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Design of Electrical Transmission Lines
Dedicated to Shirdi Saibaba
Design of Electrical Transmission
Lines

Structures and Foundations

Sriram Kalaga
Ulteig Engineers Inc.

Prasad Yenumula
Duke Energy

Volume 1
Cover illustration: Power lines, Copyright: Jason Lee/www.shutterstock.com

CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and Bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor
the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kalaga, Sriram, author. | Yenumula, Prasad, author.
Title: Design of electrical transmission lines : structures and foundations /
Sriram Kalaga, Ulteig Engineers, Prasad Yenumula, Duke Energy.
Description: Leiden,The Netherlands : CRC Press/Balkema, [2017] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016026908 (print) | LCCN 2016031338 (ebook) | ISBN
9781138000919 (hbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315755687 (eBook)
Subjects: LCSH: Overhead electric lines. | Electric power distribution–High
tension.
Classification: LCC TK3231 .K236 2016 (print) | LCC TK3231 (ebook) | DDC
621.319/22–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016026908

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

P.O. Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden,The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-1-138-00091-9 (Hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-75568-7 (eBook)
Table of contents

Foreword by Marlon W. Vogt xi

Foreword by James A. Robinson xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
About the authors xxi
Special thanks xxiii
Notice to the reader xxv
List of abbreviations xxvii
List of figures xxxi
List of tables xxxvii
Conversion factors xli

1 Introduction 1
1.1 History of electrical transmission 1
1.2 Transmission structures 2
1.3 Current state of the art 3
1.4 Design processes 5
1.5 Scope of this book 13

2 General design criteria 17

2.1 Climate 17
2.1.1 Extreme wind 18
2.1.2 Combined ice and wind district loading 21
2.1.3 Extreme ice with concurrent wind 21
2.1.4 High intensity winds 22
2.1.5 Pollution 22
2.1.6 Temperature 22
2.2 Electrical design 22
2.2.1 Regulatory codes 22
2.2.2 Right of way 23
2.2.3 Clearances 25
2.2.3.1 Insulator swing 34
2.2.4 Shielding 36
2.2.5 Lightning performance and grounding 37
2.2.6 Insulation requirements 38
2.2.7 Conductor operating temperature 38
vi Table of contents

2.2.8 Corona and field effects 40

2.2.9 EMF and noise 40
2.2.10 Galloping 40
2.2.11 Ampacity 41
2.3 Structural design of transmission lines 41
2.3.1 Structure spotting 41
2.3.2 Ruling spans 42
2.3.3 Sags and tensions 43
2.3.3.1 Galloping 45
2.3.3.2 Tension limits 45
2.3.4 Insulators 46
2.3.5 Hardware 47
2.3.6 Guy wires and anchors 47
2.4 Structural analysis 48
2.4.1 PLS-PoleTM 48
2.4.2 TowerTM 50
2.4.3 PLS-CADDTM 53
2.4.4 Load and strength criteria 53
2.4.4.1 Structural design criteria 56
2.4.4.2 Weather cases 56
2.4.4.3 Load cases 56
2.5 Foundation design criteria 63
2.6 Constructability 63
2.6.1 Construction considerations 64
2.6.2 Environmental constraints 64
2.6.3 Regulatory issues 64
2.6.4 Public acceptance 64
2.7 Codes and standards for line design 66
Problems 66

3 Structural analysis and design 69

3.1 Structure materials 70
3.1.1 Wood 71
3.1.1.1 Laminated wood 74
3.1.2 Steel 74
3.1.2.1 Wood equivalent steel poles 76
3.1.3 Concrete 77
3.1.4 Lattice towers 78
3.1.5 Composite 79
3.2 Structure families 79
3.2.1 Structure models 80
3.2.1.1 Insulator attachment to structure 81
3.2.2 Structure types 86
3.2.2.1 H-Frames 89
3.2.2.2 Guyed structures 89
3.3 Structure loads 90
3.3.1 Load cases and parameters 90
 Table of contents vii

3.3.2 Load and strength factors 91

3.3.3 Point loads 91
3.3.4 Loading schedules 95
3.3.5 Deflection limits 98
3.3.6 P-Delta analysis 99
3.4 Structural analysis 99
3.4.1 Single tangent poles 99
3.4.2 H-Frames 100
3.4.3 Angle structures 101
3.4.4 Deadends 102
3.4.4.1 Wood pole buckling 102
3.4.5 Lattice towers 103
3.4.5.1 End restraints 104
3.4.5.2 Crossing diagonals 104
3.4.6 Substation structures 106
3.4.6.1 Seismic considerations 106
3.4.6.2 Deflection considerations 107
3.4.7 Special structures 109
3.4.7.1 Anti-cascade structures 109
3.4.7.2 Long span systems 111
3.4.7.3 Air-break switches 112
3.4.7.4 Line crossings 113
3.5 Structure design 114
3.5.1 Strength checks 114
3.5.1.1 Wood poles 114
3.5.1.2 Steel poles 123
3.5.1.3 Lattice towers 131
3.5.1.4 Concrete poles 138
3.5.1.5 Composite poles 142
3.5.2 Assemblies and parts 142
3.5.3 Framing drawings 142
3.5.3.1 69 kV family 145
3.5.3.2 161 kV structures 145
3.5.3.3 345 kV structures 162
3.5.3.4 Distribution structures 162
3.5.3.5 Special structures 162
3.5.3.6 Hardware 162
Problems 183

4 Foundation design 185

4.1 Geotechnical data 185
4.1.1 Geotechnical properties of soils 185
4.1.1.1 Index properties 185
4.1.1.2 Engineering properties 187
4.1.2 Soil classification 188
4.1.3 Shear strength of soils 188
4.1.3.1 Sands and gravels 190
4.1.3.2 Clays and silts 190
viii Table of contents

4.1.4 Geotechnical investigations 191

4.1.4.1 Field tests 193
4.1.4.2 Strength and deformation parameters of rock 194
4.1.4.3 Geotechnical report 195
4.1.5 ASTM standards 195
4.2 Design philosophy 195
4.2.1 Basic types of foundations 196
4.2.2 Foundation design loads 197
4.2.3 Structure and foundation reliability 197
4.2.4 Foundation design models 199
4.2.5 Structural and geotechnical designs 202
4.2.6 Deterministic and reliability-based designs 202
4.3 Foundation types 203
4.3.1 Drilled shafts 203
4.3.2 Spread foundations 207
4.3.2.1 Concrete foundations 208
4.3.2.2 Steel grillages 208
4.3.3 Direct embedment 211
4.3.4 Pile foundations 212
4.3.5 Micropiles 214
4.3.6 Anchors 215
4.4 Design models 218
4.4.1 Drilled shafts under moment and shear 219
4.4.1.1 Classification of laterally loaded piles 219
4.4.1.2 Ultimate capacity models 222
4.4.1.3 Design aspects of drilled shafts 230
4.4.1.4 Deflection and rotations 233
4.4.2 Direct embedment foundations 234
4.4.2.1 Failure modes 234
4.4.2.2 Calculation methods for embedment 235
4.4.2.3 Rock-socketed foundations 249
4.4.2.4 Special techniques to enhance capacity 249
4.4.2.5 Deflections and rotations 250
4.4.3 Spread foundations under compression/moment 251
4.4.3.1 Bearing capacity theories 252
4.4.3.2 Foundations subject to eccentric loads 262
4.4.3.3 Practical aspects 267
4.4.4 Spread foundations under uplift 268
4.4.4.1 Theoretical models 270
4.4.4.2 Practical considerations 276
4.4.4.3 Foundation movements 276
4.4.5 Drilled shafts under uplift 277
4.4.5.1 Application to direct embedment poles 282
4.4.6 Anchors under pullout loads 283
4.4.6.1 Helical anchors 283
4.4.6.2 Grouted rock anchors 286
 Table of contents ix

4.5 Computer programs 290

4.5.1 CAISSON 290
4.5.2 FAD 290
4.5.3 LPILE 291
4.5.4 SHAFT 291
4.5.5 Heli-Cap 292
Problems 292

5 Design deliverables 295

5.1 Design reports 296
5.1.1 Preliminary design data book 296
5.1.1.1 Route map 296
5.1.1.2 Design summary 297
5.1.1.3 Clearance tables 297
5.1.1.4 Right of way width 297
5.1.1.5 Sag and tension data 297
5.1.1.6 Structure strength 300
5.1.1.7 Conductor separation 301
5.1.1.8 Insulator swing limits 303
5.1.1.9 Guying calculations 307
5.1.1.10 Anchor checks 307
5.1.1.11 Foundation loads 307
5.1.1.12 Vibration dampers 307
5.1.1.13 Framing and assembly drawings 307
5.2 Engineering calculations 309
5.2.1 Structural analysis input 309
5.2.2 Structural analysis output 314
5.3 Plan and Profile drawings 316
5.4 Structure loading 316
5.5 Structure framing drawings 316
5.6 Assembly drawings 317
5.7 Foundation drawings 317
5.8 As-Built records 317

6 Advanced topics 319

6.1 Analysis 319
6.2 Materials 320
6.2.1 Composites 320
6.2.2 Special conductors 321
6.3 Extreme events 321
6.3.1 Hurricanes 321
6.3.2 Tornadoes 322
6.3.3 Earthquakes 323
6.3.4 Ice storms 324
6.4 Emergency restoration plans 325
6.5 Foundation strength 326
x Table of contents

References 327

References – Additional reading 339

Appendices
Appendix 1 Analysis and design of a transmission line 345
Appendix 2 Wood pole data 363
Appendix 3 Steel pole data 367
Appendix 4 Concrete pole data 377
Appendix 5 Pole deflection limitations 379
Appendix 6 Conductor data 381
Appendix 7 Shield wire data 383
Appendix 8 Optical ground wire data 385
Appendix 9 Guy wire data 387
Appendix 10 Guy anchor data 389
Appendix 11 Insulator data 391
Appendix 12 Soil classification 395
Appendix 13 ASTM and other standards 397
Appendix 14 Composite pole data 401
Appendix 15 Design checks by other codes 403

Answers to problems 419

Index 421
Foreword

I am honored and thankful to be asked to write the foreword to this timely textbook,
Design of Electrical Transmission Lines – Structures and Foundations. As an industry,
we find ourselves at a crossroads. Many industry professionals are nearing retirement
as part of the large ‘baby boom’ generation. They will take decades of knowledge and
experience with them. Engineering curricula typically do not include electric utility
design courses. We learn the basic engineering principles and then, over time, learn
how to apply these facts to our industry.
As this transition occurs, many of us are concerned about the need for effective and
timely knowledge transfer. How can we pass on this critical knowledge to the next
generation?
Design of electrical transmission structures requires proper application of
fundamental theories of strength of materials, engineering mechanics, structures, soil
mechanics and electrical engineering. Knowledge of applicable industry codes and
standards is also necessary as they govern the design process. Traditionally, engineers
learn the design process on the job, from their mentors, colleagues, at seminars and
workshops, and from utility proprietary manuals and other tools. In the absence of a
specific reference book that contains this guidance, the learning process can take years.
I am encouraged that Sriram Kalaga and Prasad Yenumula have created this textbook
in an attempt to bridge that gap. They have taken their many combined years of
experience and put them into a single location for the benefit of the rest of us. Design
of Electrical Transmission Lines – Structures and Foundations will provide industry
professionals a valuable resource from which to learn. The detailed overview and
design instruction, along with references to applicable standards, will help younger
industry professionals more quickly understand the basic design principles. I also
believe readers will benefit from the many detailed sample problems, design tables,
hardware information and line design illustrations.
I trust that you will find value in spending time in this book. It will prove to be a
valuable resource in your electric utility career!

Marlon W. Vogt, PE, F. SEI.

Account Executive, Ulteig Engineers Inc.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Foreword

The authors of “Design of Electrical Transmission Lines – Structures and Foundations’’

have created a unique engineering book for utility engineers. The subject is presented
from the viewpoint of civil engineers; however their presentation can greatly benefit
anyone involved with engineering of transmission lines.
The main purpose of this book is to assist utility engineers in understanding basic
design of transmission line structures and foundations. For young engineers it is a
great resource for learning, understanding, and applying the engineering principles
required to successfully design transmission line structures and foundations. While for
the mature engineer the book becomes a quick reference which can be used to refresh
their knowledge of a particular subject.
Many of the theories and methods in the book have sample problems to aid in their
understanding. These sample problems also provide excellent “blueprints’’ for applying
these theories and methods in real life applications. Illustrations, photos, charts, and
graphs are also effectively used throughout the book to define the subject matter.
It has been an honor to write a foreword to this book written by Sriram Kalaga
and Prasad Yenumula. The book’s comprehensive engineering approach reflects their
combined knowledge and experience of transmission lines.
May this book prove enjoyable and valuable to utility engineers for many years!

James A. Robinson, Jr, PE

Principal Engineer
Duke Energy
Charlotte, North Carolina
Preface

Electrical power is now an indispensable requirement for the comfort, safety and
welfare of mankind in the 21st century. No matter what the source of power generation
is, its final destination is the abode of the individual consumer – a person, industry,
machine or organization. This book deals with the how, what and where the many
engineering disciplines collaborate to make that journey happen.
The design of overhead electrical transmission lines is a unique activity which
involves direct or indirect contributions of many other disciplines, both engineering
and others. The word “electrical’’ just implies that the main focus is transmittal of
electrical power or energy from one point to another. But that movement of power
also requires conductors, insulators, supporting structures (or pylons), connecting
hardware, good anchorage into ground while satisfying myriad technical rules,
governmental regulations and guidelines aimed at safety and reliability. This calls for
the involvement of civil engineers (structural and geotechnical), electrical engineers,
surveyors (analog and digital), drafters (CAD) and finally construction contractors
who build what we design. Since transmission lines often begin and end at substations,
specialists in substation design and protection and control are also involved.
In most areas of the world, the term “transmission structures’’ usually means steel
lattice towers. In the West, they however encompass a bewildering range of structural
systems and configurations, materials, hardware and construction practices. The
industry now employs steel (both tubular as well as lattice), prestressed concrete, wood
(natural and laminated) and composites as primary materials. Polymer insulators often
replace traditional porcelain and glass units; high temperature low sag (HTLS) and
vibration-resistant conductors with superior sag-tension characteristics are available
for longer spans. Fiber optic ground wires now serve a dual purpose: shielding
against lightning strikes as well as communication. The advent of powerful digital
computers enabled modeling and analysis of not only individual structures comprising
a transmission line but also the entire line in one session.
However, the knowledge related to the activity is scattered mostly in design guides,
standards and manuals and not available in a form amenable for larger public
utilization. Though the basic principles of transmission line design are more or less
the same all over the world, different regions impose different rules and regulations,
mostly associated with safety and reliability. As of now, there is no single reference
book which covered these topics. We hope to fill that gap with this book.
xvi Preface

The present book is organized into 6 chapters.

Chapter 1 presents a brief introduction of the history of transmission line structures
through the years and the current state of the art.

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the general design criteria – Electrical, Structural and
Geotechnical – associated with transmission structures. Also discussed are computer
programs, various codes and standards and specifications governing both material as
well as construction of such structures.

Chapter 3 deals with modeling, structural analysis and design of various types
of transmission structures. The importance of form, function and purpose of the
structural configuration are discussed in detail as well as material type influencing
such selection. Structures of wood, steel (lattice and polygonal poles), concrete and
fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) are covered.

Chapter 4 deals with geotechnical aspects of foundation analysis and design for various
types of transmission structures. The importance of soil data, function and purpose of
the foundation are discussed as well as popular computer programs used in foundation
analysis and design. Various types of anchors used in guying are also reviewed.

Chapter 5 provides an overview of design deliverables – from the engineer to the

utility – which form the core of the design documentation.

Chapter 6 presents a brief review of current research of direct relevance to transmission

lines and structures.

Worked out design examples and problems are provided in each chapter, where
necessary. Calculations for all problems cover both the English and SI units. Appendices
containing various tables of data on transmission materials (poles, conductors, shield
wires, insulators, guy wires etc.) are given. Although the focus of this book is U.S.
design procedures and standards, relevant information on codes of other countries is
given in Appendix 15.
A comprehensive design of a small transmission line is illustrated in Appendix 1.
Most analysis procedures discussed in this book are basically non-linear in nature;
however, a discussion of these methods is beyond the scope of the book. It is expected
that students and engineers perusing the book possess some basic knowledge of
mechanics of materials, structural engineering (steel, concrete and wood design), basics
of soil mechanics and foundation design.
This book is an undertaking to bring about the merger of the authors’ individual
association with the world of high-voltage transmission lines, structures and
foundations in North America. It is also aimed at presenting the material in a form
useful as a textbook for educators at universities. We hope the book will be a useful
reference for everyone involved with transmission structures.
We are indebted to many of our colleagues, mentors and students, who, with their
helpful suggestions and encouragement, have provided critical input for this work.
 Preface xvii

Although we have spared no effort to eliminate typos and errors, we recognize that
any work of this magnitude cannot weed out all; the authors wish to thank in advance
all readers and users who will be kind enough to draw attention to any inadvertent
errors.

Sriram Kalaga
St. Paul, Minnesota

Prasad Yenumula
Raleigh, North Carolina
Acknowledgments

This book is an undertaking based on the authors’ individual professional and academic
association with the high-voltage transmission lines, structures and foundations for
nearly two decades. As such, we have benefited from the wisdom and input of various
other engineers, design professionals and contractors.
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Engineering Division of Rural
Utilities Service (RUS) of United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for their
generous permission to reproduce material from various RUS Bulletins. The reader
will note that many figures used in the book are modified versions of RUS originals
drawings, reformatted to fit the scope of this book. We also wish to acknowledge the
usage of various drawings from Allgeier Martin and Associates as indicated.
We also wish to thank the T & D Engineering Department at Hughes Brothers Inc.,
Seward, Nebraska for their permission to reuse content from their design manuals
and catalogs.
We also appreciate the kind permission given to us by ASCE, ACI, CEATI
International, EPRI, IEEE, PLS (Power Line Systems), Hubbell Power Systems, Trinity
Meyer Utility Structures, LLC and NRC Research Press to reproduce portions of their
publications in various segments of this book.
Special appreciation is extended to Dr. Peter McKenny (Director) and Ms. Jilliene
McKinstry (Assistant Director) and to the students of Transmission and Distribution
Online Program, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington for their support during
the process of writing the book.
We are indebted to many of our colleagues, mentors and students, who, with their
helpful suggestions and encouragement, have provided critical input for this work.
Special thanks to the following individuals for their review of the book material:
• Dr. Alfredo Cervantes, Consulting Structural Engineer, Ph.D., PE, Dallas, Texas
• Mr. Brad Fossum, PE, Technical Manager, Ulteig Engineers, St. Paul, Minnesota
• Mr. Parvez Rashid, PE, American Transmission Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
• Mr. Anil Ayalasomayajula, PE, Duke Energy, Raleigh, North Carolina
• Mr. James A. Robinson, Jr., PE, Duke Energy, Charlotte, North Carolina
• Mr. Marlon Vogt, PE, F.SEI., Account Executive, Ulteig Engineers, Cedar Rapids,
Iowa and Member, ASCE Committee on Steel Transmission Poles
We are also grateful to Mr. K. Gopinath of Hyderabad, India for his help with the
drawings of this book.
Sriram Kalaga
St. Paul, Minnesota
Prasad Yenumula
Raleigh, North Carolina
About the authors

Dr. Prasad Yenumula is currently a Principal Engineer from

the Transmission Line Engineering System Standards of Duke
Energy. He earned his Bachelor’s, Master’s and doctoral
degrees in Civil engineering along with an MBA degree with
a specialization in Global Management. With a post-doctoral
fellowship in engineering, he published more than 50 research
papers in various journals and conferences. He worked as a line
design engineer, line standards engineer and lines asset manager
in the US & Canada for over 20 years. He was responsible
for managing and leading a number of line projects and special
assignments, along with developing various technical standards & specifications.
He is also a professor (adjunct) with Gonzaga University, Washington and
contributes to the development and teaching of the on-line transmission & distribution
engineering Master’s program. He also teaches business students at the University of
Phoenix. He offered training classes in the areas of line design, standards and line design
software. He was invited to make several presentations, was a reviewer of research
papers, an advisor to Master’s students and an examiner for doctoral students.
He is currently the Chair of line design task force of the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI). He is also the current Chair of CEATI (Center for Energy
Advancement through Technological Innovation) International’s TODEM interest
group. He is a member (alt) of NESC (National Electrical Safety Code) Subcommittee-
5 (Strength and Loadings), EEI’s (Electric Edison Institute) NESC/Electric Utilities
Representative Coordinating Task Force and ASCE (American Society of Civil
Engineers), ISSMGE, SEI and DFI. He is Duke’s industry advisor to NATF, NEETRAC,
EPRI and CEATI. He is also in various other national standard committees such
as ASCE 10 on lattice towers, ANSI C29 on insulators and on the ASCE-FRP Blue
Ribbon Panel review team. He received thirteen awards for his engineering, research
and teaching efforts which include best Ph.D. thesis, best papers and four faculty of
the year awards.
xxii About the authors

Dr. Sriram Kalaga is currently a Senior Engineer in

the Transmission Line Division of Ulteig Engineers. He
holds Bachelor’s, Master’s and doctoral degrees in Civil
engineering with a specialization in Structural Engineering
and Mechanics. He has published more than 35 research
papers in various journals and conferences. His research
background included finite element methods, buckling of beam-
columns, nonlinearities, low-cost composites and reliability-
based approaches.
He has been involved in transmission line design in the US
for 16 years while his overall experience as a Civil Engineer spans over 36 years. As
a consulting engineer, he developed various in-house design manuals and technical
specifications related to transmission structures.
He conducts regular seminars on transmission line design and also participates
in teaching workshops on transmission structural design. He is currently a guest
editor for the International Journal of Civil Engineering and has advised graduate
students on their theses. In addition to being a member of ASCE, AISC and ACI, he is
currently serving on the ASCE-FRP Blue Ribbon Committee on composite transmission
structures. He is a licensed professional engineer in several states in the USA.
Special thanks

To my wife Shanti
Sriram Kalaga
St. Paul, Minnesota

To my wonderful family: Aruna, Rohith and Sarayu

Prasad Yenumula
Raleigh, North Carolina
Notice to the reader

The information contained in this book has been reviewed and prepared in accordance
with established engineering principles. Although it is believed to be accurate, this
information should be used for specific applications only after competent professional
examination of its suitability and applicability by experienced and licensed professional
engineers or designer. The authors and publisher of this book make no warranty of any
kind, express or implied, with regard to the material contained in this book nor shall
they, or their respective employers, be liable for any special or consequential damages
resulting, in whole or in part, from the reader’s or user’s reliance upon this material.
List of abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this book.

AAAC All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
AAC All Aluminum Conductor
AC Alternating Current
AACSR Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced
ACCR Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinforced
ACAR Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced
ACCC/TW Aluminum Conductor Composite Core/Trapezoidal Wire
ACI American Concrete Institute
ACSR Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
ACSS Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported
ACSR/AW Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced/Aluminum Clad
ACSR/SD Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced/Self Damping
ACSR/TW Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced/Trapezoidal Wire
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
ALCOA Aluminum Corporation of America
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
AWAC Aluminum Clad Steel, Aluminum Conductor
AWG American Wire Gauge
BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs
BLM Bureau of Land Management
BS British Standard
CADD Computer-Aided Design and Drafting
CCI Corus Construction and Industrial
CEQ Council on Environmental Quality
CFR Council of Federal Regulations
CIGRE International Council on Large Electric Systems
COE Corps of Engineers
CSA Canadian Standards Association
DF D-Fir Douglas-Fir
DOE Department of Energy
ECCS European Convention for Constructional Steelwork
xxviii List of abbreviations

ECES European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

EHV Extra High Voltage
EIA Electronic Industries Association
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
ENA Energy Networks Association
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
ESCSA Essential Services Commission of South Australia
FAA Federal Aviation Agency
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
FHA Federal Highway Administration
FLPMA Federal Land Policy Management Act
FO Fiber Optic
FS Forest Service
FWS Fish and Wildlife Service
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GPS Global Positioning System
HB Hughes Brothers
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IS Indian Standard
INS Indian National Standards
Kcmil Thousand Circular mils
LF Load Factor
LiDAR Light Detection and Radar
M&E Mechanical and Electrical
MCOV Maximum Continuous Over Voltage
MOR Modulus of Rupture
MVA Mega Volt Amperes
NEPA National Environmental Protection Act
NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation
NESC National Electrical Safety Code
OLF Over Load Factor
OHGW Overhead Ground Wire
OPGW Optical Ground Wire
PLS Power Line Systems
REA Rural Electrification Administration
RI Radio Interference
ROW Right of Way
RUS Rural Utilities Service
SA Standards Australia
SF Strength Factor
SML Specified Mechanical Load
SNZ Standards New Zealand
SYP Southern Yellow Pine
 List of abbreviations xxix

TIN Triangular Irregular Network

TP Transpower
TVI Television Interference
UHV Ultra High Voltage
USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USBR United States Bureau of Reclamation
USDI United States Department of Interior
USGS United States Geological Survey
WRC Western Red Cedar
Another random document with
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the earthly or material; and three Churches: the Chosen, the Called,
and the Captive[151].” The meaning of these names we shall see later
when we consider the Ophite idea of the Apocatastasis[152] or return
of the worlds to the Deity.
First, however, another Power had to be produced which should
serve as an intermediary or ambassador from the Supreme Triad to
the worlds below it. This necessity may have arisen from Plato’s
view, adopted by Philo of Alexandria, that God was too high and
pure to be contaminated by any contact with matter[153]. But it may
also owe something to the idea common to all Orientals that a king
or great man can only communicate with his inferiors through a wakil
or agent; and that this idea was then current in Phrygia seems plain
from the story in the Acts of the Apostles that in the Lycaonian
province Barnabas, who was of majestic presence, was adored and
nearly sacrificed to as Zeus, while Paul, who was the principal
speaker, was only revered as Hermes[154]. The later Ophite account
of the production of this intermediary power or messenger which we
find in Irenaeus is that the Father-and-Son “delighting in the beauty
of the Spirit”—that is of the First Woman—“shed their light upon her”
and thus brought into existence “an incorruptible light, the third man,
whom they call Christos[155].” With this last addition the Divine Family
was considered complete, and the same author tells us that Christos
and his mother were “immediately drawn up into the incorruptible
aeon which they call the veritable Church[156].” This seems to be the
first appearance in Gnosticism of the use of the word Church as
signifying what was later called the Pleroma or Fulness of the
Godhead; but it may be compared to the “Great Council” apparently
used in the same sense by some unidentified prophet quoted by
Origen, of which Great Council Christ was said by the prophet to be
the “Angel” or messenger[157].
From this perfect Godhead, the Ophites had to show the evolution of
a less perfect universe, a problem which they approached in a way
differing but slightly from that of Simon Magus. This last, as we have
seen, interposed between God and our own world three pairs of
“Roots” or Powers together with an intermediate world of aeons
whose angels and authorities had brought our universe into
existence. These angels purposely fashioned it from existing matter,
the substance most removed from and hostile to God, in order that
they might rule over it and thus possess a dominion of their own. But
the Ophites went behind this conception, and made the first
confusion of the Divine light with matter the result of an accident.
The light, in Irenaeus’ account of their doctrines, shed by the Father-
and-Son upon the Holy Spirit was so abundant that she could not
contain it all within herself, and some of it therefore, as it were,
boiled over and fell down[158], when it was received by that matter
which they, like Simon, looked upon as existing independently[159].
They described this last as separated into four elements, water,
darkness, the abyss, and chaos, which we may suppose to be
different strata of the same substance, the uppermost layer being
apparently the waste of waters mentioned in Genesis. Falling upon
these waters, the superfluity of light of the Holy Spirit stirred them,
although before immovable, to their lowest depths, and took from
them a body formed apparently from the envelope of waters
surrounding it. Then, rising again by a supreme effort from this
contact, it made out of this envelope the visible heaven which has
ever since been stretched over the earth like a canopy[160]. This
superfluity of light which thus mingled with matter, the earlier Ophites
called, like the authors of the Wisdom-literature, Sophia, and also
Prunicos (meaning apparently the “substitute”) and described as
bisexual[161]. Another and perhaps a later modification of their
doctrine fabled that it sprang from the left side of the First Woman
while Christos emerged from her right. They therefore called it
Sinistra and declared it to be feminine only[162]. Both traditions
agreed that this Sophia or Prunicos put forth a son without male
assistance, that this son in like manner gave birth to another power
and so on, until at last seven powers at seven removes sprang from
Sophia. Each of them fashioned from matter a habitation, and these
are represented as heavens or hemispheres stretched out one under
the other, every one becoming less perfect as it gets further from the
Primordial Light[163]. Irenaeus and Hippolytus are agreed that the first
or immediate son of Sophia was called Ialdabaoth, a name which
Origen says, in speaking of the Ophites, is taken from the art of
magic, and which surely enough appears in nearly all the earlier
Magic Papyri[164]. Hippolytus says that this Ialdabaoth was the
Demiurge and father of the visible universe or phenomenal world[165].
Irenaeus also gives the names of the later “heavens, virtues, powers,
angels, and builders” as being respectively Iao, Sabaoth, Adonai,
Eloaeus, Oreus, and Astaphaeus or Astanpheus, which agrees with
the Ophite document or Diagram to be presently mentioned[166]. The
first four of these names are too evidently the names given in the Old
Testament to Yahweh for us to doubt the assertion of the Fathers
that by Ialdabaoth the Ophites meant the God of the Jews[167]. The
last two names, Oreus and Astaphaeus, Origen also asserts to be
taken from the art of magic, and may be supposed to have some
connection with fire and water respectively[168]. It is probable that the
later Ophites identified all these seven heavens with the seven
astrological “planets,” i.e. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus,
Mercury and the Moon in probably that order[169].
How now did the earth on which we live come into being? The
primitive Babylonians, whose ideas and culture were at a very early
date spread over the whole of Asia Minor, conceived the earth not as
a globe but as a circular boat like the ancient coracle, over which the
heavens stretched like a canopy or hemisphere[170]. Hence we must
regard these heavens of the planetary powers, Ialdabaoth and his
progeny, as a series of covers fitting one within the other like, in the
words of the Fathers, “juggling cups,” or to take another simile, the
successive skins of an onion. The earth stretched below these, but
was at the stage of creation at which we have arrived really without
form and void, being the formless waste of waters which covered the
denser darkness and chaos. The ordered shape which it afterwards
assumed and which we now see, was, in the Ophite story, the result
of the fall of no deity, angel, or heavenly power, but of Man. Irenaeus’
account of this Second Fall is that the six powers descended from
Ialdabaoth began to quarrel with their progenitor for supremacy—an
idea which perhaps is to be referred either to the Jewish tradition of
the revolt of the angels or with more likelihood to the astrological
ideas about the benefic and malefic planets[171]. This so enraged him
that he glared in his wrath upon the underlying dregs of matter, and
his thought (ἔννοια) implanted there took birth and shape[172]. This
fresh son of his was possessed of a quality of the possession of
which he himself had never given any evidence, and was called
Nous or Intelligence like the male of Simon’s first syzygy or pair of
roots. But he was said to be of serpent form (ὀφιόμορφος) because,
as says the Naassene or Ophite author quoted by Hippolytus, “the
serpent is the personification of the watery element,” and therefore,
perhaps, the symbol of that external ocean which the ancients
thought surrounded the inhabited world[173]. It seems more probable,
however, that the Ophites were compelled to introduce this form
because the serpent was worshipped everywhere in Asia Minor as
the type of the paternal aspect of the earth-goddess’ consort[174]. This
is best shown, perhaps, in the Eleusinian legend of Zeus and
Persephone; but Alexander himself was said to have been begotten
by Zeus in the form of a serpent, and no Phrygian goddess seems
ever to have been portrayed without one[175]. So much was this the
case that in the Apocryphal Acta Philippi it is said that sacred
serpents were kept in all the heathen temples in Asia. Hierapolis is,
in the same document, called Ophioryma or the serpent’s
stronghold, whence idolatry seems to be spoken of as the Echidna
or Viper[176]. The connection of the serpent with the Sabazian rites
has already been mentioned.
This Ophiomorphus, or god in serpent form, was in the later Ophite
teaching the cause not only of man’s soul but of his passions. The
Latin text of Irenaeus says that from him came “the spirit and the
soul and all earthly things, whence all forgetfulness, and malice, and
jealousy, and envy, and death came into being[177].” This was
evidently written under the influence of the Christian idea that the
serpent of Genesis was Satan or the Devil. But Hippolytus tells us,
no doubt truly, that the Ophiomorphus of the earlier Ophites was in
the opinion of his votaries a benevolent and beneficent power. After
saying that they worship

“nothing else than Naas, whence they are called Naassenes,

and that they say that to this Naas (or serpent) alone is
dedicated every temple, and that he is to be found in every
mystery and initiatory rite,” he continues, “They say that nothing
of the things that are, whether deathless or mortal, with or
without soul, could exist apart from him. And all things are set
 under him, and he is good and contains all things within himself,
as in the horn of the unicorn, whence beauty and bloom are
freely given to all things that exist according to their nature and
relationship[178].”

It can hardly be doubted that the writer from whom Hippolytus here
quotes is referring to the soul or animating principle of the world,
whom he here and elsewhere identifies with the great God of the
Greek mysteries[179]. Hence it was the casting-down to this earth of
Ophiomorphus which gave it life and shape, and thus stamped upon
it the impress of the First Man[180]. As Ophiomorphus was also the
child of Ialdabaoth son of Sophia, the Soul of the World might
therefore properly be said to be drawn from all the three visible
worlds[181].
We come to the creation of man which the Ophites attributed to the
act of Ialdabaoth and the other planetary powers, and represented
as taking place not on the earth, but in some one or other of the
heavens under their sway[182]. According to Irenaeus—here our only
authority—Ialdabaoth boasted that he was God and Father, and that
there was none above him[183]. His mother Sophia or Prunicos,
disgusted at this, cried out that he lied, inasmuch as there was
above him “the Father of all, the First Man and the Son of Man[184]”;
and that Ialdabaoth was thereby led on the counsel of the serpent or
Ophiomorphus to say, “Let us make man in our own image[185]!” Here
the Greek or older text of Irenaeus ends, and our only remaining
guide is the later Latin one, which bears many signs of having been
added to from time to time by some person more zealous for
orthodoxy than accuracy. Such as it is, however, it narrates at a
length which compares very unfavourably with the brevity and
concision of the statements of the Greek text, that Ialdabaoth’s six
planetary powers on his command and at the instigation of Sophia
formed an immense man who could only writhe along the ground
until they carried him to Ialdabaoth who breathed into him the breath
of life, thereby parting with some of the light that was in himself; that
man “having thereby become possessed of intelligence (Nous) and
desire (Enthymesis) abandoned his makers and gave thanks to the
First Man”; that Ialdabaoth on this in order to deprive man of the light
he had given him created Eve out of his own desire; that the other
planetary powers fell in love with her beauty and begot from her sons
who are called angels; and finally, that the serpent induced Adam
and Eve to transgress Ialdabaoth’s command not to eat of the fruit of
the Tree of Knowledge[186]. On their doing so, he cast them out of
Paradise, and threw them down to this world together with the
serpent or Ophiomorphus. All this was done by the secret
contrivance of Sophia, whose object throughout was to win back the
light and return it to the highest world whence it had originally come.
Her manner of doing so seems to have been somewhat roundabout,
for it involved the further mingling of light with matter, and even
included the taking away by her of light from Adam and Eve when
turned out of Paradise and the restoring it to them when they
appeared on this earth—a proceeding which gave them to
understand that they had become clothed with material bodies in
which their stay would be only temporary[187]. Cain’s murder of Abel
was brought about by the same agency, as was the begettal of Seth,
ancestor of the existing human race. We further learn that the
serpent who was cast down got under him the angels begotten upon
Eve by the planetary powers, and brought into existence six sons
who, with himself, form “the seven earthly demons.” These are the
adversaries of mankind, because it was on account of man that their
father was cast down; and “this serpent is called Michael and
Sammael[188].” Later Ialdabaoth sent the Flood, sought out Abraham,
and gave the Law to the Jews. In this, as in everything, he was
opposed by his mother Sophia, who saved Noah, made the Prophets
prophesy of Christ, and even arranged that John the Baptist and
Jesus should be born, the one from Elizabeth and the other from the
Virgin Mary[189]. In all this, it is difficult not to see a later interpolation
introduced for the purpose of incorporating with the teaching of the
earlier Ophites the Biblical narrative, of which they were perhaps
only fully informed through Apostolic teaching[190]. It is quite possible
that this interpolation may be taken from the doctrine of the Sethians,
which Irenaeus expressly couples in this chapter with that of the
Ophites, and which, as given by Hippolytus, contains many Jewish
but no Christian features[191]. Many of the stories in this interpolation
seem to have found their way into the Talmud and the later Cabala,
as well as into some of the Manichaean books.
So far, then, the Ophites succeeded in accounting to their
satisfaction for the origin of all things, the nature of the Deity, the
origin of the universe, and for that of man’s body. But they still had to
account in detail for the existence of the soul or incorporeal part of
man. Irenaeus, as we have seen, attributes it to Ophiomorphus, but
although this may have been the belief of the Ophites of his time, the
Naassenes assigned it a more complicated origin. They divided it, as
Hippolytus tells us, into three parts which were nevertheless one, no
doubt corresponding to the threefold division that we have before
seen running through all nature into angelic, psychic, and earthly[192].
The angelic part is brought by Christos, who is, as we have seen, the
angel or messenger of the triune Deity, into “the form of clay[193],” the
psychic we may suppose to be fashioned with the body by the
planetary powers, and the earthly is possibly thought to be the work
of the earthly demons hostile to man[194]. Of these last two parts,
however, we hear nothing directly, and their existence can only be
gathered from the difference here strongly insisted upon between
things “celestial earthly and infernal.” But the conveyance of the
angelic soul to the body Hippolytus’ Ophite writer illustrates by a bold
figure from what Homer in the Odyssey says concerning Hermes in
his character of psychopomp or leader of souls[195]. As to the soul or
animating principle of the world, Hippolytus tells us that the Ophites
did not seek information concerning it and its nature from the
Scriptures, where indeed they would have some difficulty in finding
any, but from the mystic rites alike of the Greeks and the
Barbarians[196]; and he takes us in turns through the mysteries of the
Syrian worshippers of Adonis, of the Phrygians, the Egyptian (or
rather Alexandrian) worshippers of Osiris, of the Cabiri of
Samothrace, and finally those celebrated at Eleusis, pointing out
many things which he considers as indicating the Ophites’ own
peculiar doctrine on this point[197]. That he considers the god
worshipped in all these different mysteries to be one and the same
divinity seems plain from a hymn which he quotes as a song of “the
great Mysteries,” and which the late Prof. Conington turned into
English verse[198]. So far as any sense can be read into an
explanation made doubly hard for us by our ignorance of what really
took place in the rites the Ophite writer describes, or of any clear
account of his own tenets, he seems to say that the many apparently
obscene and sensual scenes that he alludes to, cover the doctrine
that man’s soul is part of the universal soul diffused through Nature
and eventually to be freed from all material contact and united to the
Deity; whence it is only those who abstain from the practice of carnal
generation who can hope to be admitted to the highest heaven[199].
All this is illustrated by many quotations not only from the heathen
poets and philosophers, but also from the Pentateuch, the Psalms,
the Jewish Prophets, and from the Canonical Gospels and St Paul’s
Epistles.
The connection of such a system with orthodox Christianity seems at
first sight remote enough, but it must be remembered that Hippolytus
was not endeavouring to explain or record the Ophite beliefs as a
historian would have done, but to hold them up to ridicule and, as he
describes it, to “refute” them. Yet there can be no doubt that the
Ophites were Christians or followers of Christ who accepted without
question the Divine Mission of Jesus, and held that only through Him
could they attain salvation. The difference between them and the
orthodox in respect to this was that salvation was not, according to
them, offered freely to all, but was on the contrary a magical result
following automatically upon complete initiation and participation in
the Mysteries[200]. Texts like “Strait is the way and narrow is the gate
that leadeth into eternal life” and “Not every one that saith unto me
Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven” were laid hold of
by them as showing that complete salvation was confined to a few
highly instructed persons, who had had the sense to acquire the
knowledge of the nature of the Deity and of the topography of the
heavenly places which underlay the ceremonies of the Mysteries.
Such an one, they said after his death would be born again not with
a fleshly but with a spiritual body and passing through the gate of
heaven would become a god[201]. It does not follow, however, that
those who did not obtain this perfect gnosis would be left, as in some
later creeds, to reprobation. The cry of “all things in heaven, on
earth, and below the earth[202]” that the discord of this world[203] might
be made to cease, which the Naassene author quoted by Hippolytus
daringly connects with the name of Pappas given by the Phrygians
to Sabazius or Dionysos, would one day be heard, and the
Apocatastasis or return of the world to the Deity would then take
place[204]. If we may judge from the later developments of the Ophite
teaching this was to be when the last spiritual man (πνευματικός) or
perfect Gnostic had been withdrawn from it. In the meantime those
less gifted would after death pass through the planetary worlds of
Ialdabaoth until they arrived at his heaven or sphere, and would then
be sent down to the earth to be reincarnated in other bodies.
Whether those who had attained some knowledge of the Divine
nature without arriving at perfect Gnosis would or would not be
rewarded with some sort of modified beatitude or opportunity of
better instruction is not distinctly stated, but it is probable that the
Ophites thought that they would[205]. For just as those who have been
admitted into the Lesser Mysteries at Eleusis ought to pause and
then be admitted into the “great and heavenly ones,” the progress of
the Ophite towards the Deity must be progressive. They who
participate in these heavenly mysteries, says the Naassene author,
receive greater destinies than the others[206].
It might seem, therefore, that the Mysteries or secret rites of the
heathens contained in themselves all that was necessary for
redemption, and this was probably the Ophite view so far as the
return of the universe to the bosom of the Deity and the consequent
wiping out of the consequences of the unfortunate fall of Sophia or
Prunicos were concerned. A tradition. preserved by Irenaeus says
that Sophia herself “when she had received a desire for the light
above her, laid down the body she had received from matter—which
was, as we have seen, the visible heaven—-and was freed from
it[207].” But this seems to be an addition which is not found in the
Greek version, and is probably taken from some later developments
of the Ophite creed. It is plain, however, that the whole scheme of
nature as set forth in the opinions summarized above is represented
as contrived for the winning-back of the light—for which we may, if
we like, read life—from matter, and this is represented as the work of
Sophia herself. The futile attempt of the arrogant and jealous
Ialdabaoth to prolong his rule by the successive creation of world
after world, of the archetypal or rather protoplasmic Adam, and
finally of Eve, whereby the light is dispersed through matter more
thoroughly but in ever-diminishing portions[208], is turned against him
by his mother Sophia, the beneficent ruler of the planetary worlds,
who even converts acquaintance with the “carnal generation” which
he has invented into a necessary preparation for the higher
mysteries[209]. Thus Hippolytus tells us that the Naassenes

“frequent the so-called mysteries of the Great Mother, thinking

that through what is performed there, they see clearly the whole
mystery. For they have no complete advantage from the things
there performed except that they are not castrated. [Yet] they
fully accomplish the work of the castrated [i.e. the Galli]. For they
most strictly and carefully preach that one should abstain from all
companying with woman, as do the castrated. And the rest of the
work, as we have said at length, they perform like the
castrated[210].”

So far, then, as the general scheme of the redemption of light from

matter is concerned, there seems to have been no fundamental
necessity in the Ophite view for the Mission of Jesus. But they
assigned to Him a great and predominant part in hastening the
execution of the scheme, and thus bringing about the near approach
of the kingdom of heaven. We have seen that Sophia provided in
spite of Ialdabaoth for the birth of the man Jesus from the Virgin
Mary, and the Naassene author said that

“into this body of Jesus there withdrew and descended things

intellectual, and psychic, and earthly: and these three Men (i.e.
the First Man, the Son of Man, and Christos) speak together
through Him each from his proper substance unto those who
belong to each[211].”

The Latin text of Irenaeus amplifies the statement considerably and

says that Prunicus, as it calls Sophia, finding no rest in heaven or
earth, invoked the aid of her mother the First Woman. This power,
having pity on her repentance, implored the First Man to send
Christos to her assistance. This prayer was granted, and Christos
descended from the Pleroma to his sister Sophia, announced his
coming through John the Baptist, prepared the baptism of
repentance, and beforehand fashioned Jesus, so that when Christos
came down he might find a pure vessel, and that by Ialdabaoth her
own son, the “woman” might be announced by Christ. The author
quoted by Irenaeus goes on to say that Christ descended through
each of the seven heavens or planetary worlds in the likeness of its
inhabitants, and thus took away much of their power. For the
sprinkling of light scattered among them rushed to him, and when he
came down into this world he clothed his sister Sophia with it, and
they exulted over each other, which they (the Ophites) “describe as
the [meeting of] the bridegroom and the bride.” But “Jesus being
begotten from the Virgin by the operation of God was wiser, purer,
and juster than all men. Christos united to Sophia descended into
Him [in His baptism] and so Jesus Christ was made[212].”
Jesus then began to heal the sick, to announce the unknown Father,
and to reveal Himself as the Son of the first man. This angered the
princes of the planetary worlds and their progenitor, Ialdabaoth, who
contrived that He should be killed. As He was being led away for this
purpose, Christos with Sophia left Him for the incorruptible aeon[213]
or highest heaven. Jesus was crucified; but Christos did not forget
Him and sent a certain power to Him, who raised Him in both a
spiritual and psychic body, sending the worldly parts back into the
world. After His Resurrection, Jesus remained upon earth eighteen
months, and perception descending into Him taught what was clear.
These things He imparted to a few of his disciples whom He knew to
be capable of receiving such great mysteries, and He was then
received into heaven. Christos sate down at the night hand of
Ialdabaoth that he might, unknown to this last, take to himself the
souls of those who have known these mysteries, after they have put
off their worldly flesh. Thus Ialdabaoth cannot in future hold holy
souls that he may send them down again into the age [i.e. this aeon];
but only those which are from his own substance, that is, which he
has himself breathed into bodies. When all the sprinkling of light is
thus collected, it will be taken up into the incorruptible aeon. The
return to Deity will then be complete, and matter will probably be
destroyed. In any case, it will have lost the light which alone gives it
life[214].
What rites or form of worship were practised by these Ophites we do
not know, although Epiphanius preserves a story that they were in
the habit of keeping a tame serpent in a chest which at the moment
of the consecration of their Eucharist was released and twined itself
round the consecrated bread[215]. Probably the very credulous Bishop
of Constantia was misled by some picture or amulet depicting a
serpent with his tail in its mouth surrounding an orb or globe which
represents the mundane egg of the Orphics. In this case the serpent
most likely represented the external ocean which the ancients
thought surrounded the habitable world like a girdle. But the story,
though probably untrue, is some evidence that the later Ophites
used, like all post-Christian Gnostics, to practise a ceremony
resembling the Eucharist, and certainly administered also the rite of
baptism which is alluded to above in the tale of the descent of
Christos. Hippolytus also tells us that they used to sing many hymns
to the First Man; and he gives us a “psalm” composed by them
which, as he thinks, “comprehends all the mysteries of their
error[216].” Unfortunately in the one text of the Philosophumena which
we have, it is given in so corrupt a form that the first German editor
declared it to be incapable of restoration. It may perhaps be
translated thus:

The generic law of the Whole was the first Intelligence of all
The second [creation?] was the poured-forth Chaos of the
First-born
And the third and labouring soul obtains the law as her
portion
Wherefore clothed in watery form [Behold]
The loved one subject to toil [and] death
Now, having lordship, she beholds the Light
Then cast forth to piteous state, she weeps.
Now she weeps and now rejoices
Now she weeps and now is judged
Now she is judged and now is dying
Now no outlet is found, the unhappy one
Into the labyrinth of woes has wandered.
But Jesus said: Father, behold!
 A strife of woes upon earth
From thy spirit has fallen
But he [i.e. man?] seeks to fly the malignant chaos
And knows not how to break it up.
For his sake, send me, O Father;
Having the seals, I will go down
Through entire aeons I will pass,
All mysteries I will open
And the forms of the gods I will display,
The secrets of the holy Way
Called knowledge [Gnosis], I will hand down.

It is probable that this psalm really did once contain a summary of

the essential parts of the Ophite teaching. In whatever way we may
construe the first three lines, which were probably misunderstood by
the scribe of the text before us, there can hardly be a doubt that they
disclose a triad of three powers engaged in the work of salvation[217].
The fall of Sophia seems also to be alluded to in unmistakable terms,
while the Mission of Jesus concludes the poem. Jesus, not here
distinguished from the Christos or Heavenly Messenger of the Trinity,
is described as sent to the earth for the purpose of bringing hither
certain “mysteries” which will put man on the sacred path of Gnosis
and thus bring about the redemption of his heavenly part from the
bonds of matter. These “mysteries” were, as appears in Hippolytus
and elsewhere, sacraments comprising baptism, unction, and a
ceremony at least outwardly resembling the Christian Eucharist or
Lord’s Supper[218]. These had the magical effect, already attributed
by the Orphics to their own homophagous feast, of changing the
recipient’s place in the scale of being and transforming him ipso
facto into something higher than man. That the celebration of these
mysteries was attended with the deepest secrecy accounts at once
for their being nowhere described in detail by Hippolytus’ Ophite
author, and also for the stories which were current among all the
heresiological writers of filthy and obscene rites[219]. Fortified by
these mysteries, and by the abstinences and the continence which
they entailed—at all events theoretically, and as a counsel of
perfection—the Ophite could attend, as we have seen, all the
ceremonies of the still pagan Anatolians or of the Christian Church
indifferently, conscious that he alone understood the inner meaning
of either.
Another practice of the Ophites has accidentally come down to us
which deserves some mention. The division of the universe into
three parts, i.e. angelic, psychic, and earthly, which we have already
seen in germ in the system of Simon Magus, was by the Ophites
carried so much further than by him that it extended through the
whole of nature, and seriously affected their scheme of redemption.
Father Giraud, as we have seen, goes so far as to say that in the
opinion of Naassenes, matter hardly existed, and that they thought
that not only did Adamas, or the first man, enter into all things, but
that in their opinion all things were contained within him[220]. This
pantheistic doctrine may have been current in Phrygia and traces of
it may perhaps be found in the Anatolian worship of nature; but the
words of the Naassene psalm quoted above show that the
Naassenes, like all the post-Christian Gnostics of whom we know
anything, thought that matter not only had an independent existence,
but was essentially malignant and opposed to God. They divided, as
we have seen, the universe which came forth from Him into three
parts of which the angelic, noëtic, or pneumatic included, apparently,
nothing but the Pleroma or Fulness of the Godhead consisting of the
Trinity of Father, Son and Mother with their messenger Christos.
Then followed the second, psychic, or planetary world, containing
the heaven of Sophia with beneath it the holy hebdomad or seven
worlds of Ialdabaoth and his descendants[221]. Below this came,
indeed, the choïc, earthly, or terrestrial world, containing some
sparks of the light bestowed upon it consciously by Sophia and
unconsciously by Ialdabaoth, and inhabited by mortal men. But this
world was the worst example of the “discord” (ὰσυμφωνία), or as it
was called later, the “confusion” (κέρασμος), caused by the mingling
of light with matter, and as such was doomed to extinction and to
eternal separation from the Divine.[222] In like manner, the soul of
man consisted of three parts corresponding to the three worlds, that
is to say, the pneumatic, psychic, and earthly; and of these three, the
last was doomed to extinction. Only by laying aside his earthly part
as Jesus had done and becoming entirely pneumatic, could man
attain to the light and become united with the Godhead. But to do so,
his soul must first pass from choïc to psychic and thence to
pneumatic, or, as the Naassene author quoted by Hippolytus puts it,
must be born again and must enter in at the gate of heaven[223].
This rebirth or passage of the soul from the choïc to the psychic, and
thence to the pneumatic, was, as has been said, the work of the
mysteries, especially of those new ones which the Ophite Jesus or
Christos had brought to earth with Him from above. The process by
which these “changes of the soul” were brought about was,
according to the Naassenes, “set forth in the Gospel according to the
Egyptians[224].” The only quotation pertinent to the matter which we
have from this lost work is one preserved for us by Clement of
Alexandria which refers to the coming of a heavenly age “when the
two shall be made one, and the male with the female neither male
nor female[225]”—a saying which seems to refer to the time when all
the light now scattered among the lower worlds shall return to the
androgyne Adamas from whom it once issued. But it is probable that
this gospel only described the upward passage of the soul in figures
and parables probably conveyed in texts of the Canonical Gospel
divorced from their context and their natural meaning, as in the
Naassene author quoted by Hippolytus. Such a gospel might be a
sufficient means of instruction for the living, who could puzzle out its
meaning with the help of their mystagogues or priests[226]; but it must
always have been difficult for the best-instructed to remember the
great complications of worlds, planets, and celestial powers that lay
at the root of it. How difficult then must it have been thought for the
disembodied soul to find its way through the celestial places, and to
confront the “guardians of the gate” of each with proof of his exalted
rank in the scale of being? What was wanted was some guide or
clue that the dead could take with him like the Book of the Dead of
the ancient Egyptians, some memory or survival of which had
evidently come down to the Alexandrian worship[227], or like the gold
plates which we have seen fulfilling the same office among the
worshippers of the Orphic gods[228].
That the Ophites possessed such documents we have proof from the
remarks of the Epicurean Celsus, who may have flourished in the
reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138)[229]. In his attack on Christianity called
The True Discourse, he charges the Christians generally with
possessing a “diagram” in which the passage of the soul after death
through the seven heavens is portrayed. Origen, in refuting this
Epicurean’s arguments more than a century later, denies that the
Church knew anything of such a diagram, and transfers the
responsibility for it to what he calls “a very insignificant sect called
Ophites[230].” He further says that he has himself seen this diagram
and he gives a detailed description of it sufficient to enable certain
modern writers to hazard a guess as to what it must have looked
like[231]. It seems to have been chiefly composed of circles, those in
the uppermost part—which Celsus says were those “above the
heavens”—being two sets of pairs. Each pair consisted of two
concentric circles, one pair being inscribed, according to Origen,
Father-and-Son, and according to Celsus, “a greater and a less”
which Origen declares means the same thing[232]. By the side of this
was the other pair, the outer circle here being coloured yellow and
the inner blue; while between the two pairs was a barrier drawn in
the form of a double-bladed axe[233].

“Above this last” Origen says “was a smaller circle inscribed

‘Love,’ and below it another touching it with the word ‘Life.’ And
on the second circle, which was intertwined with and included
two other circles, another figure like a rhomboid ‘The
Forethought of Sophia.’ And within their (?) point of common
section was ‘the Nature of Sophia.’ And above their point of
common section was a circle, on which was inscribed
‘Knowledge,’ and lower down another on which was the
inscription ‘Comprehension[234].’”

There is also reference made by Origen to “The Gates of Paradise,”

and a flaming sword depicted as the diameter of a flaming circle and
guarding the tree of knowledge and of life; but nothing is said of their
respective places in the diagram.
Jacques Matter, whose Histoire Critique du Gnosticisme appeared in
1843, without its author having the benefit of becoming acquainted
with Hippolytus’ Philosophumena, which tells us so much as to the
doctrines of the Naassenes or early Ophites, and Father Giraud, who
has on the contrary drawn largely from it, and whose dissertation on
the Ophites was published in 1884, have both given pictorial
representations of the Ophite diagram. Although they differ
somewhat in the arrangement of the circles, both are agreed that the
blue and yellow circles signify the Holy Spirit and Christos. The
Pleroma or Fulness of the Godhead consisting of Father, Son and
Holy Spirit, with the Christos their messenger, therefore seems
figured in these two pairs of circles. Both Matter and Father Giraud
also arrange four other circles labelled respectively Knowledge,
Nature, Wisdom, and Comprehension (Γνῶσις, Φύσις, Σοφία, and
Σύνεσις) within one large one with a border of intertwined lines which
they call the Forethought of Sophia (Πρόνοια Σοφίας). This may be
the correct rendering, but it is hardly warranted by Origen’s words
given above, nor do we know of any powers, aeons, or other entities
in the Ophite system called Gnosis or Physis[235]. In any event,
however, it is fairly clear that this part of the diagram represents the
Sophia who fell from the Holy Spirit into matter, and that her natural
or first place should be the heaven stretched out above the seven
planetary worlds. Yet Irenaeus tells us that the Ophites he describes
thought that Sophia succeeded finally in struggling free from the
body of matter and that the super-planetary firmament represented
merely the lifeless shell she had abandoned[236]. This is, perhaps, the
view taken by the framers of the diagram.
However that may be, Origen’s discourse agrees with Celsus in
describing a “thick black line marked Gehenna or Tartarus” which
cuts, as he says, the diagram in two. This is specially described by
Celsus; and if it surprises anyone to find it thus placed above the
planetary heavens, it can only be said that later Gnostics, including
those who are responsible for the principal documents of the Pistis
Sophia to be presently mentioned, put one of the places where souls
were tortured in “the Middle Way” which seems above, and not, like
the classical Tartarus, below the earth[237]. Below this again, come
the seven spheres of the planets dignified by the names of Horaios,
Ailoaios, Astaphaios, Sabaoth, Iao, Ialdabaoth and Adonai
respectively. These names are, indeed, those given in Irenaeus as
the names of the descendants of Sophia, although the order there
given is different. As to the meaning of them, Origen declares that
Ialdabaoth, Horaios, and Astaphaios are taken from magic and that
the others are (the Hebrew) names of God[238]. But it should be
noticed that Origen is in this place silent as to their situation in the
diagram, and that those assigned to them in Matter’s and Father
Giraud’s reconstructions are taken from the prayers or “defences”
which will be given independently of it.
The division which Matter calls “Atmosphère terrestre” and Father
Giraud “The Fence of Wickedness” (Φραγμὸς Κακίας) is also not to
be found in Origen’s description of the diagram, but is taken from
another passage where he defines it as the gates leading to the
aeon of the archons[239]. The remaining sphere, containing within
itself ten circles in Matter’s reconstruction and seven in Father
Giraud’s, is however fully described. The number ten is, as Matter
himself admitted to be probable, a mistake of the copyist for
seven[240], and there can be no doubt that the larger sphere is
supposed to represent our world. The word “Leviathan” which in
accordance with Origen’s description is written both at the
circumference and at the centre of the circle[241] is evidently
Ophiomorphus or the serpent-formed son of Ialdabaoth whom we
have seen cast down to earth by his father together with the
protoplasts Adam and Eve[242]. He should according to the later
Gnostics be represented in the shape of a “dragon” or serpent coiled
round the world and having his tail in his mouth, while the seven
circles within the ring thus formed are the seven Archons or ruling
spirits created by him in imitation of Ialdabaoth. These are
represented in beast-like form and are, as we have seen, hostile to
man. The first four have the Hebrew angelic names of Michael,
Suriel, Raphael, and Gabriel, perhaps because the four planetary
worlds to which they correspond bear also Hebrew names of
God[243]. The remaining three Thauthabaoth, Erataoth, and
Thartharaoth are probably taken from the peculiar corruption of
Hebrew and Egyptian words to be found in the Magic Papyri. Some
of them, at any rate, we meet again later. The word Behemoth which
appears at the foot of the diagram may be translated “animals[244].” It
may either be a further description of the seven Archons—as seems
most likely—or be taken in its etymological sense as the animal
kingdom which in the scale of being succeeds terrestrial man.
To this diagram, Origen adds the prayers or defences above alluded
to, which he draws from some source not mentioned. He calls them
the “instruction” which they (i.e. the Ophites) receive after passing
through the “fence of wickedness,—gates which are subjected to the
world of the Archons[245]”; but we know from other sources that they
are the speeches, “defences” or passwords required to be uttered by
the soul of the initiated when, released from this world by death, she
flies upwards through the planetary spheres[246]. As they contain
many instructive allusions, they can best be given in Origen’s own
words, at the same time remarking that the reading is not in all cases
very well settled. The first power through whose realm the soul had
to pass is not here mentioned by name, but by the process of
exhaustion is plainly the one whom Irenaeus calls Adonaeus or
Adonai.
To him the soul of the dead is to say:

“I salute the one-formed king, the bond of blindness, thoughtless

oblivion, the first power preserved by the spirit of Pronoia and by
Sophia; whence I am sent forth pure, being already part of the
light of the Son and of the Father. Let grace be with me, O
Father, yea let it be with me[247]!”

In passing through the next mentioned, which is the realm of

Ialdabaoth:

“Thou O First and Seventh, born to command with boldness,

Ialdabaoth the Ruler (Archon) who hast the word of pure Mind
(νοῦς), a perfect work to the Son and the Father, I bring the
symbol of life in the impress of a type, and open the door to the
world which in thy aeon thou didst close, and pass again free
through thy realm. Let grace be with me, O Father, yea let it be
with me[248]!”

Arrived at Iao, he ought to say:

 “Thou, O Second Iao and first lord of death, who dost rule over
the hidden mysteries of the Son and the Father, who dost shine
by night, part of the guiltless one. I bear my own beard as a
symbol and am ready to pass through thy rule, having been
strengthened by that which was born from thee by the living
word. Let grace be with me, O Father, yea let it be with me[249]!”

To Sabaoth:

“Ruler of the Fifth realm, King Sabaoth, advocate of the law of

thy creation. I am freed by grace of a mightier Pentad. Admit me,
when thou beholdest the blameless symbol of thy art preserved
by the likeness of a type, a body set free by a pentad. Let grace
be with me, O Father, yea let it be with me[250]!”

To Astaphaios:

“Ὁ Astaphaios, Ruler of the third gate, overseer of the first

principle of water, behold me an initiate, admit me who have
been purified by the spirit of a virgin, thou who seest the
substance of the Cosmos. Let grace be with me, O Father, yea
let it be with me[251]!”

To Ailoaios:

“O Ailoaios, ruler of the second gate, admit me who brings to

thee the symbol of thy mother, a grace hidden from the powers
of the authorities. Let grace be with me, O Father, yea let it be
with me[252]!”

and to Horaios:

“O Horaios, who didst fearlessly overleap the fence of fire

receiving the rulership of the first gate, admit me when thou
beholdest the symbol of thy power, engraved on the type of the
Tree of Life, and formed by resemblance in the likeness of the
Guiltless One. Let grace be with me, O Father, yea let it be with
me[253]!”