estofan, Tim Evans, Matt Fishman,
Emerson Franke, Margaret Funk, Alejandro Garcia, William Gentry, Richard
Godby, Shawn Gogia, Marisol Gonzalez, William Graves, Jessie Hanna, Clare
Herickhoff, Joyce Ho, Jeff Hodges, David Huang, Andrew Iskandar, Anicia Ivey,
Jeffrey James, Angela Jiang, Bradford Jones, Caroline Jones, Charissa Kahue, Sophie
Kerszberg, Michael Kertzner, Mani Khorsand Askari, Peeraphol La-orkanchanakun,
Juhye Lee, Jessica Liu, Jinyu Lu, James McClurg, Gregory McWhir, Rahul Mehta,
Kristen Mengwasser, Aleksandra Miucin, Morgan Moon, Jan Neander, Michael
Nguyen, Jay Patel, Nehal Patel, Iqra Patoli, Matthew Peters, Yelyzaveta Plechysta,
Qiong Qui, Peter Francis Raguindin, Kenny Rivera, Luis Rivera, Benjamin Robbins,
Jorge Roman, Julietta Rubin, Kaivan Salehpour, Abdullah Sarkar, Hoda Shabpiray,
Neal Shah, Chris Shoff, Rachael Snow, Gregory Steinberg, Ryan Town, Michael
Turgeon, Hunter Upton, Zack Vanderlaan, Christopher Vetter, Liliana Villamil
Nunez, Sukanthi Viruthagiri, David Marcus Wang, and Andy Zureick.
Louisville Tao Le
Boston William Hwang
How to Contribute
To continue to produce a high-yield review source for the USMLE Step 1, you are
invited to submit any suggestions or corrections. We also offer paid internships in
medical education and publishing ranging from three months to one year (see below
for details). Please send us your suggestions for:
■ New facts, mnemonics, diagrams, and illustrations
■ High-yield topics that may reappear on future Step 1 examinations
■ Corrections and other suggestions
For each new entry incorporated into the next edition, you will receive an Amazon
gift card with a value of up to $20, as well as personal acknowledgment in the next
edition. Significant contributions will be compensated at the discretion of the au-
thors. Also let us know about material in this edition that you feel is low yield and
should be deleted.
All submissions including potential errata should ideally be supported with hyperlinks
to a dynamically updated Web resource such as UpToDate, AccessMedicine, and
ClinicalKey.
We welcome potential errata on grammar and style if the change improves readabil-
ity. Please note that First Aid style is somewhat unique; for example, we have fully
adopted the AMA Manual of Style recommendations on eponyms (“We recommend
that the possessive form be omitted in eponymous terms”) and on abbreviations (no
periods with eg, ie, etc).
The preferred way to submit new entries, clarifications, mnemonics, or potential cor-
rections with a valid, authoritative reference is via our website: www.firstaidteam
com.
Alternatively, you can email us at: [email protected]
NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS
All contributions become property of the authors and are subject to editing and re-
viewing. Please verify all data and spellings carefully. Contributions should be sup-
ported by at least two high-quality references. In the event that similar or duplicate
entries are received, only the first complete entry received with valid, authoritative
references will be credited. Please follow the style, punctuation, and format of this
edition as much as possible.
AUTHOR OPPORTUNITIES
The First Aid author team is pleased to offer part-time and full-time paid internships
in medical education and publishing to motivated medical students and physicians.
Internships range from a few months (eg, a summer) up to a full year. Participants
will have an opportunity to author, edit, and earn academic credit on a wide variety of
projects, including the popular First Aid series.
English writing/editing experience, familiarity with Microsoft Word, and Internet ac-
cess are required. For more information, email us at [email protected] with
a résumé and summary of your interest or samples of your work.
THE CELL
The cell is the most basic structural and functional unit of life. Living organisms are com-
posed of cells, which may exist as independent units or form more complex organisms.
Each cell is a collection of integral, diverse components, required for the biochemical
processes that sustain the life of the organism. The most important eukaryotic cellular
components will be covered in the following sections.
Plasma Membrane
Every eukaryotic cell is enveloped by an asymmetric lipid bilayer membrane. This
membrane consists primarily of two sheets of phospholipids, each one-molecule thick
(Figure 1-1B). Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, containing both a water-
soluble hydrophilic region and a fat-soluble hydrophobic region (Figure 1-1).
Polar or
hydrophilic groups
Nonpolar or
hydrophobic groups
Aqueous
phase
Lipid
bilayer
C
C. Micelle D
D. Liposome (unilamellar)
Aqueous Lipid
compartments bilayers
EE. Liposome (multilamellar)
■ The hydrophilic portions (ie, phosphate groups) of each phospholipid layer face
both the aqueous extracellular environment as well as the aqueous cytoplasm.
■ The hydrophobic portions of each phospholipid layer (ie, fatty acid chains) make
up the fat-soluble center of the phospholipid membrane.
This bilayer membrane also contains steroid molecules (derived from cholesterol), KEY FACT
glycolipids (fatty acids with sugar moieties), sphingolipids, proteins, and glycoproteins
Biologically important proteins include
(proteins with sugar moieties). The cholesterol and glycolipid molecules alter the physi- transmembrane transporters, ligand-
cal properties of the membrane (eg, increase the melting point) in relative proportion receptor complexes, and ion channels.
to their quantity. The proteins serve important and specific roles in the transport and Protein dysfunction underlies many
trafficking of nutrients across the membrane, signal transduction, and interactions diseases.
between the cell and its environment.
The nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains genetically encoded Genetic mutations may cause
information in the form of DNA, which directs the life processes of the cell. It is sur- dysfunction of regulatory proteins,
often leading to debilitating diseases.
rounded by the nuclear membrane, which is composed of two lipid bilayers: The inner
For example, xeroderma pigmentosum
membrane defines the boundaries of the nucleus, and the outer membrane is continuous is an autosomal recessive disorder of
with the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) (Figure 1-2). In addition to DNA, the nucleotide excision repair that leads
nucleus houses a number of important proteins that enable the maintenance (protec- to increased sensitivity to UV light and
tion, repair, and replication), expression (transcription), and transportation of genetic increased rates of skin cancer.
material (capping, transport).
Most of the cell’s ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is produced within the nucleus by the nucleo-
lus. The rRNA then passes through the nuclear pores (transmembrane protein com-
plexes that regulate trafficking across the nuclear membrane) to the cytosol, where it
associates with the RER.
Key:
brane
mem
Clathrin sma
Pla
Secretory
vesicle
COPI Late Early
endosome endosome
CLINICAL COPII
Lysosome
CORRELATION
Retrograde trans
Inclusion-cell (I-cell) disease, also
known as mucolipidosis type II, results Anterograde
from a defect in N-acetylglucosaminyl- Golgi
1-phosphotransferase, leading to apparatus
a failure of the Golgi apparatus to
phosphorylate mannose residues (ie,
mannose-6-phosphate) on N-linked cis
glycoproteins. Thus, hydrolytic
enzymes are secreted extracellularly,
rather than delivered to lysosomes, Endoplasmic
hindering the digestion of intracellular reticulum
waste. Coarse facial features and
restricted joint movements result (refer Nuclear envelope
to Biochemistry chapter for discussion
of lysosomal storage disorders).
F I G U R E 1 - 2 . Representation of the rough endoplasmic reticular branch of protein
sorting. Newly synthesized proteins are inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, or
CLINICAL enter the lumen from membrane-bound polyribosomes, depicted as light blue spheres studding
CORRELATION the endoplasmic reticulum. Those proteins are then transported out of the endoplasmic
reticulum to the Golgi apparatus. Transport to the Golgi apparatus (anterograde transport)
A number of lysosomal storage
is mediated by COPII membrane proteins. Transport from the Golgi apparatus back to the
diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease,
endoplasmic reticulum (retrograde transport) is mediated by COPI membrane proteins.
result from lysosomal dysfunction
The proteins can be modified in the various subcompartments of the Golgi apparatus and
and the accumulation of protein are then segregated and sorted in the trans-Golgi network. Secretory proteins accumulate in
metabolites targeted for destruction or secretory storage granules, from which they may be expelled. Proteins destined for the plasma
further modification. membrane, or those that are secreted in a constitutive manner, are carried out to the cell
surface in transport vesicles. This transport is mediated by clathrin membrane proteins. Some
proteins enter prelysosomes (late endosomes) and fuse with endosomes to form lysosomes.
60S
Ribosome
proteins undergo modification. Depending on their final destination, these proteins may
be modified in one of the three major regions of Golgi networks: cis (CGN), medial
E P A (MGN), or trans (TGN). These proteins are then packaged in a second set of transport
5' 3' vesicles, which bud from the trans side and are delivered to their target locations (eg,
organelle membranes, plasma membrane, and lysosomes; Figure 1-2).
40S
cellular materials, ingested via endocytosis or phagocytosis, are enveloped in an endo- CLINICAL
some (temporary vesicle), which fuses with the lysosome, leading to enzymatic CORRELATION
degradation of endosomal contents. Lysosomal enzymes (nucleases, proteases, and
Chédiak-Higashi disease, resulting
phosphatases) are activated at a pH below 4.8. To maintain this pH, the membrane of from abnormal microtubular assembly,
the lysosome contains a hydrogen ion pump, which uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) leads to impaired polymorphonuclear
to pump protons into the lysosome, against the concentration gradient. leukocytes (PMNs) phagocytosis and
frequent infections.
Mitochondria
The mitochondria are the primary site of ATP production in aerobic respiration. The
CLINICAL
proteins of the outer membrane enable the transport of large molecules (molecular CORRELATION
weight ~10,000 daltons) for oxidative respiration. The inner membrane is separated
Various inherited disorders can
from the outer by the intermembranous space and is more selectively permeable (Figure
be maternally transmitted via
1-4). The inner membrane has a large surface area due to its numerous folds, known as
mitochondrial chromosomes. These
cristae, and it maintains its selectivity with transmembrane proteins. These transmem- can show a variable expression in
brane proteins constitute the electron transport chain, and maintain a proton gradient a population due to heteroplasmy,
between the intermembranous space and the lumen of the inner membrane. The role or the presence of heterogenous
of the electron transport chain is to generate energy for storage in the bonds of ATP. mitochondrial DNA in an individual.
These diseases primarily affect the
Microtubules and Cilia muscles, cerebrum, or the nerves,
where energy is needed the most.
Microtubules are aggregate intracellular protein structures important for cellular sup- For example, myoclonic epilepsy with
port, rigidity, and locomotion. They consist of α- and β-tubulin dimers, each bound ragged-red fibers is a mitochondrial
to two guanosine triphosphate (GTP) molecules, giving them a positive and negative disorder characterized by progressive
polarity. They combine to form cylindrical polymers of of 24 nm in diameter and vari- myoclonic epilepsy, short stature,
able lengths (Figure 1-5A). Polymerization occurs slowly at the positive end of the hearing loss, and “ragged-red fibers” on
microtubule, but depolymerization occurs rapidly unless a GTP cap is in place. biopsy.
Microtubules are incorporated into both flagella and cilia. Within cilia, the microtu-
bules occur in pairs, known as doublets. A single cilium contains nine doublets around KEY FACT
its circumference, each linked by an ATPase, dynein (Figure 1-5B). Dynein, anchored
to one doublet, moves toward the negative end of the microtubule along the length of Drugs that act on microtubules:
a neighboring doublet in a coordinated fashion, resulting in ciliary motion. Kinesin is Drug Disease
another intracellular transport ATPase that moves toward the positive end of a micro- Mebendazole/ Parasitic
tubule, opposite of dynein. albendazole infections
Taxanes Cancers
Griseofulvin Fungal infections
Vincristine/ Cancers
Matrix:
citric acid enzymes, vinblastine
β-oxidation, pyruvate Colchicine Gout
dehydrogenase Cristae of mitochondria
CLINICAL
CORRELATION
A number of diseases arise from
ineffective or insufficient ciliary
motion.
Kartagener syndrome: A dynein arm
defect that impairs ciliary motion
and mucus clearance that results in
recurrent lung infections, hearing
loss, infertility, and dextrocardia situs
Intermembrane: Inner membrane: Outer membrane:
phosphotransferase electron carriers, ATP synthase Acyl CoA synthetase, inversus.
enzymes particles, membrane transporters glycerophosphate acyl Dextrocardia/situs inversus: Proper
transferase
directional development does
not occur during embryogenesis,
F I G U R E 1 - 4 . Structure of the mitochondrial membranes. The inner membrane contains causing all internal organs to be
many folds, or cristae, and the enzymes for the electron transport chain, used in aerobic located on the opposite side of the
cellular respiration, are located here. body.
A 24 nm α−tubulin β−tubulin
(+) end
5 nm
Shared
A heterodimers
B
Microtubule B Dynein
Microtubule A
Nexin link
Radial
spokes Microtubule
doublet
Plasma
membrane
Inner
dynein arm
Outer
dynein arm
Organs and tissues exposed to the external environment are the most resilient. These
tissues are referred to as epithelial, primarily due to their embryologic origin. The
epithelial cells of these external tissues contain an array of cell junctions that medi-
CLINICAL
CORRELATION ate cellular adhesion and communication processes. There are five principal types of
cell junctions: zonula occludens (tight junctions), zonula adherens (intermediate
Malignant epithelial cells contained junctions), macula adherens (desmosomes), hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions
by the basal membrane are termed (communicating junctions) (Figure 1-6).
carcinoma in situ. Loss of cell
junctions allows penetration through
the basement membrane as invasive Zonula Occludens
carcinoma. When cells enter the Tight junctions, also referred to as occluding junctions, have the following two primary
bloodstream or lymphatics and functions:
establish new tumors at distant sites,
they are considered metastatic. ■ Determine epithelial cell polarity, separating the apical pole from the basolateral
pole.
■ Regulate passage of substances across the epithelial barrier (paracellular transport).
MNEMONIC
In a typical epithelial tissue, the membranes of adjacent cells meet at regular intervals
CADHErins are Calcium-dependent to seal the paracellular space, preventing the paracellular movement of solutes. These
ADHEsion proteins. connections occur during the interaction of the junctional protein complex with neigh-
boring cells, composed of claudins and occludins.
Apical
Tight junction (zonula occludens)—prevents paracellular
E-cadherin movement of solutes; composed of claudins and occludins.
Cell membrane
Basolateral Basement membrane
Integrins—membrane proteins that maintain Hemidesmosome—connects keratin in basal cells to
integrity of basolateral membrane by binding underlying basement membrane. Autoantibodies bullous
to collagen and laminin in basement membrane. pemphigoid. (Hemidesmosomes are down “bullow.”)
F I G U R E 1 - 6 . Epithelial cell junctions. Five types of epithelial cell junctions are depicted along with their supporting and component
proteins.
HEMATOPOIESIS
Hematopoietic cells are stem cells residing in the bone marrow that can give rise to all
mature components of circulating blood cells and immune systems.
Blood
Blood is composed of cells suspended in a liquid phase. This liquid phase, which
consists of water, proteins, and electrolytes is known as plasma. O2-carrying red blood
cells, known as erythrocytes, make up about 45% of blood by volume. This percentage
is known as the hematocrit. Erythrocytes can be separated from white blood cells, or
leukocytes, and platelets by centrifugation. Erythrocytes form the lowest layer, and
leukocytes form the next layer, also known as the buffy coat. Plasma from which the
platelets and clotting factors have been extracted is called blood serum.
CLINICAL Two differentiated cell lines derive from the pluripotent stem cell: myeloid and lym-
CORRELATION phoid (Figure 1-7). These cells are considered committed, meaning that they have
begun the process of differentiation and have lost some of their potential to become
RBC cytoskeletal abnormalities (eg,
hereditary spherocytosis, elliptocytosis)
cells in an alternate lineage. The myeloid lineage produces six different types of colony-
and hemoglobinopathies (eg, forming units (CFUs), each ending in a distinct mature cell: erythroid (producing
thalassemias, sickle cell anemia) cause erythrocytes), megakaryocyte (producing platelets), basophil, eosinophil, neutrophil,
significant morbidity and mortality. and monocyte (differentiates into macrophage). The lymphoid lineage produces two
cell lines: T cells and B cells.
Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes are nonnucleated, biconcave disks designed for gas exchange. These cells
measure approximately 8 μm in diameter, and their biconcave shape increases their
surface area for gas exchange, and allows them to squeeze through narrow capillaries.
CLINICAL These cells lack organelles, which are extruded shortly after they enter the bloodstream.
CORRELATION Instead, they contain only a plasma membrane, a cytoskeleton, hemoglobin, and gly-
The reticulocyte count increases when
colytic enzymes that help them survive via anaerobic respiration (90%) and the hexose
the bone marrow increases production monophosphate shunt (10%). This limits the red blood cell life span to approximately
to replenish red cell levels in the blood 120 days, after which they are mainly removed via macrophages in the spleen, and to
in response to anemia. a lesser extent, via the liver. Mature erythrocytes are replaced by immature reticulocytes
produced in the bone marrow. Reticulocytes are distinguished from mature erythrocytes
by their slightly larger diameter and reticular (mesh-like) network of ribosomal RNA.
Erythropoietin is the hormone that stimulates erythroid progenitor cells to mature by
binding to JAK2, a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase.
RBCs are highly dependent on glucose as their energy source, and glucose is transported
across the RBC membrane via the glucose transporter (GLUT-1). They are susceptible
to free radical damage, but can synthesize glutathione, an important antioxidant. Hemo-
globin’s ability to transport oxygen is closely associated with the production of 2,3-bisphos-
phoglycerate (2,3-BPG); 2,3-BPG decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, thus
improving oxygen delivery to tissues. The iron in hemoglobin is maintained in the
ferrous state; ferric iron (Fe3+) is reduced to the ferrous (Fe2+) state via an NADH-
dependent methemoglobin reductase system. Finally, RBCs contain certain enzymes
B– T–
Myeloblast Monoblast lymphocyte lymphocyte
Proerythroblast Megakaryoblast
T-helper T-cytotoxic
Eosinophilic Basophilic Neutrophilic
myelocyte myelocyte myelocyte
Polychromatic
erythroblast
Neutrophilic
Orthochromatic metamyelocyte Monocyte
erythroblast Megakaryocyte Eosinophilic Basophilic
metamyelocyte metamyelocyte
Band
Reticulocyte
F I G U R E 1 - 7 . Blood cell differentiation. A chart of the pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell’s differentiation potential.
CLINICAL of nucleotide metabolism, and a deficiency in these enzymes (eg, adenosine deaminase,
CORRELATION pyrimidine nucleotidase, and adenylate kinase) is involved in some of the hemolytic
anemias.
Activating mutations in JAK2 can
cause myeloproliferative disorders
like polycythemia vera, essential Leukocytes
thrombocythemia, and myelofibrosis. Leukopoiesis is the process of white blood cell production from hematopoietic stem
The most common mutation for
cells. Neutrophils, basophils, mast cells, and eosinophils develop through a common
polycythemia vera is V617F (Figure 1-8).
promyelocyte lineage. Monocytes develop from a monoblast. Lymphocytes, although
separate from myeloid cells, are also considered leukocytes and arise from the lymphoid
stem cell.
EPO
F I G U R E 1 - 8 . Erythropoietin Neutrophils
(EPO) receptor. These products of the myeloid lineage act as acute-phase granulocytes. They begin in
the bone marrow as myeloid stem cells (Figure 1-7) and mature over a period of 10–14
KEY FACT days, producing both primary and secondary granules (promyelocyte stage; Figures 1-9
and 1-10). Once mature, these leukocytes are vital to the success of the innate immune
Leukos = Greek for white. system and are especially prominent in the acute inflammatory response.
Cytos = Greek for cell.
Histologically, these cells are distinguished by their large spherical size, multilobed
nuclei, and azurophilic primary granules (lysosomes). These cells have earned the
CLINICAL alternative name polymorphonucleocytes (PMNs) due to their multilobed nucleus.
CORRELATION
The key to their immune function lies in the ability of PMNs to phagocytose microbes
Chronic granulomatous disease: and destroy them via reactive oxygen species (superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, peroxyl
Congenital deficiency of NADPH radicals, and hydroxyl radicals). Neutrophils contain several enzymes, most notably
oxidase impedes the oxidative burst NADPH oxidase, which produces O2− radicals, directing the oxidative burst, as well as
in neutrophils, causing a difficulty the myeloperoxidase (MPO) system, which uses hydrogen peroxide and chloride to
in forming the reactive oxygen
generate hypochlorous acid (HOCl), a potent bactericidal oxidant.
compounds used to kill pathogens.
This results in recurrent bouts of
bacterial infection, most commonly
pneumonia and skin abscesses.
KEY FACT
A B
F I G U R E 1 - 1 0 . Electron microscopy of neutrophils. A Highly activated neutrophils (N) with apoptotic neutrophils (black arrow) and
cell debris (black arrowhead). B Neutrophil.
Eosinophils
MNEMONIC
Eosinophils follow the same pattern of maturation as neutrophils, beginning in the bone
marrow as eosinophilic CFUs. Eosinophils also contain granules with eosinophil per- Causes of eosinophilia—
oxidase. However, they differ in that they are slightly larger than neutrophils with cat- NAACP
ionic proteins, such as major basic protein (antiparasitic) and eosinophilic cationic Neoplasia
protein (antiparasitic) within acidophilic (ie, eosinophilic) granules. Once fully mature, Asthma
eosinophils possess a large, bilobed nucleus (not multi-segmented like neutrophils) and Allergic processes
sparse endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi vesicles (Figure 1-11). Chronic adrenal insufficiency
Parasites (invasive)
Basophils and Mast Cells
Distinguished by large, coarse, darkly staining granules, basophils produce peroxidase,
heparin, and histamine (Figure 1-12). Basophils also release kallikrein, which acts as
an eosinophil chemoattractant during hypersensitivity reactions, such as contact aller-
gies and skin allograft rejection. Because they share a great deal of structural similarities,
basophils can be considered the blood-borne counterpart of the mast cell, which resides
within tissues, near blood vessels. Both mast cells and basophils produce histamine and
A B
Monocyte Lineage
Monocytes
KEY FACT Monocytes are the myeloid precursor to the mononuclear phagocyte, the tissue mac-
rophage. Morphologically, they appear as spherical cells with scattered small granules,
In tissue = macrophage akin to lysosomes. The blood monocyte is a large (10–18 μm), motile cell that margin-
In blood = monocyte ates along the vessel wall in response to the expression of specific cell adhesion proteins.
During an inflammatory response, these cell adhesion proteins (namely, platelet endo-
thelial cell adhesion molecule, or PECAM-1) facilitate monocyte diapedesis (transmi-
gration) across vessel walls into surrounding tissues. Once in close proximity to the
inflammatory foci, the monocyte differentiates into a macrophage with increased phago-
cytic and lysosomal activity (Figure 1-13).
Macrophages
During differentiation, monocyte cell volume and lysosome numbers increase. These
lysosomes fuse with phagosomes to degrade ingested cellular and noncellular material.
A B
Macrophages (20–80 μm) also contain a large number of cell surface receptors. These CLINICAL
differ, depending on the tissue in which the macrophage matures, contributing to the CORRELATION
diversity of macrophage functions (Table 1-1).
Lipid A from bacterial
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binds CD14
As described in Table 1-1, monocyte-derived cells are distributed among several organs on macrophages to induce cytokine
and tissues (including connective tissue and bone) where they reside (termed tissue- release. Toxic shock syndrome is caused
resident macrophages). Alternatively, monocytes can migrate into tissues during an acute by preformed Staphylococcus aureus
inflammatory response and, there, transform into reactive macrophages to aid the innate toxic shock syndrome toxin (TSST-1),
immune system. Once out of the circulation, monocytes have a half-life of up to 70 which acts as a superantigen and
hours. Their numbers within inflamed tissues begin to overcome those of neutrophils causes massive cytokine release.
after approximately 12 hours.
Antigen-Presenting Cells
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are essential to the adaptive immune system. These
monocyte-derived phagocytic cells take up antigens (primarily protein particles), process FLASH
them, display them bound to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) II cell FORWARD
surface marker, and travel to lymph nodes, where they recruit other cells of the immune
Dendritic cells are the most important
system into action. Dendritic cells are especially important in the initial exposure to a APCs in the body and they are
new antigen. Successful differentiation from monocytes depends on an endothelial cell responsible for initiation of adaptive
signal that is secondary to foreign antigen exposure. In the absence of this second signal, immunity.
these sensitized monocytes transform into macrophages.
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are easily distinguished from other leukocytes by their shared morphology
(Figures 1-14 and 1-15). After differentiating from lymphoblasts within the marrow, they
migrate to the blood as spherical cells, 6–15 μm in diameter. Typically, the nucleus
contains tightly packed chromatin, which stains a deep blue or purple and occupies
approximately 90% of the cell cytoplasm.
As the primary actors in the adaptive immune response, lymphocytes undergo bio-
chemical transformation into active immune cells via coordinated stimulatory signals.
These activated lymphocytes then enter the cell cycle, producing a number of identical
daughter cells. They eventually settle into G0 as a memory cell while they await the
Blood Monocytes
Tissues Liver (Kupffer cells), lung (alveolar macrophages), connective tissue (histiocytes), F I G U R E 1 - 1 4 . Light microscopy
spleen (red pulp macrophages), lymph nodes, thymus, bone (osteoclasts), of a lymphocyte from a blood smear.
synovium (type A cells), mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, gastrointestinal Medium-sized agranular lymphocyte
tract, genitourinary tract, endocrine organs, central nervous system (microglia), (stained purple) with a high nuclear
skin (dendritic cells) to cytoplasmic ratio and a condensed
chromatin pattern.
B cell Tc Th
A B
next stimulation event. Alternatively, following replication, daughter cells can become
terminally differentiated lymphocytes, primed for effector and secretory roles in immu-
nologic defense of the host organism.
T Cells
MNEMONIC
T cells are the “infantry” of the adaptive immune response. During maturation in the
MHC × CD = 8 (eg, MHC II × CD4 = 8, Thymus, early T cells begin expressing several surface receptors simultaneously, includ-
and MHC I × CD8 = 8). ing the T-cell receptor (TCR), CD4, and CD8. If one of these CD receptors recognizes
receptors of thymic APCs, either MHC II or I, respectively, then this T cell is positively
selected, proliferates, and matures. If a T cell recognizes self-antigen, then it is nega-
KEY FACT tively selected, and undergoes apoptosis. All T cells express CD3, and either CD4
(helper T cells), or CD8 (cytotoxic T cells).
Helper T cells “help” by mediating the
specificity of the adaptive immune Helper T Cells
response. They act as a messenger
between APCs and B cells, triggering Two subtypes of T helper cells are derived from the CD4+ progenitor: Th1 and Th2.
humoral immunity. Th1 responses occur in the presence of intracellular pathogens. Helminthic or parasitic
infections, on the other hand, drive Th2-mediated immune responses.
Helper T cells spring into action when they recognize foreign antigens bound to MHC
II. Once activated, they secrete cytokines, chemical messengers that recruit and activate
other immune effector cells. These cytokines, also called interleukins, specifically attract
B cells, which, in turn, divide and differentiate into plasma cells. After the immune
response is complete, some helper T cells become memory cells—quiescent immune
cells that retain their specificity in case of a rechallenge with the same antigen in the
future. The presence of memory cells increases the speed and efficiency of future
immune responses.
Cytotoxic T Cells
CD8+ T cells also proliferate in response to cytokines; however, they only recognize
antigens in association with class I MHC. These cells are actively involved in immune
surveillance of intracellular pathogens.
The news of Henry IV.’s death was the signal for Isabel’s
proclamation as Queen in Segovia. Riding through the crowded
streets, her palfrey led by two of the “regidores” of the city, she came
amid the shouts of the people to the principal square. Before her
walked four kings-at-arms, and after them Gutierre de Cardenas,
bearing a naked sword, emblem of the justice that should emanate
from kingship. In the square stood a high scaffold, hung with rich
embroidered stuffs, and on it a throne, raised by three steps from the
surrounding platform. Isabel ascended these and took her place; and
then, a king-at-arms having called for silence, a herald cried in a loud
voice: “Castile! Castile for the King Don Fernando and the Queen
Doña Isabel, his wife.” Those watching below took up the shout, and
amid cheers the royal standard was raised.
Ferdinand was in Aragon; but news had at once been sent him of
the King’s death, and in the meanwhile Isabel received the homage of
the great nobles and knights who were ready to pledge themselves to
her cause. Chief amongst them were the Admiral of Castile, the
Cardinal of Spain, his brother, the Marquis of Santillana, and the rest
of the Mendozas; while they brought with them Beltran de La Cueva,
Duke of Alburquerque, whose fortunes scandal would naturally have
linked with the cause of the Infanta Joanna.
Significant was the tardy appearance of the Archbishop of Toledo,
once so hot in Isabel’s cause. Now he came in the train of all the rest,
with little enthusiasm in his homage or in the oath he took in the hall
of the palace, his hand resting on a copy of the Gospels. On the 2d of
January he and the Cardinal of Spain rode out to meet the King of
Sicily, returning with him, one on either side, amid such crowds that
it was past sunset before they reached the palace.
He was a young man of twenty and two years ... [says Colmenares, the historian
of Segovia, commenting on Ferdinand’s appearance], of medium height, finely
built, his face grave but handsome and of a fair complexion, his hair chestnut in
shade but somewhat spare on the temples, his nose and mouth small, his eyes
bright with a certain joyful dignity, a healthy colour in his cheeks and lips, his head
well set on his shoulders, his voice clear and restful. He carried himself boldly both
on horse and foot.
His character, his new subjects could not fully gauge; but the
contrast with Henry’s vacillating puerility was obvious. Here at any
rate was a man, who would not fail in what he undertook through
indecision or lack of courage.
The Cardinal of Spain and Archbishop of Toledo proceeded to
draw up “Provisions” for the future government of the kingdom,
adjusting the exact relations of the sovereigns on the basis of the
marriage settlement. Royal letters and proclamations were to be
signed by both, the seals affixed to be stamped with the joint arms of
Castile and Aragon, the coinage engraved with the double likeness.
Justice was to be awarded by the two sovereigns, when together; by
each, when separated. Castile safeguarded her independence by
placing the control of the Treasury in the hand of the Queen, and by
insisting that the governors of cities and fortresses should do homage
to her alone. She alone, also, might appoint “corregidores” and
provide incumbents for ecclesiastical benefices, though the
nominations were to bear Ferdinand’s signature as well as her own.
FERDINAND OF ARAGON
And when it was necessary that the King should go to look after affairs in one
part of the kingdom and the Queen in another, it never happened that he or she
issued a command that conflicted with those that the other gave. Circumstances
might separate them, but love held their wills joined.
FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY
ANDERSON, ROME
Alfonso now found himself cut off from Portugal, and, aware that
his fortunes had not matched his hopes, began to try and negotiate
favourable terms of peace. These were still in keeping with his lofty
pretensions; for, in addition to a large sum of money and the