Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Controls of Cathodc Protection System of Gas Transmissino Pipelines

REMOTE MONITORING AND INTELLIGENT CONTROLS OF CATHODIC
PROTECTION SYSTEM OF GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINES.
Biplab Chandra Das
MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND MINERAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DHAKA-1000, BANGLADESH
DECEMBER 2017
REMOTE MONITORING AND INTELLIGENT CONTROLS OF CATHODIC
PROTECTION SYSTEM OF GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINES.
A Project
By
Biplab Chandra Das

Roll NO: 0411132020 P
Submitted to the
Department of Petroleum and Mineral Resources engineering
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND MINERAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DHAKA-1000, BANGLADESH
DECEMBER 2017
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ABSTRACT
This project involves development of a remote monitoring and intelligent control (RMIC) of
Cathodic Protection (CP) system of high pressure gas transmission pipelines operated by Gas
Transmission Company Limited (GTCL).
The objective of the project was to design, develop, installation and testing of a remote
monitoring and intelligent control system for CP. It would collect, transmit and interpret
potential data coming from CP Stations along the pipeline in order to have a continuous
monitoring and assessment of the system. In GTCL, traditional manual periodic monitoring
system does not allow systematic continuous quality assessment of the pipelines; neither has it
allowed real time reports. In addition, field inspections are costly, time consuming and required
qualified personnel. The RMIC was developed integrating hardware, software and standard
communication technology. This system is able to collect potential data from the CP station
and transfer the data to the server. The software can interpret and analyze the data and also
control the system remotely. CP station’s voltage, current, and Drain point PSP (Pipe to Soil
Potential) was collected and controlled using this system. The RMIC system was installed and
tested at a CP station namely Dhanua of Dhanua-Savar Pipeline. For greater improvement and
financial benefit this system should be introduced gradually at other CP Stations of the GTCL
transmission pipeline grid.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At first, I am very much grateful to the most powerful, the gracious Almighty for giving me
knowledge, energy and patience for completing the project work successfully.
I express my sincerest gratitude to all whose suggestions and guidance have been incorporated
in this work. Especially, I would like to convey my gratitude to Dr. Mohammad Mahbubur
Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Engineering,
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology for his supervision, guidance,
encouragement, review, writing, rewriting, verification and cooperation throughout this work.
I am grateful to Dr. Mohammad Tamim, Professor and Head, Department of Petroleum and
Mineral Resources Engineering, for making my thoughts wider through his instruction during
selection of this topic and also distinguished lectures demonstration during class period that
help me a lot in completing this work.
I am also grateful to Mr. Shariar Mahmud, Assistant Professor, Department of Petroleum and
Mineral Resources Engineering, for his valuable advice, guidance, encouragement, inspiration,
cooperation and interest in this work.
I am also grateful to Mr. Palash Chandra Roy, Software Developer for his valuable advice on
Website and SCADA design.
I express my gratitude to the management of Gas Transmission Company Limited (GTCL) as

well as Petrobangla for their support and cooperation in getting data and information that help
me a lot in completing this work.
I also express my gratitude to the staff of Department of Petroleum and Mineral Resources
Engineering for their cooperation and support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
DECLARATION iv
ABSTRACT v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
NOMENCLATURE xvi
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Methodology 2
1.3.1 Corrosion and cathodic protection 2
1.3.2 Project Design 3
1.3.3 Field Installation 3
1.3.4 Data Monitoring and Evaluation 3
Chapter 2 Corrosion Fundamentals
2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Classification of Corrosion 4
2.3 Electrochemical Reactions 4
2.3.1 Oxidation and Reduction 5
2.3.1.1 Oxidation 5
2.3.1.2 Reduction 5
2.3.2 Electrochemical Circuits 6
2.3.2.1 Electrolyte 6
2.3.2.2 Ionization 6
2.3.3 Corrosion Cell 6
2.3.4 Anode Reactions 7
2.3.5 Cathode Reactions 7
2.3.6 External Circuit 8
2.3.7 Charge Transfer in the Electrolyte 8
2.3.8 Conventional Current Flow 8
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2.3.9 Sign Convention 8
2.4 Reference Electrodes (Half-Cells) 9
2.4.1 Copper-Copper Sulfate Electrode 9
2.5 Driving Force for Corrosion 10
2.6 Corrosion Rate 10
2.7 Factors that affect the Corrosion Rate 11
2.7.1 Anode/Cathode Ratio 11
2.7.2 Influence of the Environment 12
2.7.2.1 Moisture Content 12
2.7.2.2 Conductivity 12
2.7.2.3 Effect of pH on the Rate of Corrosion 12
2.8 Causes of Corrosion 14
2.8.1 Dissimilar Metals (Galvanic Corrosion) 15
2.8.2 Alloying 15
2.8.3 Mechanical Stresses 15
2.8.4 Temperature Differences in the Metal 16
2.8.5 Temperature Differences in the Electrolyte 16
2.8.6 Dissimilar Soils 16
2.8.7 Oxygen Concentration Cell 16
2.8.8 Metal Ion Concentration Cell 16
2.8.10 Microbiological Influences 16
2.9 Forms of Corrosion 17
2.9.1 Uniform Attack 17
2.9.2 Crevice Corrosion 17
2.9.3 Galvanic Attack 17
2.9.4 Pitting 17
2.9.5 Inter granular Attack 18
2.9.6 Selective Leaching 18
2.9.7 Velocity Phenomena 18
2.9.8 Environmental Cracking 18
2.9.9 Hydrogen Damage 18
2.9.10 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 19
2.9.11 Stray Current Corrosion 19
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Chapter 3 Corrosion Control of Underground Pipelines 20
3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 Materials Selection for Corrosion Control 20
3.2.1 Protective Coatings for Underground or Submerged Structures 20
3.2.2 Types of Factory Applied Underground Coatings 21
3.2.2.1 Bituminous Enamels 21
3.2.2.2 Extruded Polyolefin and Polyethylene 21
3.2.2.3 Tape Coatings 21
3.2.2.4 Fusion Bonded Epoxy 21
3.2.2.5 Two-Component Liquid Resin Coatings 21
3.2.2.6 Girth Weld and Other Field Coatings 21
3.2.3 Surface Preparation 22
3.2.4 Application of Coating 22
3.2.5 Electrical Isolation 22
3.3 Cathodic Protection 22
3.4 Polarization of a Structure 24
3.5 Current Requirement 25
3.6 Surface Area 25
3.7 Structures That Can be Cathodically Protected 25
3.8 Types of Cathodic Protection 26
3.8.1 Galvanic Anode Systems 26
3.8.1.1 Galvanic Anodes 26
3.8.1.2 Applications of Galvanic Anode Systems 27
3.8.1.3 Advantages of Galvanic Anodes 27
3.8.1.4 Limitations of Galvanic Anodes 28
3.8.2 Impressed Current Systems 28
3.8.2.1 Impress Current System’s Anodes 29
3.8.2.2 Power Sources for Impress Current System 29
3.8.2.3 Applications of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection 30
3.8.2.4 Advantages of Impressed Current Systems 30
3.8.2.5 Limitations of Impressed Current Systems 30
3.9 Factors Influencing Operation of Cathodic Protection 30
3.9.1 Moisture Content of Soil 31
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3.9.2 Coating 31
3.9.3 Soil Texture 31
3.9.3.1 Clay and Silt 31
3.9.3.2 Sand and Gravel 31
3.9.3.3 Glacial Till 31
3.9.4 Temperature 32
3.9.5 Oxygen Content 32
3.9.6 Movement of Structure and Electrolyte 32
3.9.7 Make-up of the Electrolyte 32
3.9.8 Electrical Shielding 32
3.9.8.1 Metal 32
3.9.8.2 Dielectric 33
3.10 Criteria for Cathodic Protection 33
3.10.1 NACE International Recommended Criteria 33
3.10.1.1 RP0169 Criteria 33
3.10.1.2 Application of Criteria 34
3.10.2 International Standard ISO 15589-1 35
3.11 Electrical Surveys 35
Chapter 4 CP System Remote Monitoring and Intelligent control
4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 Remote Monitoring system 37
4.3 Benefits of remote monitoring and control system 38
4.4 Levels of remote monitoring 39
4.4.1 Remote monitoring of functional operation 39
4.4.2 Remote monitoring of CP efficacy 39
4.4.3 Remote control 40
Chapter 5 Design, Development and Installation of CP Remote Monitoring unit
5.1 Introduction 41
5.2 Typical layout of TEG based Impressed Current CP System 41
5.3 Methodology for Design of remote monitoring and control Unit 41
Design Procedure of Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control
5.4 45
System
5.4.1 Microcontroller Selection 45
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5.4.2 IDE/Microcontroller compiler Selection 46
5.4.2.1 Flowcode 7 46
5.4.2.2 Microcontroller flexibility 47
5.4.2.3 Flowcode saves time 47
5.4.2.4 Test and Debugging 47
5.4.2.5 Non-programmer friendly 47
5.4.2.6 Advanced simulation 47
5.4.2.7 Screen Shot Flowcode 7 48
5.4.3 Simulation and PCB Design Software 48
5.4.3.1 Product Modules 48
5.4.3.2 Schematic Capture 48
5.4.3.3 Microcontroller Simulation 48
5.4.3.4 Printed Circuit Board Design 49
5.4.3.5 3D Verification of PCB 51
5.4.3.6 RMICU Installation 52
5.4.4 GSM Module Selection 55
5.4.5 GSM Data Simulation Software 56
5.4.5.1 Features of TMFT 56
5.4.5.2 Command Mode 56
5.4.5.3 GSM AT Command 57
5.4.6 Development of SCADA software 57
5.4.7 Website design 59
5.4.7.1 Domain and Hosting 59
5.4.7.2 Software selection for website Design 59
5.4.7.3 Website Design view 60
5.4.7.4 Real Time Clock Server 61
5.5 Block Diagram of this Project 61
Working Principle of Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control
5.6 63
System
Chapter 6 Data Monitoring, Evaluation and Cost Analysis
6.1 Introduction 64
6.2 Site Selection 64
6.3 Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control Unit Installation 64
6.4 Data Collection from Site 66
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6.4.1 Using webserver 66
6.4.2 Using SCADA 69
6.4.2 Collection of OFF potential 71
6.5 Data Evaluation 71
6.5.1 Data Evaluation using SCADA system 71
6.5.2 Data Evaluation using webserver 72
6.6 Comparative Cost Analysis 73
6.7 Benefit of this Project 75
Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Conclusions 76
7.2 Recommendations 76
7.3 Scope of Future Study 77
References 78
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LIST OF TABLES Page No.
Table 2.1 Consumption Rate (K) for Various Metals 11

Table 2.2 Practical Galvanic Series 15
Table 5.1 AT Command 57
Description of SCADA system front panel using identification
Table 5.2 58
number
Table 6.1 Identification of website page-1 66

Table 6.5 Identification of SCADA Main page 69
Table 6.6 Identification of SCADA CP station 70
Table 6.7 Data Evaluation using SCADA system 71
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
Figure 2.1 Illustration of Acid and Alkaline pH 5

Figure 2.2 Effect of pH on the Rate of Corrosion 5
Figure 2.3 Anodic Process (half reaction) 6
Figure 2.4 Cathodic Process (half reaction) 7
Figure 2.5 Basic Corrosion Cell – An Electrochemical Circuit 7
Figure 2.6 Corrosion Cell 8
Figure 2.7 Typical Local Action Corrosion Cells on a Structure 10
Figure 2.8 Electron and Ion Flow 13
Copper-Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode in Contact with 13
Figure 2.9
Earth
Differential corrosion cell created by differences in soils.
Figure 2.10 Arrows indicate the direction of ionic and electronic current 16
flow.
Iron-related bacteria creating a differential oxygen and pH cell 17
Figure 2.11 on a metal surface
Figure 2.12 Stray current corrosion caused by foreign pipeline 19
Figure 3.1 Microscopic Corrosion Cell 22
Figure 3.2 Cathodic Protection on a Structure 23
Figure 3.3 Cathodic Protection Applied to a Structure 23
Figure 3.4 Polarization of a Structure 24
Figure 3.5 Cathode Polarized to the Open Circuit Potential of the Anode 25
Figure 3.6 Typical Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection 26
Figure 3.7 Typical Impress Current Cathodic Protection 28
Figure 3.8 Thermo-Electric Generator Based CP system of GTCL 29
Figure 3.9 Depolarization Curve 35
Figure 3.10 Pipe-to-soil potential measurement 36
Figure 4.1 General Cathodic Protection Remote Monitoring Unit 41
Schematic
Figure 5.1 Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control of CP System 42
Figure 5.2 Details of Cathodic Protection Station (Typical) 43
Typical Pipe to Soil Potential curve along the length of pipeline
Figure 5.3 44
between two CP station
Figure 5.4 Microcontroller PIC18F4550 46
Figure 5.5 Pin Diagram of PIC18F4550 46
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Page No.
Figure 5.6 Screenshot of Flowcode 7 48

Figure 5.7 Simulation Software Image 49
Figure 5.8 Routing Lay out of PCB 50
Figure 5.9 Top Copper of PCB 50
Figure 5.10 Bottom Copper of PCB 51
Figure 5.11 3D view of PCB 52
Figure 5.12 Real View of Circuit 53
Figure 5.13 Display Image 54
Figure 5.14 Field installation of RMICU at Negative Distribution Box 54
Figure 5.15 GSM 900A 55
Figure 5.16 TMFT Software Image 56
Figure 5.17 SCADA Dashboard 60
Figure 5.18 Design view of website 60
Figure 5.19 Basic Block Diagram for this Project 61
Figure 5.20 Flow Chart for Microprocessor Programming 62
Figure 6.1 Site Location 65
Figure 6.2 Website Screenshot of page-1 66
Figure 6.6 Main Page of SCADA System 69
Figure 6.7 SCADA Screen shot of CP station 70
Figure 6.8 CP Station Data Evaluation using Webserver 72
Figure 6.9 Cost Comparison 74
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NOMENCLATURE
ADC Analogue to Digital Conversion

API American Petroleum Institute
ASP Active Server Pages
CSS Cascading Style Sheets
CNG Compress Natural Gas
CP Cathodic Protection
CSE Copper Sulfate Electrode
CEPA The Canadian Energy Pipeline Association
DC Direct Current
EEPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EUSART Enhanced Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transceiver
FBE Fusion-bonded-epoxy
FTP File Transfer Protocol
GTCL Gas Transmission Company Limited
GSM Global System for Mobile
GPS Global Positioning System
GPRS General Packet Radio Services
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
IOP Instant off Potential
IDE Development Environment
KB Kilo Byte
LED Light Emitting Diode
MIC Microbiologically influenced corrosion
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineer
PSP Pipe- to- Soil Potential
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PCB Printed Circuit Board
RMICU Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control Unit
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SRAM Static Random Access Memory
SCC Stress Cracking Corrosion
SRB Sulfate Reducing Bacteria
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SIM Subscriber Identity Module
TEG Thermo-Electric Generators
TR Transformer Rectifier
TMFT Taranga Multifunction Tools
USB Universal Serial Bus
VB Visual Basic
WML Wireless Markup Language
XHTML Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language
XML Extensible Markup Language
XSLT Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Corrosion is the degradation of a material through environmental interaction. Cathodic protection
is a technique to reduce the corrosion rate of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an
electrochemical cell [1]. Cathodic Protection (CP) is a method of corrosion control that can be
applied to buried and submerged metallic structures.
Metallic structures like natural gas transmission pipelines buried in soil come in contact with water
or other moist surroundings are subjected to metal degradation or corrosion due to the
electrochemical reaction with the local environment. Cathodic protection (CP) is one of the best
methods that can be applied to mitigate/control metal corrosion for buried and submerged metallic
structures successfully. Application of coating in large pipeline structures are the primary option
for corrosion control but installation of properly designed cathodic protection system is necessary
to take up the total control against corrosion. Basically, the primary function of coating on a
cathodically protected pipe is to reduce the surface area of exposed metal on the pipeline, thereby
reducing the current necessary to protect the metal. Coating and Cathodic Protection both are need
to be combined with intelligent control and monitoring system in order to have an efficient
solution for corrosion control.
Pipelines play an extremely important role throughout the world to transport gases and liquids
over long distances from their sources to the ultimate consumers. A small investment for the
installation of cathodic protection system could save huge amount money that spent for the
valuable structure like gas pipelines. Therefore, installation of cathodic protection system for high
pressure gas transmission pipeline and its periodic monitoring and maintenance following
international standards is a common practice around the world.
After installation of CP system, monitoring and maintenance is very important. The monitoring
approach needs to be cost efficient and accurate in order to detect anomalies and potential failures
in real time, to aid pipeline operators in their maintenance and decision making policies.
Traditionally, the monitoring of CP systems in pipelines requires periodic inspection and thorough
analysis of the data from specialized operators. In general, CP system monitoring is done by
monthly Pipe to Soil Potential (PSP) surveys, which do not allow continuous quality assessment
of the grid, nor it allows real time reports. In addition, field inspection is costly, time consuming,
and prone to human errors if not done by qualified personnel.
In GTCL, Monitoring and Maintenance of CP systems is done once in a month (traditional

system). In this system, it is not possible to know about present condition of the CP system after
monthly monitoring and maintenance [2, 3]. In GTCL, Drain point Pipe to Soil Potential (PSP)
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data is not possible to keep within acceptable limit. CP station power source (Transformer
Rectifier set or Thermo-Electric Generator) voltage, amperes are not possible to monitor or control
in present situation. Also, ON potential and instant OFF potential measurement are not possible
in this system due to lack of current interrupter and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) facilities [4]. If PSP level exceeds the upper limit, then it can create coating
deterioration or Hydrogen embrittlement. On the other hand, if PSP level exceed lower limit, it
causes pipeline corrosion.
The problems mentioned above should be solved for proper monitoring and maintenance of CP
system. For cost effective, real time monitoring and to avoid technical drawbacks, it is essentials
to use remote monitoring and intelligent controls system. Using remote monitoring, it is possible
to monitor real time CP station voltage, ampere, PSP data, ON time, OFF time and running status.
Using intelligent controls system, PSP level can be controlled with in limit ((-)850mv to
(-)1200mv as per NACE criteria)[5]. It is also possible to measure and synchronize instant OFF
potential, ON potential, different types of data can be stored for future reference. For this project,
remote monitoring and intelligent controls system was developed, installed and tested at Dhanua,
Gazipur under Dhanua-Savar pipeline. A SCADA and website are developed for this project.
1.2 Objectives
The study has been undertaken with the following objectives;
To develop an integrated hardware-software system which should allow:
(i) Control pipe-to-soil potential (PSP) level intelligently within acceptable limit and collect,
transmit and interpret measurements of potential coming from different cathodic
protection (CP) station’s sensors distributed in the field along the pipeline in order to have
a continuous online/remote monitoring.
(ii) Measurement of ON potential and instant OFF potential (PSP) through a SCADA system.
The expected outcomes are:

(i) Intelligent control system helps to keep PSP level within acceptable range.
(ii) It enables pipeline operators to assess the level of protection of their structures against
corrosion avoiding the need of costly field surveys.
(iii) In emergency situation CP station can be stopped from office/remote location.
(iv) Collected data can be stored in computer for future references.
(v) Coating deterioration can be controlled using this control system.
1.3 Methodology
The objectives are achieved using the following steps:
1.3.1 Corrosion and cathodic protection: Prior to Design, extensive literature review was
conducted related to corrosion cause and cathodic protection. Also review was conducted
on Remote monitoring and intelligent control system.
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1.3.2 Project Design: Design of this project has two parts: hardware design and software
design. Hardware design is based on microprocessor and include a GSM module.
Software has two parts: SCADA design and website design.
1.3.3 Field Installation: For remote monitoring and intelligent control a hardware unit which
was designed and installed at Dhanua CP station. Remote monitoring and intelligent
control system was developed for data collection and acquisition with the combination of
web server and SCADA.
1.3.4 Data Monitoring and Evaluation: CP station’s voltage, current, and Drain point PSP was
collected using Remote Monitoring and Intelligent control unit. These data was stored in
web server. Monitoring, evaluation and control of CP station data was done based on the
standards and practice used for cathodic protection system of pipeline.
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CHAPTER-2
CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS
2.1 Introduction
Corrosion is an electrochemical process involving the flow of electrons and ions. Metal loss
(corrosion) occurs at the anode. No metal loss occurs at the cathode (the cathode is protected).
Electrochemical corrosion involves the transfer of electrons across metal/electrolyte interfaces.
The importance of corrosion studies is two folds. The first is economic, including the reduction of
material losses resulting from the wasting away or sudden failure of piping, tanks, metal
components of machines, ships, hulls, marine, structures etc. The second is conservation, applied
primarily to metal resources, the world’s supply of which is limited, and the wastage of which
includes corresponding losses of energy and water resources accompanying the production and
fabrication of metal structures.
The global cost of corrosion is estimated to be US$2.5 trillion, which is equivalent to 3.4%
of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (2013). By using available corrosion control
practices, it is estimated that savings of between 15 and 35% of the cost of corrosion could
be realized; i.e., between US$375 and $875 billion annually on a global basis, an astronomical
savings [6]. In addition, these costs typically do not include individual safety or environmental
consequences.
2.2 Classification of Corrosion

Corrosion can be classified in many ways as low temperature and high temperature corrosion,
direct oxidation and electrochemical corrosion, etc. The preferred classification is: Dry or
chemical corrosion and wet or electrochemical corrosion.
1- Chemical corrosion: In which the metal is converted into its oxide when the metal is
exposed to a reactive gas or non-conducting liquids.
2- Electrochemical corrosion: The formation of hydrous oxide film occurs when the metal
is immersed in a conducting liquid containing dissolved reactive substance. The reaction
is considered to take place at the metal solution interface, due to the heterogeneity on the
metal surface, which creates local anodic and cathodic sites on the metal.
2.3 Electrochemical Reactions

Electrochemistry is the division of chemistry that deals with the transfer of electric charge in
chemical reactions. These chemical reactions are electrochemical reactions. One branch
deals with solid state reactions that take place in semiconductors such as transistors and diodes.
Corrosion and cathodic protection pertain to the branch of electrochemistry concerned with
charge transfer in aqueous or other liquid environments.
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2.3.1 Oxidation and Reduction
2.3.1.1 Oxidation
Oxidation is the term applied to the loss of one or more electrons from an atom or molecule,
which then forms a positively charged ion. An oxidation reaction occurs any time electrons are
given up by an atom or molecule. The atom or molecule decreases in negative charge [5].
For example, when a neutral iron atom (Fe) oxidizes, it may lose two or three electrons, producing
positively charged iron ions (Fe++ or Fe+++), as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Anodic Process (half reaction)
The electrode or metallic site where oxidation occurs is called an anode.
2.3.1.2 Reduction
Reduction is the term applied to the gain of one or more electrons to an atom or molecule,
which then forms a negatively charged ion or neutral element. A reduction reaction occurs
any time that electrons are gained by an atom or molecule. The atom or molecule increases in
negative charge.
For example, when a hydrogen ion (H+) is reduced, it gains one electron, producing a neutral
hydrogen atom (H).
H+ + e- → H
The electrode or metallic site where reduction occurs is called a cathode. The process appears
in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Cathodic Process (half reaction)
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2.3.2 Electrochemical Circuits
The basic electrochemical corrosion cell is illustrated in Figure 2.3. The various parts of the
basic cell are discussed following the figure.
Figure 2.3 Basic Corrosion Cell – An Electrochemical Circuit
2.3.2.1 Electrolyte
The electrolyte is an ionized solution capable of conducting electricity.
2.3.2.2 Ionization
In addition to ions that may be produced in oxidation and reduction reactions, ions may
be present in the electrolyte due to dissociation of ionized molecules. Cations are positively
charged ions and anions are negatively charged ions). These ions are current-carrying
charges. Therefore, electrolytes with higher ionization have greater conductivity.
2.3.3 Corrosion Cell

Corrosion is an electrochemical process involving the flow of electrons and ions. Metal loss
(corrosion) occurs at the anode. No metal loss occurs at the cathode (the cathode is protected).
Electrochemical corrosion involves the transfer of electrons across metal/electrolyte

interfaces. Corrosion occurs within a corrosion cell.
For corrosion to occur, all of the following conditions must be present:
(1) There must be an anode and a cathode.
(2) There must be a potential difference between the anode and the cathode.
(3) There must be a metallic path connecting the anode and the cathode.
(4) There must be a conducting electrolyte surrounding both the anode and the cathode.
The anode is the area at which oxidation or corrosion occurs where the current leaves the metal to
enter the electrolyte. The cathode is the area at which reduction or negligible corrosion occurs
where the current leaves the electrolyte to enter the metal. The electrolyte is a solution in which
the conduction of electric current occurs by the passage of dissolved ions. When the above
conditions are met an electric current will flow and metal will be consumed at the anode, i.e. the
anode corrodes.
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2.3.4 Anode Reactions
The chemical reaction that occurs at the anode, the anodic reaction, is an oxidation reaction.
Corrosion is the result of the oxidation reaction in a corrosion cell. The process appears in
Figure 2.4.
. Oxidation is the loss of electrons as shown in the following reaction:
Mo → Mn+ + ne-
where n is the number of electrons involved.
Other anode reactions:
Feo → Fe+++ 2e–
Figure 2.4 Corrosion Cell
2.3.5 Cathode Reactions

The chemical reaction that occurs at the cathode, the cathodic reaction, is a reduction reaction.
Reduction is the gain of electrons. The actual cathodic reaction that occurs will depend on the
electrolyte. The following reactions are the two most common reduction reactions that occur at
the surface of the cathode.
Oxygen Reduction–more common in neutral environments.
2H O + O + 4e- → 4OH−
2 2
Hydrogen Ion Reduction–more common in acidic environments

H+ + e- → Ho
Corrosion never occurs at the cathode of a corrosion cell.
The anode and the cathode can be on different metals or on the same metal as shown in Figure
2.5.
Figure 2.5 Typical Local Action Corrosion Cells on a Structure
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2.3.6 External Circuit
The external circuit refers to those parts of an electrochemical circuit in which charge
movement is electronic; that is, it involves the movement of electrons.
The electric current produced by oxidation and reduction flows through the electronic path by
means of electron movement. The electrons produced in the oxidation reaction flow from the
anode to the cathode to provide electrons for the reduction reaction to occur. This is shown in
Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Electron and Ion Flow
2.3.7 Charge Transfer in the Electrolyte

Movement of charged ions is the mechanism for charge transfer through an electrolyte as opposed
to the flow of electrons in a solid metal conductor. Positively charged ions (cations) move away
from the anode and toward the cathode. On the other hand, negatively charged ions (anions) move
toward the anode and away from the cathode. This charge transfer is called electrolytic current
flow. This charge transfer is shown in Figure 2.6.
Ions are relatively heavy and slow moving. Consequently, electrolytes have much higher
resistivities than metals. This causes a phenomenon called polarization.
2.3.8 Conventional Current Flow

Figure 2.6 shows the actual electrochemical current flow that exists in a corrosion cell. In
corrosion and cathodic protection work, conventional current flow is used. This is a flow of
current in the direction of the positive ion transfer (so called positive current). The use of
conventional current simplifies the understanding of corrosion cells and the use of cathodic
protection.
2.3.9 Sign Convention

For a positive reading on a digital display or a right hand deflection of the needle on an analog
display, conventional current must flow into the positive (+) terminal. Since most instruments
used today are digital with automatic polarity display, a surveyor may not be as concerned
with the sign of the reading when connecting the voltmeter for the measurement. It is still
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important to pay attention to the connection of the instrument terminals and the expected
sign in order to detect problems during a survey.
If a voltmeter is connected such that the positive terminal is connected to the more noble metal
and the negative terminal to the more active metal, then the reading is positive. Current will
flow from the active to the noble metal through the electrolyte and from the noble to the active
metal through the metallic path. Therefore, the reading is positive because conventional current
is flowing into the positive terminal of the voltmeter.
Structure-to-electrolyte readings are considered negative to the reference electrode. When

using a digital voltmeter, the reference electrode is connected to the negative terminal.
Connecting the reference electrode to the negative terminal produces a negative reading.
2.4 Reference Electrodes (Half-Cells)

Reference electrodes, or half-cells, are important devices that permit measuring the
potential of a metal surface exposed to an electrolyte. An example is a structure-to-soil potential
measurement.
Structure-to-soil potentials are measured in reference to an electrode. What is often referred to

as a structure-to-electrolyte potential is actually the potential measured between the structure
and a reference electrode. The electrolyte itself has no potential value against which the
potential of a structure can be measured independently of the potential of the reference
electrode used. Therefore, before discussing how to measure potentials along a structure, we
must discuss reference cells.
There are several potential benchmarks in common use, but all of them are related to a basic
standard. In this standard one-half of the cell generating the potential to be measured is
represented by a platinized electrode over which hydrogen gas is bubbled while immersed
in a solution having a definite concentration of hydrogen ions. If it is arbitrarily agreed that
the potential of the platinized electrode covered with hydrogen in its standard solution is zero
on a scale of potentials, then the potentials of all the other metals in their appropriate solutions
can be described in terms of this reference.
The standard hydrogen electrode half-cell is awkward to use in most circumstances in

which potential measurements are to be made. Instead, other combinations of metal
electrodes in solution with a specific concentration of ions are used. The reference cell
must be stable and capable of producing reproducible data.
2.4.1 Copper-Copper Sulfate Electrode

Copper sulfate reference electrodes (CSE) are the most commonly used reference electrode
for measuring potentials of underground structures and also for those exposed to fresh water.
The electrode is composed of a copper rod, immersed in a saturated solution of copper
Page | 9
sulfate, held in a non-conducting cylinder with a porous plug at the bottom, as shown in
Figures 2.7. The copper ions in the saturated solution prevent corrosion of the copper rod
and stabilize the reference electrode. This electrode is portable.
Figure 2.7 Copper-Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode in Contact with Earth
2.5 Driving Force for Corrosion

Current flow is similar to water flow. Water will flow if there is a difference in
elevation between the starting and ending flow points.
Likewise, current will flow from one point to another if there is a voltage difference between
the two points. This voltage difference may be generated by naturally occurring reactions
or by stray current reactions as discussed in the section “Causes of Corrosion”. There must
be a voltage difference between the anode and cathode of a corrosion cell for current to flow.
2.6 Corrosion Rate

The rate of corrosion is proportional to the amount of current flowing in the corrosion cell.
The rate of corrosion depends on:
(1) The metal (different metals corrode at different rates).
(2) The electrical resistance of the electrolyte.
(3) The amount of dissolved oxygen in the electrolyte.
(4) The pH (parts of hydrogen indicating acidity) value of the electrolyte.
Faraday’s Law
The weight of any material deposited on the cathode (or liberated from the anode) is directly
proportional to the quantity of electric charge passing through the circuit. Faraday's Law relates
weight loss of metal in a corrosion cell with time and current flow. The law is expressed in
the following formula:
Wt = KIT = kg where
Wt = weight loss, kg
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K = electrochemical equivalent, kg/A-yr
I = Amps
T = years
The value of ‘K’ (in kg/A-yr and lb/A-yr) for some common metals is shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Consumption Rate (K) for Various Metals
Metal Kg/A-yr Lb/A-yr

Carbon 1.3 2.86
Aluminum 3.0 6.5
Magnesium 4.0 8.8
Iron/Steel 9.1 20.1
High Silicon/Chromium Iron 0.5 1.0
Nickel 9.6 21.2
Copper (Monovalent) 20.8 45.8
Zinc 10.7 23.6
Tin 19.4 42.8
Lead 33.9 74.7
If the loss is occurring over the entire bulkhead, it will probably be insignificant. If, on
the other hand, the bulkhead is coated and loss is taking place only at holidays, then several
penetrations might occur in the short time of four years.
Faraday’s Law is also very useful for determining the expected life of cathodic protection
anodes.
2.7 Factors that affect the Corrosion Rate

2.7.1 Anode/Cathode Ratio
The relative area between the anode and cathode of a corrosion cell greatly affects the rate at
which the anode corrodes. If the anodic area is small in relation to that of the cathode (a steel
rivet in a copper plate, for example), the anode (steel rivet) will corrode rapidly. This is because
the corrosion current is concentrated in a small area (large current density). Also, the large
cathode may not polarize easily, thus maintaining a high rate of corrosion.
When a small cathode is connected to a large anode (copper rivet in a steel plate for example),
the corrosion current density on the anode (steel) is much less than in the opposite case
discussed above, and the anode corrodes more slowly. Polarization may play an important
role here, too. The small cathode may polarize rapidly, reducing the rate of corrosion current
flow.
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2.7.2 Influence of the Environment
2.7.2.1 Moisture Content
Electrolytic corrosion requires the presence of moisture. A completely dry environment will not
support this form of corrosion. A damp, well-aerated metal surface may undergo more rapid
general corrosion than a surface that is totally immersed. An example of this is the splash zone on
submerged steel piling. In this case, oxygen reduction is the primary cathode reaction and
corrosion of steel is the anode reaction. The anodes and cathodes are close together and the
corrosion is characterized as general metal loss.
In underground corrosion, high moisture content is generally associated with increased corrosion
rates. However, total immersion (saturated soil) is not necessarily the most aggressive situation.
In general, clays are deficient in oxygen and in mixed soils the areas of a structure in contact
with the clay become the anodes of an oxygen concentration cell. In such cells it is
the difference in available oxygen between sand and clay areas in contact with a structure
that produces the electrical energy that drives the corrosion process.
2.7.2.2 Conductivity
The amount of current through an electrolyte is affected by the ion content. The more ions, the
greater the conductivity; the greater the conductivity, the more current for a given cell voltage;
and the greater the current, the higher the rate of corrosion. Conductivity is equal to the reciprocal
of resistivity. The unit of measurement is the Siemen-cm (mho-cm).
Conductivity or its reciprocal (resistivity) is an important parameter in the study of corrosion

and its prevention. High conductivity itself does not indicate a corrosive environment; it
only indicates an ability to support current flow.
2.7.2.3 Effect of pH on the Rate of Corrosion

When discussing an aqueous medium (including soil), the question often arises as to how acid or
alkaline the solution is. This refers to whether there is an excess of hydrogen (H+) or hydroxyl
(OH–) ions present.
When acids dissociate, the cation produced is the hydrogen ion, H+. A medium is said to be acidic
when there is an excess of H+ ions. The strength of an acid is a measure of the hydrogen ion
concentration in an aqueous solution and is classified according to the pH scale. The definition of pH
is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration, or:
pH = –log [H+]
When an alkali dissociates, the anion produced is a hydroxyl ion, OH–. A medium is said to be alkaline
when an excess OH– (hydroxyl) ions are present.
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This concept is better understood for pure water, H2O. Pure water will ionize into equal parts of
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH–). The ionization constant for water is the square root of
10–14. That equals 10–7. This is the definition of a negative logarithm. Since water ionizes into equal
parts of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, 7 represents a neutral solution.
The pH scale is illustrated in Figure 2.8. The neutral point is 7. Acid solutions have a pH below 7 and
alkaline, or basic, solutions have a pH above 7. Since the pH scale is logarithmic, for each unit of pH
the environment becomes ten times more acid or alkaline. A medium with a pH of 6, for example, is
ten times more acid than one having a pH of 7.
Figure 2.8 Illustration of Acid and Alkaline pH
An understanding of pH is important in corrosion and cathodic protection work. For many metals, the
rate of corrosion increases appreciably below a pH of about 4. Between 4 and 8 corrosion rate is fairly
independent of pH. Above 8, the environment becomes passive and corrosion rates tend to decrease.
This is shown in Figure 2.9, which is typical of the behavior of steel.
Figure 2.9 Effect of pH on the Rate of Corrosion
The corrosion rate of aluminum and lead, on the other hand, tends to increase in environments above
a pH of about 8. This is because the protective oxide film on the surface of these metals is dissolved
in strongest acids and alkalis and the metals corrode. Metals that corrode under low and high pH levels
are termed amphoteric metals. Figure 2.9 illustrates this phenomenon.
An understanding of the effect of pH is also important in the application of cathodic protection. The
pH of the environment around the cathode (the protected structure) becomes more alkaline due to the
production of hydroxyl ions or removal of hydrogen ions. This is important when working with
Page | 13
amphoteric metals, as the corrosion of these metals can actually be accelerated under excessive
cathodic protection due to the rise in pH around the structure.
Of particular interest is the pH, which expresses the hydrogen ion concentration in the
electrolyte. The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH. Hydrogen ions
readily accept electrons when in contact with metals that are more electrochemically active than
hydrogen. For example, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, iron, and lead are all more active than
hydrogen. Other metals, such as copper, are less active (or more noble) than hydrogen. Thus, in
an acid environment, metals more active than hydrogen will be corroded, and those more noble
will not be corroded.
2.8 Causes of Corrosion

Nearly all of the corrosion can be divided into one of two types either a natural reaction or a
stray current reaction. Naturally occurring corrosion takes place because of local action cells on
the surface of the structure. These cells result from voltage differences caused by such factors
as surface irregularities, mill scale, oxygen concentrations, differences in the electrolyte
around the structure, and others. Stray current reactions occur when some source of current,
external to the structure itself, causes corrosion on the structure.
2.8.1 Dissimilar Metals (Galvanic Corrosion)

The metal itself may be a source for the driving voltage of a corrosion cell. A difference in
voltage may arise due to differences in the natural energy levels of different metals or
composition variations formed during alloying.
Metals occur in nature in the form of various chemical compounds referred to as ores. After ore
is mined, the metallic compound is removed from the rock-like ore and refined to produce a
nearly pure state of the metal. Various processes-mechanical, chemical, and electrical-are
employed to transform ores into useful metals. Regardless of the process, the metal absorbs
energy during the transformation. The amount of energy required by a metal during the refining
process determines the voltage or active state of the metal.
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Table 2.2 Practical Galvanic Series
Metal Volts vs Cu-CuSO4

Active or Anodic End
Magnesium –1.60 to –1.75
Zinc –1.10
Aluminum –1.05
Clean Carbon Steel –0.50 to –0.80
Rusted Carbon Steel –0.20 to –0.50
Cast/Ductile Iron –0.50
Lead –0.50
Steel in Concrete –0.20
Copper –0.20
High Silicon Iron –0.20
Carbon, Graphite +0.30
Noble or Cathodic End
The voltage is relatively high for such metals as magnesium, aluminum, and iron and relatively
low for such metals as copper and silver. A useful way of viewing metals in the order of their
activity is shown in what is known as the galvanic series. This series is based on metals in
seawater, but applies to metals in fresh water and underground. The series is shown in Table
2.2. The potentials shown are approximate since they vary somewhat depending on the
environment. Potentials are shown vs. a copper-copper sulfate.
When two different metals are connected, a voltage is generated between them. The more
active metal (toward the anodic end) becomes the anode of the cell.
A classic example of a galvanic cell is the flashlight battery. This consists of a zinc case enclosing
an electrolyte and a carbon rod. From Table 2.2 the voltage difference between the two metals
is about 1.4V (actually 1.5V in a battery) and that the zinc is the anode and the carbon is the cathode.
This is a useful corrosion cell since the current produced.
2.8.2 Alloying
In the alloying process, grain boundaries are formed. Similar to dissimilar metals, the grain
boundary may be more active or more noble than the adjacent metal causing a voltage
difference. Also, the more active metal used to make an alloy may corrode leaving behind the
more noble metal. This is usually referred to as the active metal leaching from the alloy, such
as zinc from brass (dezincification).
2.8.3 Mechanical Stresses

When a metal experiences mechanical stress, the more highly stressed area is usually the more
active area and becomes the anode of the corrosion cell.
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2.8.4 Temperature Differences in the Metal
If parts of a structure are at different temperatures, the higher temperature area is usually the
more active area and becomes the anode of the corrosion cell.
2.8.5 Temperature Differences in the Electrolyte

For temperature differences in an electrolyte, the area of metal in the higher temperature is usually
the more active area and becomes the anode of the corrosion cell.
2.8.6 Dissimilar Soils

Dissimilar soils, such as clay and sand, due to their differences in resistivity (reciprocal of
conductivity) and oxygen content, may provide the driving force for corrosion. The metal in
the vicinity of the lower resistivity soil is usually more active and is the anode.
Fig. 2.10: Differential corrosion cell created by differences in soils. Arrows indicate the
direction of ionic and electronic current flow.
2.8.7 Oxygen Concentration Cell

A metal exposed to different concentrations of oxygen may experience a difference in voltage.
The metal in the vicinity of the higher concentration of oxygen will be more noble, or the
cathode, because oxygen is a cathodic reactant.
2.8.8 Metal Ion Concentration Cell

The higher the concentration of metal ions that are the same as the adjacent metal, the more the
noble the metal becomes. For metal ions that are different from the adjacent metal, the
effect may be difficult to determine. When a simple salt is present that does not contain a metal
ion, the area of the metal in the higher concentration of salt is usually the anode.
2.8.9 Microbiological Influences

Microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC) is common. Various bacteria enter into redox
type reactions. Some of these bacteria live only in environments free of oxygen. This
class of bacteria is termed anaerobic. Other species thrive under aerated conditions and form
acids. Although bacteria themselves do not attack metals, the metals become involved in the
various redox reactions associated with the metabolism of the bacteria.
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A particularly important example of MIC is sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) which can accelerate
corrosion of metal pipe in clay environments. In the overall cycle, the metal is oxidized and
sulfur, normally present in soils as sulfate, is reduced to sulfide. The bacteria serve as an
intermediary in this reaction. The presence of bacteria may significantly increase corrosion rates
in environments that would otherwise be relatively benign. An example is shown in Figure 2.11. In
the case of underground pipelines, the most aggressive attack has been associated with acid-
producing bacteria in such bacterial communities [7, 8].
Figure 2.11: Iron-related bacteria creating a differential oxygen and pH cell on a metal surface
2.9 Forms of Corrosion

Corrosion may be grouped into the following general forms:
2.9.1 Uniform Attack

This is a uniform type of corrosion with an even loss of metal over the entire area or a large area of
the structure.
2.9.2 Crevice Corrosion

This type of corrosion occurs where two tightly spaced surfaces – either two metals or a metal and
nonmetal – are exposed to a corroding environment. Holes, gasket surfaces, lap joints, surface
deposits, and crevices are likely places for this type of corrosion.
2.9.3 Galvanic Attack

This corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are connected. The potential of the two metals
creates a voltage difference, the driving force for corrosion.
2.9.4 Pitting
Localized corrosion that occurs over a small area of the metal surface and leaves holes in the surface.
Pits can be isolated or closely spaced. Pits can be small or large in diameter.
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2.9.5 Inter granular Attack
This is a local corrosion attack at the grain boundaries of an alloy. It is caused by a difference in
element composition near the boundaries, compared to the rest of the alloy.
2.9.6 Selective Leaching

This type of corrosion involves the selective removal of one of the elements from an alloy. Examples
of this type of corrosion are dezincification of brass and graphitic corrosion of cast iron.
2.9.7 Velocity Phenomena

This corrosion is associated with rapid movement of a corrosive fluid over a metal, removing
corrosion products. It is recognized by the appearance of grooves, trenches, etc., in the direction of
fluid flow.
2.9.8 Environmental Cracking

Environmental cracking results from the reaction of the metal with a corrosive environment and the
presence of a stress. There are three types of environmental cracking:
- Corrosion Fatigue-results in fatigue of the metal under an alternating stress in a corroding
media.
- Hydrogen Embrittlement-the reduction in ductility of the metal from hydrogen that has
diffused into the metal.
2.9.9 Hydrogen Damage

Atomic hydrogen generated at the surface by cathodic protection can diffuse into the metal. This
atomic hydrogen can cause blistering of the metal, the formation of hydrides (in the case of titanium)
that embrittle the titanium, and the embrittlement of steel (particularly high-strength steel),
martensitic stainless steel, high-strength aluminum alloys (particularly 7,000 series), and pre-stressed
concrete. The embrittlement of the metal can cause cracks to form, which can grow and cause the
structure to fail [5].
The prevention of hydrogen embrittlement depends on keeping the potential below the hydrogen
evolution potential, which depends on the pH. In general, hydrogen is generated in neutral
environments at – 1,044 mV CSE. The lower the pH, the lower the hydrogen evolution potential. For
aluminum, the polarized potential must be kept below – 1,200 mV CSE to avoid alkali corrosion. For
titanium, the maximum potential is –700 mVssc to prevent hydriding. Overprotection levels are
discussed in some cathodic protection criteria documents and might differ from these somewhat. For
pre-stressed concrete, polarized potentials more negative than –1,000 mV should be avoided.
Care must be taken in designing and operating cathodic protection systems where materials
susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement are used to limit the structure-to-soil potential below the
hydrogen evolution potential.
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2.9.10 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
The cracking of a metal under an applied tensile stress in the presence of a corrosive environment.
Many metals, including high-strength steel, aluminum (2,000 and 7,000 series alloys), stainless steels,
and brass alloys are susceptible to SCC. Cathodic protection generally reduces or eliminates SCC
because it stops the corrosion process. However, SCC of high-strength pipeline steels caused by
cathodic protection has occurred. This type of cracking occurs in a narrow potential range (–525 to –
725mVCSE) at a pH between 8 and 10.5, and is more likely at higher temperatures. The cracking
occurs because of the formation of carbonates and bicarbonates at the steel surface. Research in this
area is ongoing [9, 10].
2.9.11 Stray Current Corrosion

Corrosion of underground pipelines can be accelerated by stray dc (direct current) flowing in the soil
near the pipeline. Sources of direct electrical current include foreign pipelines that are not properly
bonded to the pipeline and ground currents from dc sources. Electrified railroads, mining operations,
and other similar industries that utilize large amounts of dc sometimes allow a significant portion of
current to use a ground path return to their power sources. These currents often utilize pipelines in
close proximity as a part of the return path. This “stray” current can be picked up by the pipeline and
discharged back into the soil at some distance down the pipeline close to the current return. Current
pickup on the pipe is the same process as cathodic protection, which tends to mitigate corrosion. The
process of discharge of a dc off the pipe and through the soil accelerates corrosion of the pipe wall at
the discharge point, causing stray current corrosion [5].
Figure 2.12: Stray current corrosion caused by foreign pipeline
The morphology of stray current corrosion tends to be very localized at holidays (defects or holes) in
the pipeline coating. Rates of attack can be very high, resulting in rapid perforation of a pipeline. In
the case of stray current corrosion from a foreign pipeline, the pipeline acts as a return current path
for the cathodic protection system on the foreign pipeline. Stray current corrosion occurs where the
dc discharges from the pipeline and collects onto the foreign pipeline, as shown in Figure 2.12. While
relatively rare, cathodic protection rectifiers are occasionally connected backwards, such that dc
current is discharged from the pipeline and the impressed current “anode” actually collects rather than
discharges current.
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CHAPTER-3
CORROSION CONTROL OF UNDERGROUND PIPELINES

3.1 Introduction
A number of factors affect the longevity of a pipeline. These include quality of construction and
protective coating systems, cathodic protection, nature of the environment, operating conditions, and
quality and frequency of pipeline maintenance to name but a few.
Corrosion protection is required to maintain the integrity of a buried pipeline system and coatings are
the primary protection for a pipeline. As a buried pipeline is subject to corrosive attack if it is in
contact with a wet environment, coating the pipeline to isolate it from this corrosive environment is
an obvious approach to corrosion control. Since no coating system is defect free, cathodic protection
is
used to provide supplementary protection.
Cathodic protection is fundamental to preserving a pipeline's integrity. Cathodic protection is a

method of corrosion control that is achieved by supplying an external direct current that neutralizes
the natural corrosion current arising on the pipeline at coating defects. Current required to protect a
pipeline is dependent on the environment and the number and size of the coating defects. Clearly, for
a particular environment, the greater the number and size of coating defects, the greater the amount
of current required for protection.
3.2 Materials Selection for Corrosion Control

Corrosion occurs as the result of a voltage differential between two components of a system.
An anode and a cathode must be present. If a complex structure is constructed of materials that
are near each other in the galvanic series, then there is reduced likelihood of potential differences.
Construction using materials that are not close in the galvanic series (such as steel and copper)
can create a corrosion cell. When mechanical considerations allow, always select materials
that will exhibit little or no voltage differences when in contact with each other and a
common electrolyte.
3.2.1 Protective Coatings for Underground or Submerged Structures

Coatings are the first line of defense in many corrosion control programs. Unfortunately,
coatings are not perfect and accelerated corrosion occurs at breaks (holidays) in a coating.
Cathodic protection is used to prevent corrosion of the steel substrate at the holidays in the
coating [11, 12].
Coating also plays an important part in cathodic protection engineering. Although it is possible
to protect a bare structure, if the structure is coated it is necessary to protect only the metal
exposed at the holidays. This greatly reduces the size and cost of cathodic protection systems.
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3.2.2 Types of Factory Applied Underground Coatings
Pipeline coatings designed for underground use generally do not have good resistance to ultra
violet light. Consequently, lengthy storage of coated pipe in sunlight is to be avoided.
3.2.2.1 Bituminous Enamels

These coatings are formulated from coal tar pitch or natural asphalt and are reinforced with glass
and a felt wrapper to provide additional mechanical strength and impact resistance. The exterior
of the pipe is wrapped with Kraft paper for protection during shipping and handling. Enamel-
coated pipe must be handled carefully to prevent damage to the coating.
3.2.2.2 Extruded Polyolefin and Polyethylene

These coating systems consist of polyolefin or polyethylene extruded over a butyl or asphalt
mastic adhesive. The coatings have high impact resistance and resist the development of holidays
over time.
3.2.2.3 Tape Coatings

Most tape systems are cold applied. The system consists of a primer, a corrosion sealant inner
layer, with a mechanical protective outer layer backing, usually polyethylene or polybutylene.
There are also several multi-layer systems available. They must be shipped and handled with care
to prevent damage and are prone to disbonding if the tape is not properly tensioned.
3.2.2.4 Fusion Bonded Epoxy

These coatings consist of a powdered resin electrostatically sprayed onto a pipe heated to 400⁰F
to 500⁰F (204⁰C to 260⁰C). Typical thickness is 12 to 15 mils (0.304 mm to 0.381 mm). These
coatings have good adhesion to steel and resist impact and abrasion damage well. Operating
temperatures range from -40⁰F to 140⁰F (–40⁰C to 60⁰C). Long-term (10 to 15 years) moisture
absorption can be a problem with these coatings, so cathodic protection current requirements may
increase over time.
3.2.2.5 Two-Component Liquid Resin Coatings

These coatings consist of a liquid resin, usually an epoxy, and a curing agent. The two components
are sprayed in the correct proportion onto the pipe, usually in one or two coats to achieve a final
thickness of 12 to 16 mils (0.304 mm to 0.406 mm). These coatings are also resistant to impact
and abrasion damage.
3.2.2.6 Girth Weld and Other Field Coatings

Welded joints, fittings, and other appurtenances must be coated in the field. Various materials are
used for this procedure including heat shrink sleeves, hot- and cold-applied tapes, two-component
liquid resins, coal tar mastics and fusion bonded epoxy. The field coating selected must be
compatible with the adjacent coating and as durable as that on the structure itself.
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3.2.3 Surface Preparation
Proper surface preparation is essential if the coating is to bond properly to the metal. Each type of
field coating will have a specific surface preparation requirement that must be followed.
For all coatings, the surface must be clean and dry. Often this is accomplished with power tools
but in some cases abrasive blasting and solvents is required.
Some coatings require a primer on the prepared surface prior to the application of the coating.
Primer application must be done in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications and must
be allowed to dry to the specified consistency before the outer coating is applied.
3.2.4 Application of Coating

Coatings may be hot or cold applied. The most common field coatings in use today are liquid
epoxies, heat shrink sleeves and various types of tape. All coatings should be applied in accordance
with the manufacturer’s requirements.
3.2.5 Electrical Isolation

Electrical isolation devices may be used to separate different metals or other anodic and cathodic
components of a corrosion cell. Insertion of dielectric material interrupts the electronic portion of
the corrosion cell, thereby isolating the anode from the cathode.
3.3 Cathodic Protection

Corrosion is the result of an electrochemical reaction driven by a potential difference between two
electrodes, an anode and a cathode, connected by an electronic path and immersed in the same
electrolyte (see Figure 3.1). In the case of uniform corrosion, a multitude of microscopic anodic
and cathodic sites exist on the surface of the metal structure.
Figure 3.1: Microscopic Corrosion Cell
The concept of cathodic protection (CP) involves reducing the potential difference between the
local anodic and cathodic sites to zero, resulting in zero corrosion current flow. This can be
accomplished by impressing current onto the structure from an external electrode and polarizing
Page | 22
the cathodic sites in an electronegative direction. As the potentials of the cathodic sites polarize
toward the potentials of the anodic sites, corrosion current is reduced. When the potentials of all
cathodic sites reach the open circuit potential of the most active anodic sites, corrosion is
eliminated on the structure. The structure is now the cathode of an intentional macroscopic
corrosion cell [1, 5].
Cathodic protection does not actually eliminate corrosion. Instead, it transfers it from the structure
to be protected to the cathodic protection anode(s). The structure is now the cathode of an
intentional corrosion cell. Corrosion of the metal will cease once the applied cathodic protection
current equals or exceeds the corrosion current. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Cathodic Protection on a Structure
The cathodic protection current leaves the cathodic protection anode, enters the electrolyte, and
passes as migrating ions through the electrolyte to the metal surface. At the point this current
leaves the cathodic protection anode, an anodic reaction occurs. Where it is picked up on the
protected surface, a cathodic reaction occurs. The current then flows to the metallic connection
and returns to the anode.
Corrosion of the metal will cease once the applied cathodic protection current equals or exceeds
the corrosion current.
Figure 3.3 Cathodic Protection Applied to a Structure
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Cathodic protection current is impressed from an external cathodic protection anode through the
electrolyte to the metal and reduces the potential difference between anodic and cathodic sites (see
Figure 3.3).
3.4 Polarization of a Structure

Cathodic protection is a polarization phenomenon and polarization is a change in potential caused
by current. When current goes from the electrolyte to the metal, a reduction reaction occurs.
Products from these reactions change the chemical composition of the electrolyte at the
structure/electrolyte interface. The chemistry difference at the interface, as measured by the
structure potential, is referred to as polarization. When cathodic protection current is interrupted,
the polarization will dissipate similarly to the voltage dissipation of a capacitor but may never
reach the original native potential depending on the reaction products.
Figure 3.4 Polarization of a Structure

Polarization occurs in a step-like manner with the more positive or cathodic sites polarizing first.
As the potential of the first cathodic sites equals the potential of other sites, polarization begins at
other sites. A simplified description is given in Figure 3.4.
Polarization of the cathodes to the open circuit potential of the anodes is the true criterion for
eliminating corrosion. However, for all practical purposes, it is impossible to determine the open
circuit potential of the most active anodic site. Because corrosion cells are usually microscopic
and the measured potentials are corrosion potentials (Ecorr), the initial measurements are most
likely to be an average of corrosion potentials for several corrosion cells. Therefore, several
surrogate criteria were developed to assist meeting the true criterion.
Page | 24
where:
EC,OC = Structure cathode potential, open circuit, corrosion cell not active
EA,OC = Structure anode potential, open circuit, corrosion cell not active
EC,P = Structure cathode potential, corrosion cell active, before CP applied
EA,P = Structure anode potential, corrosion cell active, before CP applied
ECORR = Corrosion potential with structure anode and structure cathode connected
ICORR = Corrosion current before CP applied
ECPA, OC = CP anode potential, no CP current
E’C,P = Structure cathode potential with CP current applied
ECPA,P = CP anode potential, CP current flowing
ICP = Cathodic protection current between CP anode and structure
Figure 3.5 Cathode Polarized to the Open Circuit Potential of the Anode
3.5 Current Requirement

The amount of current required to provide adequate protection depends on the surface area to be
protected and the polarization behavior of the structure in its environment.
3.6 Surface Area

Current requirement is directly proportional to the exposed metal surface area to the electrolyte.
For example, a coated structure requires less current than a bare structure. A coated structure needs
protective current only at coating defects (holidays). To consider an actual example, let us look at
the following calculations.
3.7 Structures That Can be Cathodically Protected

Most metallic structures that are immersed or embedded in an electrolyte can be cathodically
protected. Examples of structures where cathodic protection is employed include:
 underground or submerged steel, iron, aluminum, and pre-stressed concrete cylinder
pipelines
Page | 25
 underground tanks and piping
 exterior bottoms (both primary and secondary) of above grade storage tanks.
 ship hulls
 ballast tanks
 docks
 sheet piling
 foundation piles on land and in the water
 bridge decks and substructures
 reinforcing steel in concrete
 lead or steel sheathed telephone and electrical cables.
3.8 Types of Cathodic Protection

There are two methods of providing cathodic protection current to a structure:
 Galvanic anode system
 Impressed current system.
3.8.1 Galvanic Anode Systems

Galvanic (or sacrificial) cathodic protection makes practical use of dissimilar metal corrosion. It
is important to note that there must be a substantial potential difference, or driving voltage,
between a galvanic anode and the structure to be protected. The galvanic anode is connected to
the structure it is protecting, either directly or through a test station so it can be monitored. A
typical galvanic cathodic protection system is shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Typical Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection
3.8.1.1 Galvanic Anodes

There are several metals commonly used as galvanic anodes:
 aluminum
 magnesium
 zinc.
Page | 26
3.8.1.2 Applications of Galvanic Anode Systems
The following are among the conditions where galvanic anodes are used:
 When a relatively small amount of current is required.
 Usually restricted to lower resistivity electrolytes.
 For local cathodic protection to provide current to a specific area on a structure. Some
operators install galvanic anodes at each location where a leak is repaired rather than
installing a complete cathodic protection system.
 When additional current is needed at problem areas. Some structures with overall
impressed current cathodic protection systems may have isolated points where additional
current in relatively small amounts is needed. These requirements can be met with galvanic
anodes.
 Poorly or incompletely coated buried valve installations
 Shorted casings that cannot be cleared
 Isolated sections where the coating has been badly damaged
 Areas where electrical shielding impairs effective current distribution from remotely
located impressed current systems
 In cases of cathodic interference, if the conditions are suitable, galvanic anodes can be used
at the discharge point on the foreign line to return interfering current.
 To provide protection to structures located near many other underground metallic
structures where conditions make it difficult to install impressed current systems without
creating stray current interference problems. Galvanic anodes can be an economical choice
for a cathodic protection current source under such conditions.
 Galvanic anodes find extensive use in protecting the interior surface of heat exchanger
water boxes and other vessels.
 oil heater-treated vessels, depending on the quality of the interior lining and the fluid
chemistry and temperature.
 On offshore structures, large galvanic anodes may be used to protect the underwater
components.
3.8.1.3 Advantages of Galvanic Anodes

 No external power source required.
 Low maintenance requirements.
 Small current output resulting in little or no stray current interference.
 Easy to install.
 Easy to add anodes in most cases.
 Provide uniform distribution of current.
 Minimum right-of-way/easement costs.
Page | 27
3.8.1.4 Limitations of Galvanic Anodes
 Low driving voltage/current output.
 Many anodes may be required for poorly coated structures.
 May be ineffective in high-resistivity environments.
 Higher cost per unit ampere than impressed current due to lower efficiency (self-
consumption).
 May be difficult or expensive to replace spent anodes.
3.8.2 Impressed Current Systems

An impressed current system consists of an external power source and anodes. The external power
source forces current to flow from the anode to the structure through the electrolyte. The anodes
used in an impressed current system are usually constructed of a relatively inert material. A typical
installation is shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Typical Impress Current Cathodic Protection
Page | 28
Figure 3.8: Thermo-Electric Generator Based CP system of GTCL
3.8.2.1 Impress Current System’s Anodes

Materials that have been used as impressed current anodes include:
 Graphite (carbon)
 High-silicon, chromium, cast iron
 Platinum-coated titanium and niobium
 Aluminum
 Magnetite
 Mixed metal oxide-coated titanium
 Conductive polymer
 Scrap iron or steel
 Lead silver
3.8.2.2 Power Sources for Impress Current System

The power source for an impressed current system produces direct current (DC). Various power
sources have been used with impressed current systems including:
 Transformer Rectifiers (TR)
 Solar (photovoltaic) cells
 Wind-powered generators
 Thermo-electric Generator (TEG)
Page | 29
Where AC power is economically accessible, rectifiers have clear economic and operating
advantages over other impressed current power sources.
3.8.2.3 Applications of Impressed Current Cathodic Protection

Typical uses of impressed current are:
 for large current requirements, particularly for bare or poorly coated structures
 in all electrolyte resistivities
 as an economical way of protecting structures having dissipated galvanic anodes
 to overcome stray current or cathodic interference problems
 for protection of large heat exchanger water boxes, oil heater-treaters, and other vessels
 for interiors of water storage tanks
 for exterior bottoms (both primary and secondary) of above ground storage tanks
 for underground storage tanks
 for underwater components of off shore structures
 for foundation piles and sheet piling, both underground and in the water.
3.8.2.4 Advantages of Impressed Current Systems

 Flexible with capability to handle a wide range of voltage and current outputs.
 Satisfy high current requirements with a single installation.
 Effective in protecting uncoated and poorly coated structures.
 Effective in high-resistivity environments.
 Less anode consumption than with galvanic anodes.
3.8.2.5 Limitations of Impressed Current Systems

 Higher inspection and maintenance cost than with galvanic anodes.
 Requires external power.
 Constant power supply cost.
 High risk of causing stray current interference.
 May cause overprotection resulting in:
- coating damage
- hydrogen embrittlement
3.9 Factors Influencing Operation of Cathodic Protection

Many factors influence the operation of cathodic protection systems. Corrosion technicians must
understand the effects of some of the more important factors.
Page | 30
3.9.1 Moisture Content of Soil
As moisture content increases to about 15%, soil resistivity decreases. Above about 15%, there is
little change in resistivity. While low soil resistivity tends to increase electrochemical corrosion,
it enhances cathodic protection by lowering the anode-to-earth resistance, thus allowing higher
current output for a given voltage.
3.9.2 Coating
Coating reduces the amount of current required to protect a structure. Protecting a bare structure
requires sufficient current to protect all the metal exposed to the electrolyte. On a coated structure,
it is necessary to protect only the metal exposed at breaks, or holidays, in the coating. A well-
coated structure may well have less than 1% of its surface exposed at holidays. As the coating
ages, however, some deterioration may occur. Also, when protecting older coated structures, tests
need to be made to determine coating quality.
3.9.3 Soil Texture

3.9.3.1 Clay and Silt
Tight soils may lead to gas blockage at the anodes causing increased resistance to ground.
Blockage is caused by the inability of gasses generated at the anode to escape. This is of special
concern in deep anode beds.
Tight soils may reduce depolarization effects on the structure. This helps to reduce protective
current requirements.
3.9.3.2 Sand and Gravel

Porous soils permit rapid changes in moisture content. This may lead to cyclic wetting and drying
of the soil, thus changing its resistivity. Such changes will influence the cathodic protection circuit
resistance. In some cases, constant current rectifiers are needed to maintain cathodic protection.
Oxygen can easily penetrate porous soils. Oxygen acts as a depolarizer, thus increasing current
requirements.
Oxygen concentration cells may develop at points of contact between gravel and the structure.
Cathodic protection current may not penetrate into the point of contact. As a result, it may be
difficult to protect structures backfilled with or resting on gravel or crushed rock.
3.9.3.3 Glacial Till

Glacial till is similar to gravel and the concerns noted above apply also to this type of soil.
Page | 31
3.9.4 Temperature
Corrosion rates tend to increase with temperature. Consequently, in warmer electrolytes, current
requirements will be higher than in cooler ones. Increasing temperature acts to reduce polarization.
This also increases current requirements.
As mentioned in the discussion of galvanic anode materials, elevated temperatures can affect the
performance of aluminum and zinc anodes.
3.9.5 Oxygen Content

As oxygen levels increase, polarization tends to decrease. Thus, in oxygenated environments, high
current requirements are to be expected.
3.9.6 Movement of Structure and Electrolyte

The relative movement between a protected structure and the electrolyte affects current
requirement. As the relative velocity increases, so does the current requirement due to decreasing
polarization.
Ship hulls are a good example of this phenomenon. At anchor, the current requirement for the hull
is low. When under way, however, the current requirement increases. Here again, constant current
rectifiers may be needed.
The same effect occurs in rapidly flowing water. Bridge piles in a rapidly flowing river will require
more current than those in quiescent waters. Water flow through a heat exchanger water box will
also affect the current requirement.
3.9.7 Make-up of the Electrolyte

The electrolyte itself can affect the performance of cathodic protection. Bacteria, especially sulfate
reducing bacteria, have a depolarizing effect on the protected structures. It may be necessary to
increase the level of cathodic protection in such electrolytes.
The fluid chemistry in oil heater-treaters affects anode performance. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide, for example, have a passivating effect on zinc.
3.9.8 Electrical Shielding

3.9.8.1 Metal
Metal components connected to a protected structure may prevent cathodic protection current from
reaching a corroding surface. A shorted pipeline casing is an excellent example of metal shielding.
Page | 32
3.9.8.2 Dielectric
If a sheet of plastic or other insulator is placed close to the surface of a cathodically protected
structure, it may prevent adequate current from reaching a corroding surface. Disbonded coatings
may have the same result.
3.10 Criteria for Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is a polarization phenomenon. Polarization of the cathodic sites to the open
circuit potential of the anodic sites is the true criterion for eliminating corrosion. It is essentially
impossible, however, to determine the open circuit potential of the most active anodic site.
Because corrosion cells are usually microscopic and the measured potentials are mixed corrosion
potentials, the initial measurements are most likely to be an average of corrosion potentials for
several corrosion cells. Therefore, several surrogate criteria have been developed to assist meeting
the true criterion. Various criteria are recommended by NACE (National Association of Corrosion
Engineers) International and other international standards organizations.
Government regulations regarding criteria differ in different countries, and the selection of an
appropriate criterion will depend on local governmental regulations.
3.10.1 NACE International Recommended Criteria

There are several criteria recommended by NACE. These will be found in various standard
practices (SP) or recommended practices (RP) [13].
There are three NACE criteria that apply to steel: two involve a structure-to-electrolyte potential
of equal to or more negative than −850 mV in reference to a copper-copper sulfate reference
electrode (CSE), and one is a polarization change of 100 mV.
3.10.1.1 RP0169 Criteria

The three criteria defined in the NACE Standard RP0169 for steel and cast iron (including ductile
iron) are:
A negative (cathodic) potential of at least 850 mV with the cathodic protection applied. This
potential is with respect to a saturated copper-copper sulfate reference electrode contacting the
electrolyte. Voltage drops (IR drops) other than those across the structure-to-electrolyte boundary
must be considered for valid interpretation of this voltage measurement. That is,
E-850 = Eon − IR.
A negative polarized potential of at least 850 mV relative to a saturated copper-copper sulfate
reference electrode (Instant Off Potential).
Page | 33
A minimum of 100 mV of cathodic polarization between the structure surface and a stable
reference electrode contacting the electrolyte. The formation or decay of polarization can be
measured to satisfy this criterion.
∆E100 = EOFF − EDEPOLARIZED
OR
∆E100 = EOFF − ECORR
3.10.1.2 Application of Criteria

The first criterion for steel, a potential of −850 mVCSE obtained with current applied, is based on
negligible IR drop (V=IR; I=Ampere, R=Resistance i.e. IR=Voltage Drop) or eliminating the IR
drop from the measurement. Consideration should be given to the specific structure and its
environment in determining if IR drop is negligible prior to employing this criterion. The IR drop
is usually negligible when the current density and/or the resistivity are low.
The second criterion, a polarized potential of −850 mVCSE, is based on eliminating IR drop during
the measurement. Either removing the resistance (electrolyte) or the current can eliminate IR drop.
If the potential is measured at the structure/electrolyte interface, then the electrolyte is no longer
in the measuring circuit and resistance is zero. If cathodic protection current is interrupted, then
current is zero. Remember that polarization will dissipate when current is interrupted, and
polarization is the measurement of interest. Therefore, when current is interrupted, the potential
should be measured at “instant off,” which refers to the potential after IR drop is eliminated but
before polarization begins to dissipate.
The 100 mV polarization criterion can be applied by either starting with the known corrosion
potential or the polarized structure potential, or determining the other. In fact, the criterion is based
on the difference between these two potentials. Of course, the IR drop must be eliminated from
the measured “on” potential to determine the polarized potential. In practice, for a structure not
cathodically protected, the measurement technique may involve measuring the corrosion potential
first. Then, current is applied until the structure is polarized. Current is then interrupted
momentarily in order to measure the polarized potential [5].
A technique used to evaluate a structure that is receiving cathodic protection begins with
momentary interruption of the current to determine the polarized potential. Then, with the CP
current remaining off, dissipation of the polarized potential is monitored. When no further
potential change is evident over time or the desired depolarization has occurred, then the potential
is referred to as the depolarized corrosion potential of the structure. Figure 3.9 illustrates a
depolarization measurement.
Page | 34
Figure 3.9 Depolarization Curve
Ineffective or partial protection may be the result of abnormal conditions. Such conditions may
include elevated temperatures, disbonded coatings, electrical shielding, bacterial attack, and
unusual contaminants in the electrolyte.
3.10.2 International Standard ISO 15589-1

Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries–Cathodic Protection of Pipeline Transportation Systems
Part 1 On-land pipelines
 Metal-to-electrolyte potential chosen for a corrosion rate less than 0.01 mm/yr.
(0.39mils/yr.)
 Polarized potential more negative than –850 mVCSE
 Limiting critical potential not more negative than –1,200 mVCSE
 Anaerobic soils or sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) more negative than –950 mVCSE
 High soil resistivity (ρ)
• –750 mVCSE for 100 m < ρ < 1,000 Ω-m
• –650 mVCSE for ρ > 1,000 Ω-m
 Cathodic polarization of 100 mV Precautions:
Avoid using 100 mV under conditions of high temperatures, SRB, interference current,
equalizing current, telluric current, mixed metals or SCC conditions more positive than –850
mVCSE.
3.11 Electrical Surveys

Electrical surveys have been performed to evaluate the level of CP ever since the application of
CP to pipelines in the 1940s. These surveys consist of measuring the potential (pipe-to soil
potential) of the pipe surface with respect to a reference electrode (typically-CSE). These
measurements can be performed at permanent test station locations (test point surveys), or they
can be performed continuously with a 1 to 2 m (3 to 6 ft) spacing along the entire length of the
Page | 35
pipeline (close interval surveys). Pipe-to-soil potential surveys can be performed with the CP
system energized (on-potentials) or with the CP system interrupted (off-potentials). There has
been much discussion over the past 10 to 20 years as to the most appropriate survey methodology.
While each method has its benefits, it is commonly accepted that the IR-voltage (voltage drop due
to current, I, through a resistance, R) correction made by the off-potential measurement is most
closely related to the corrosion condition of the pipeline. Figure 3.10 shows a schematic of a pipe-
to-soil potential measurement [14, 15].
Figure 3.10: Pipe-to-soil potential measurement
Page | 36
CHAPTER-4
CP SYSTEM REMOTE MONITORING AND INTELLIGENT CONTROL
4.1 Introduction
Cathodic Protection (CP) is an electrical method of mitigating corrosion on structures that are
exposed to electrolytes. Corrosion control is achieved by forcing a proper amount of direct current
(DC) to flow from auxiliary anodes through the electrolyte and onto the structure to be protected.
CP systems must be evaluated and adjusted regularly to make sure that they are providing
appropriate levels of corrosion protection to the structure. A typical impressed current CP
evaluation includes analysis of structure-to-electrolyte potential measurements (both "on"
potential and "instant- off' potential, or IOP) and rectifier/TEG input and output measurements.
Monitoring is traditionally done by surveys which do not allow systematic continuous quality
assessment of the grid, nor it allows real time reports. In addition, these are costly and time
consuming. Traditionally, the monitoring of CP systems in pipelines requires periodic inspection
and thorough analysis of the data from specialized operators. Field inspection is costly, time
consuming, and prone to human errors if not done by qualified personnel. Existing modeling and
monitoring techniques can be combined in order to avoid the aforementioned drawbacks. The
monitoring approach needs to be cost efficient and accurate in order to detect anomalies and
potential failures in real time, so that to aid pipeline operators in their maintenance and decision
making policies [4, 16].
Skilled Manpower limitations have made it increasingly difficult for GTCL (Gas Transmission
Company Limited) to conduct CP surveys. Most of the companies of Petrobangla no longer have
trained CP technicians or staff. Using contractors to perform these surveys is expensive and only
provides one-time results in a month. Regular CP evaluations are especially critical for pipeline
because the amount of protective current required will change significantly as the structure's
coating degrades and as seasonal variations in temperature and chemistry occur. Too much CP
current can damage a structure's coating and too little current can permit corrosion to occur, so it
is important to adjust the CP rectifiers/TEGs as conditions change.
4.2 Remote Monitoring System

The objective of the remote system is to be able to collect, transmit and interpret measurements
of potential coming from different sensors distributed in the field along the pipeline in order to
have a continuous monitoring and assessment of the system. CP remote monitoring units are
usually installed near the CP rectifier/TEG station. Permanent reference electrodes are mounted
near, but not touching, the protected structure, and their lead wires are routed to the CP remote
monitoring units. The terminals of the CP remote monitoring units are connected to the CP
equipment and protected structure so that the desired measurements can be made. This CP remote
monitoring units are equipped with PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) based current & voltage
Page | 37
control system. Using this PWM techniques interrupt the CP current so IOP (Instant off Potential)
can be measured. This Remote Monitoring Unit (RMU) contains a GSM (Global System for
Mobile) that enables it to communicate via standard cellular phone. The data will be obtaining
using GSM internet package [17].
The technology behind the remote monitoring system is based on standard communications
technology - cellular phones, antennas and GPS devices which may be used to assess readings on
remote sensors, and therefore allowing for pipeline monitoring at the touch of a button. In
countries with mature cell phone coverage, it is a technology to be immediately implemented.
Figure 3.1 illustrates the elements involved in the remote control system, and their inter-relation.
Fig. 4.1: General Cathodic Protection Remote Monitoring Unit Schematic
4.3 Benefits of Remote Monitoring and Control System

Depending on the implementation and operation and maintenance requirements of a CP system,
the utilization of CP remote monitoring or control can bring an operator the following benefits:
- continuously streamed or immediately available on demand information, that the CP
equipment or system is in operation.
- notification of fundamental failures of CP equipment or impairment of CP efficacy;
- reduced time delay between failure occurrence and failure notification;
- remotely monitor the effectiveness of a CP system on an entire structure or its selected part;
- enhanced knowledge regarding the performance of a CP system over a long period of time;
- remote control and modification of selected CP operation parameters;
- reduction or replacement of periodic routine in field checks and/or measurements;
- longer term reduction in operating costs;
- assistance for the implementation and optimization of selected test post monitoring
programs.
- Transport time and cost are increasing and it is not uncommon for a technician to spend
half a day travelling to a remote Transformer Rectifier (TR)/TEG or test point. With
pressure on all companies to maximize the productivity of their labor force, manual data
Page | 38
gathering is increasingly witnessed as a poor utilization of human resources. By identifying
and reporting problems as they occur, remote monitoring ensures continuous effective CP;
thus, it maintains or extends the operating lifetime of a pipeline.
- It increases safety by eliminating the requirement for measurements at roadside and
inaccessible locations as well as eliminating electrical hazards to technicians.
Moreover, it may help companies to improve their environmental performance. The technical
requirements, the condition and the configuration of protected structures and operator
requirements will determine which benefits would best be achieved by implementing a CP remote
monitoring or control system.
4.4 Levels of Remote Monitoring

When compared to routine periodic checks and controls of CP systems as defined by standards,
remote monitoring systems can be divided into 3 levels:
- Monitoring of functional operation
- Monitoring of CP efficacy
- Remote control
4.4.1 Remote Monitoring of Functional Operation

Systems belonging to this category should be able to detect principal failure of monitored CP
equipment by mean of monitoring key operational parameters. This level of CP monitoring usually
represents the collecting and/or measurement and transmission of data that provides an operator
with sufficient information that selected CP equipment functions within a range determined by an
operator that confirms functionality.
Selection of a parameter to be monitored requires a suitable interface of the CP equipment to the

remote monitoring equipment. It must be selected in a way to provide reliable information
regarding operational status of the equipment.
Monitoring of functional operation can be provided by following signals that indicate deflection
from the pre-set threshold reference value and/or by measuring selected parameters. Failure should
be notified by interface of an RMU to the PU with some reasonable but minimal time delay. The
maximum time delay should be defined by the operator.
4.4.2 Remote Monitoring of CP Efficacy

This level identifies the impairment the efficacy of a CP system on structures. Parameters to be
measured and monitored should provide an operator with reliable information about CP
effectiveness of structure. Occurrence of any failure that reduces CP performance of a structure,
or its part, should be covered by the system. Determining a suitable monitoring regime for CP
efficacy should reflect the build parameters.
Page | 39
Operating conditions and intent of a structure: The measurements to verify CP efficacy by remote
monitoring should record and relay all the necessary data required for this purpose as identified
in the appropriate standards. The data obtained by remote monitoring systems should be compared
to the key reference values such as protection criteria (and be given over a range of predetermined
acceptable values). Impairments to the performance of a CP system should be notified by interface
of an RMICU to the PU with some reasonable but minimal time delay. The maximum time delay
should be defined by the operator.
4.4.3 Remote Control

Remote control systems represent the monitoring systems described in 4.3.1 or 4.3.2 above but
which also permit remotely changing the operational status of CP equipment or the parameters to
which they operate. When a monitored CP parameter is changed by remote control, the system
must be designed in a way to give an operator the relevant information that determines the impact
of any change. The response time of a system to update parameters that have been directed by
remote control should be minimal. When synchronized operation of several RMU´s is required,
the synchronization precision shall be appropriate to deliver the necessary accuracy of
measurement at all RMU's over a planned campaign of measurement. The synchronization
precision should either be regularly re-established and the synchronization deviation should be
periodically checked to confirm it remains in an acceptable range.
Most CP Remote system can monitor the following parameters:

- Structure-to-soil "on" potential: This is the potential of the protected structure with the
CP current applied. This potential is usually referenced to a copper / copper sulfate
(Cu/CuS04) reference electrode.
- Structure-to-soil "instant-off” potential: This is the potential of the protected structure
immediately after the CP current is interrupted. The potential is usually referenced to a
copper / copper sulfate (Cu/CuS04) reference electrode.
- Rectifier/TEG DC voltage: This is the output voltage of the rectifier/TEG as measured
across the output terminals.
- Rectifier/TEG DC current: This is the output current of the rectifier. It is usually
determined by measuring the voltage drop across a shunt of known resistance and applying
Ohm's Law.
- Rectifier AC (alternating current) voltage: This is the input voltage to the rectifier, and
will usually be 120 or 240 VAC.
- Pipe-to-Soil Potential: PSP level kept within limit.
Page | 40
CHAPTER-5
DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND INSTALLATION OF CP REMOTE MONITORING UNIT
5.1 Introduction
The technology behind the intelligent control system is microprocessor based and the remote
monitoring system is based on standard communications technology - GSM devices which may
be used to assess readings on remote CP station, Drain point and midpoint sensors and therefore
allowing for pipeline CP system monitoring at office. Here, midpoint Pipe to Soil Potential (PSP)
data transmit to web server and CP station controller receive this data from web server. According
to this data, controller unit control PSP level intelligently. In our country with mature cell phone
coverage, so it is a technology to be immediately implemented.
5.2 Typical layout of TEG based Impressed Current CP System

Typical layout of remote monitoring and control system for impressed current cathodic protection
system has been shown in figure 5.1. In this type of CP system, required power supply (DC) has
been generated from Thermo-Electric Generator (TEG). This CP System comprises two TEG
based CP Station located at an interval varies from 25-30 Km and a solar powered test facilities
located approximately at the midpoint between the CP Station to check Pipe to Soil Potential
(PSP). Different types of data are collected from CP Station and midpoint test facilities i.e. TEG
output DC voltage, DC ampere, Drain point PSP and midpoint PSP. Detail design of CP station
also shown in Figure 5.2. As per design, an ideal Pipe to Soil Potential (PSP) curve based on the
layout of CP system has been drawn in Figure 5.3. Besides, ON potential and instant OFF potential
curve and minimum potential level line along the pipeline also shown in Figure 5.3. OFF potential
measurement has been done using SCADA communication. SCADA has been designed in such a
way that it is possible to apply command through SCADA system to stop power supply instantly
at both CP station to measure OFF potential within 4 seconds. All collected data then stored at
web server and review of these data enables an efficient CP system control and Monitoring. Hence,
application of remote Controlling and monitoring of CP System through website using SCADA
has been added a lot of advantages and improvement compared to the present system.
5.3 Methodology for Design of remote monitoring and control Unit

In this project, attempt has been made to provide a device to measure various important parameters
in protection of these pipelines and finally to send data continuously or scheduled through GSM
communication system via website to the information center [18]. The idea of making the device
was formed when it was seen that how corrosion engineering staff measures the applied voltage
to the pipeline for cathodic protection with difficulty. One of the advantages of this device is using
it in places where there are no telephone line and computer networks. Although there is no
infrastructure along the pipelines due to the dispersion of the pipelines to send the information,
using this machine can help us to be aware of these parameters.
Page | 41
Page 42
GL GL
Th Ma
er
m nP
it
i
W eli
el
ip
de e
d
n
Jo
TEG Shed Permanent Reference
in
t
Electrode
Condensate Trap
TEG-02 TEG-01
3
Anode 4 in dia
Negative Distribution
Junction Box line
3
Box
in dia
Gas Supply to
4
line
TEG 8 mm
Soupport 2" Angle ss tube
Soupport 2" Angle Control
Cables from GB
3 ft 5 in
Unit
Fuel line from TBS
2.5 ft
G.L
2.5 ft
2 ft
Rx Circuit
3 in
Gravel Backfill 3 in 3 in
35 sq.mm (+ve) GB 10 sq.mm

Polypropylen Anode 35 sq.mm (-ve) feeder
feeder Cable (Red) 10 sq.mm 10 sq.mm Cable (Red) 10 sq.mm
Support Rope Cable (Red) Cable (Black) Cable (Black)
Cable (Black)
Silocin-Chrome-
Iron Anode CP Station Details (Elevation) Earthing
Coke Breeze Backfill
Anode Cable
rforated PVC vent pipe
Vertical Ground Bed
Figure 5.2: Details of Cathodic Protection (CP) Station (Typical) Page 43

Page 44
This machine has two main parts:
1. Controller and measuring part whose task is measuring the analog quantity from the related
sensors and converting them into electrical quantities and also receiving some digital
alterations like alarms, control process and sending to the transmitter.
2. The GSM transmitter to receive data from the controller and send SCADA via website.
5.4 Design Procedure of Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control System:

Design procedure of Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control System are given below:
 Microprocessor selection
 Microcontroller compiler Selection and Programing
 Simulation Software and PCB Design
 GSM Module Selection
 GSM data Simulation Software
 Development of SCADA
 Website design
5.4.1 Microcontroller Selection

In this project, Select Microchip Microcontroller. Microcontroller name is PIC18F4550.
PIC18F4550 is an 8-bit microcontroller of PIC18 family. PIC18F family is based on 16-bit
instruction set architecture. PIC18F4550 consists of 32 KB flash memory, 2 KB SRAM and 256
Bytes EEPROM [19].
This is a 40 pin PIC Microcontroller consisting of 5 I/O ports (PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, PORTD
and PORTE). PORTB and PORTD have 8 pins to receive/transmit 8-bit I/O data. The remaining
ports have different numbers of pins for I/O data communications. It has thirteen nos. of ADC
(10-bit) (Analog to Digital Conversion) channel.
PIC18F4550 can work on different internal and external clock sources. It can work on a varied
range of frequency from 31 KHz to 48MHz. PIC18F4550 has four in-built timers. There are
various inbuilt peripherals like ADC, comparators etc. in this controller. PIC18F4550 is an
advanced microcontroller which is equipped with enhanced communication protocols like
USART, SPI, I2C, USB etc. This Microcontroller image and pin diagram has shown in figure 5.4
and 5.5.
Page | 45
Figure 5.4: Microcontroller PIC18F4550
Figure 5.5: Pin Diagram of PIC18F4550

5.4.2 IDE/Microcontroller compiler Selection
In this project, Microprocessor programming was done using Flowcode 7. Licensed version was
purchased from Matrix Technology Solutions Limited, England as register name of setbangla.
Flowcode 7 main features are given below:
5.4.2.1 Flowcode 7
Flowcode allow to quickly and easily developing complex electronic and electromechanical
systems. The graphical programming tool allows those with little experience to develop systems
in minutes [20].
Flowcode is an advanced integrated development environment (IDE) for electronic and

electromechanical system development. Engineers-both professional and academic use Flowcode
to develop systems for control and measurement based on microcontrollers or on rugged industrial
interfaces using Windows compatible personal computers.
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Flowcode is perfect for those programming PIC devices including Microchip's 8bit, 16bit and
32bit range of microcontrollers. It's also an easy and effective solution for programming Atmel
AVR, Arduino and ARM based devices.
5.4.2.2 Microcontroller flexibility

Flowcode gives the ability to work with multiple chip variants in an easy and flexible way.
Whether learning and developing simple designs using 8bit PIC or Arduino microcontrollers and
opt for 32bit PIC or ARM devices, Flowcode is perfect. Flowcode makes code-porting simple,
switch target devices with ease.
5.4.2.3 Flowcode saves time

Being an intuitive, graphical programming IDE gives Flowcode users the ability to develop
complex systems quickly. Engineers use Flowcode as opposed to textual based languages such as
C, because it allows for fast development, speeding up learning processes for microcontroller
systems development and time to market for product design engineers.
5.4.2.4 Test and Debugging

Built into Flowcode is a data recorder and oscilloscope which makes test and debugging
procedures straightforward. Flowcode is also compatible with external hardware including
oscilloscopes, power supplies, signal generators and more. Matrix's very own Ghost Technology
on hardware including the EB006 and EB091 provides a real time log of the status of all the pins
on the microcontroller whilst a Flowcode program is running on the device.
5.4.2.5 Non-programmer friendly

Those with little or no programming experience can use Flowcode without barriers. The latest
version includes a range of templates for popular development boards including a number of
Microchip devices. In a matter of minutes, beginners can start to develop electronics systems using
the graphical IDE. For mechanical and other types of engineers, Flowcode is perfect for teaching
and learning key microcontroller system principles.
5.4.2.6 Advanced simulation

Flowcode's compatibility with 3D CAD packages including Design Spark Mechanical and Solid
works means those who are developing electromechanical designs can now characterize and
simulate them in Flowcode. With an advanced 3D engine, users can test designs before deploying
to microcontrollers or work in simulation mode only.
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5.4.2.7 Screenshot Flowcode 7
Microprocessor programming has done using Flowcode 7. Screenshot of Flowcode 7 has shown
in figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6: Screenshot of Flowcode 7

5.4.3 Simulation & PCB Design Software
In this project, Proteus Design Suite 8.5 used for Microprocessor programming and PCB design.
The Proteus Design Suite is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for electronic design
automation. The software is used mainly by electronic design engineers and technicians to create
schematics and electronic prints for manufacturing printed circuit boards. It was developed in
Yorkshire, England by Labcenter Electronics Ltd. [21]. These software main features are given
below:
5.4.3.1 Product Modules

The Proteus Design Suite is a Windows application for schematic capture, simulation, and PCB
layout design. It can be purchased in many configurations, depending on the size of designs being
produced and the requirements for microcontroller simulation. All PCB Design products include
an auto router and basic mixed mode SPICE simulation capabilities.
5.4.3.2 Schematic Capture

Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the simulation of designs and as
the design phase of a PCB layout project. It is therefore a core component and is included with all
product configurations.
5.4.3.3 Microcontroller Simulation

The micro-controller simulation in Proteus works by applying either a hex file or a debug file to
the microcontroller part on the schematic. It is then co-simulated along with any analog and digital
electronics connected to it. This enables its use in a broad spectrum of project prototyping in areas
Page | 48
such as motor control, temperature control and user interface design. It also finds use in the general
hobbyist community and, since no hardware is required. Support is available for co-simulation of
Microchip Technologies PIC10, PIC12, PIC16, PIC18, PIC24, dsPIC33 Microcontrollers etc. In
these project use PIC16. Simulation screenshot of Proteus software is shown in figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: Simulation Software Image
5.4.3.4 PCB (Printed Circuit Board) Design

The PCB Layout module is automatically given connectivity information in the form of a net list
from the schematic capture module. It applies this information, together with the user specified
design rules and various design automation tools, to assist with error free board design. Design
Rule Checking does not include high speed design constraints. PCB's of up to 16 copper layers
can be produced with design size limited by product configuration. Here, my design is single
copper layer.
In this circuit has 3 nos. of ADC channel: TEG output Voltage, System Ampere and Pipe-to-soil
potential. Here use only one PWM channel to control Voltage. Relay is used for current
Interrupting. First step of PCB design is to complete circuit design and component placement in
design window of this software. After completing component placement, routing has been
completed. Routing Layout of PCB has shown in figure 5.8.
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.
Figure 5.8: Routing Layout of PCB
Second step is to preparation of PCB for printing. For printing, PCB layout separate in two side
one is Top copper (component side) another is bottom copper, shown in figure 5.9 and 5.10.
Figure 5.9: Top Copper of PCB
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Figure 5.10: Bottom Copper of PCB
5.4.3.5 3D Verification of PCB

The 3D Viewer module allows the board under development to be viewed in 3D together with a
semi-transparent height plane that represents the board’s enclosure. STEP output can then be used
to transfer to mechanical CAD software such as Solid works or Autodesk for accurate mounting
and positioning of the board. 3D view of this PCB shown in figure 5.11.
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Figure 5.11: 3D view of PCB
5.4.3.6 RMICU Installation

All required component placed in printed circuit board and soldering this component. Real view
of printed circuit board (PCB) shown in figure 5.11. Design program is loaded in Microprocessor
and run this circuit. Different information at different time shown in display (shown in figure
5.12). Field installation of Remote monitoring and Intelligent Control Unit (RMICU) shown in
figure 5.13. RMICU has placed in Negative Distribution Box at Dhanua CP station.
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Figure 5.12: Real View of Circuit
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Figure 5.13: Display Image
Figure 5.14: Field installation of RMICU at Negative Distribution Box
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5.4.4 GSM Module Selection
For this project select SIM900A. This is an ultra-compact and reliable wireless module. The
SIM900A is a complete Dual-band GSM/GPRS solution in a SMT module which can be
embedded in the customer applications. Featuring an industry-standard interface, the SIM900A
delivers GSM/GPRS 900/1800MHz performance for voice, SMS, Data, and Fax in a small form
factor and with low power consumption. With a tiny configuration of 24mmx24mmx3mm,
SIM900A can fit in almost all the space requirements in user applications, especially for slim and
compact demand of design [18].
Features:
 Dual-Band 900/ 1800 MHz
 GPRS multi-slot class 10/8GPRS mobile station class B
 Compliant to GSM phase 2/2+Class 4 (2 W @850/ 900 MHz)
 Class 1 (1 W @ 1800/1900MHz)
 Control via AT commands (GSM 07.07 ,07.05 and SIMCOM enhanced AT
Commands)
 Low power consumption: 1.5mA (sleep mode)
 Operation temperature: -40°C to +85 °C
 Status indicator(D5): It will flash continuously whenever the call arrives otherwise it
is left ON.
 Network LED(D6): This led will blink every second which indicates that the GSM
module is not connected to the mobile network. Once the connection is established
successfully, the LED will blink continuously every 3 seconds.
This project used GSM 900A shown in figure 5.15.
Figure 5.15: GSM 900A
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5.4.5 GSM data Simulation Software
For these project, TMFT (Taranga Multifunction Tools) software is used for AT Command tester
(GSM data simulation). It was developed by Melange System.
5.4.5.1 Features of TMFT

TMFT – Standard is a desktop software that communicates with wireless modem devices through
AT Commands. This software provides an easy-to-use interface to test different features of
wireless modem devices and automate testing process through script commands. TMFT is
supported only on Windows. The friendly user interface allows developers to
 Configure and connect to modem ports
 Send single or batch of AT commands
 Perform modem diagnostics
 Establish 3G or GPRS call
 Collect and save modem logs and Port Configuration
5.4.5.2 Command mode

After connecting successfully to the modem, users can send single AT commands under
‘Command Mode’ tab. The drop down provides a list of AT commands with description and
examples. The users can modify or enter their own AT command in the text box. During GSM
data checking TMFT software image shown in figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: TMFT Software image

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5.4.5.3 GSM AT Command
In this project used AT commands are shown in table 5.1.
Table 5.1: AT Command
FTP SEND HTTP RECIVE

AT+CFUN=1,1 AT+CFUN=1,1
AT+SAPBR=3,1,"Contype","GPRS" AT+SAPBR=3,1,"Contype","GPRS"
AT+SAPBR=3,1,"APN","www" AT+SAPBR=3,1,"APN","www"
AT+SAPBR=1,1
AT+SAPBR=1,1
AT+SAPBR=2,1
AT+SAPBR=2,1 AT+HTTPINIT
AT+FTPCID=1 AT+HTTPPARA="CID",1
AT+FTPSERV="ftp.setbangla.com" AT+HTTPPARA="URL","http://gtcl.setbangla.com/t.txt"
AT+FTPUN="[email protected]" AT+HTTPACTION=0
AT+HTTPREAD
AT+FTPPW="123456eee"
AT+FTPPUTNAME="cp1s1.txt"
AT +FTPPUTPATH="/cp1/"
AT+FTPPUT=1
AT+FTPPUT=2,4
HELLO DATA SEND
AT+FTPPUT=2,0
5.4.6 Development of SCADA System

In this project, SCADA system was developed by using Microsoft Visual Studio 15. Microsoft
Visual Studio is an integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft. It is used to
develop computer programs, as well as web sites, web apps, web services and mobile apps. Visual
Studio uses Microsoft software development platforms such as Windows API, Windows Forms,
Windows Presentation Foundation, Windows Store and Microsoft Silverlight. It can produce both
native code and managed code.
Visual Studio includes a code editor supporting IntelliSense (the code completion component) as
well as code refactoring. The integrated debugger works both as a source-level debugger and a
machine-level debugger. Other built-in tools include a code profiler, forms designer for building
GUI applications, web designer, class designer, and database schema designer. It accepts plug-ins
that enhance the functionality at almost every level including adding support for source control
systems (like Subversion) and adding new toolsets like editors and visual designers for domain-
specific languages or toolsets for other aspects of the software development lifecycle (like the
Team Foundation Server client: Team Explorer)
The Windows Forms designer is used to build GUI applications using Windows Forms. Layout
can be controlled by housing the controls inside other containers or locking them to the side of the
form. Controls that display data (like textbox, list box and grid view) can be bound to data sources
like databases or queries. Data-bound controls can be created by dragging items from the Data
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Sources window onto a design surface. The UI is linked with code using an event-driven
programming model. The designer generates either C# or VB.NET code for the application.
For this project, designed SCADA dashboard shown in figure 5.17. Description of different area
of dashboard are shown in table 5.2 using identification number.
Figure 5.17: SCADA Dashboard
Table 5.2: Description of SCADA system front panel using identification number
Identification
Description
Number
1 CP station Status: PSP, DC power source voltage, Ampere and data sending
time shown here
2 Internet Status: If internet is connected Status shows “On” otherwise shown
“Off”.
3 System Type: Three types of System in menu bar. For selection of 1=All
system off, 2=Auto system and 3=Auto + Time system.
All system will be off after selection of 1, Auto system work as per based on
select of high level PSP and low level PSP. Auto + Time system work based
on Auto system and interruption time selection.
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4 High level PSP and Low level PSP selection menu bar. High level and low
level PSP can be select as per system requirement.
5 On time and Off time is required to measured Off potential as per NACE
criteria.
6 CP Send Time: As per selection time, CP station data will be update in
SCADA system.
7 Password: If write down password is correct than all selected data will be send
to the CP station monitoring unit and save it to the microprocessor.
8 Graph: This graph shown PSP level vs Recent Time.
9 Midpoint PSP level Selection menu bar.
10 Send Data menu bar. Here all sending information shown in a string.
5.4.7 Website design

5.4.7.1 Domain and Hosting
In this project design a website for online monitoring and collected data storage. For these website,
used a Domain and Hosting. Here, Linux Hosting and PHP, MYSQL Database are used.
5.4.7.2 Software selection for website Design

In this project website was designed by using Adobe Dreamweaver, version-CS5 [22]. Adobe
Dreamweaver is a proprietary web development tool developed by Adobe Systems. Dreamweaver
was created by Macromedia in 1997 and was maintained by them until Macromedia was acquired
by Adobe Systems in 2005. Adobe Dreamweaver some features are given below:
Adobe Dreamweaver CC is a web design and development application that combines a visual
design surface known as Live View and a code editor with standard features such as syntax
highlighting, code completion, and code collapsing as well as more sophisticated features such as
real-time syntax checking and code introspection for generating code hints to assist the user in
writing code.
Dreamweaver, like other HTML editors, edits files locally then uploads them to the remote web
server using FTP, SFTP, or WebDAV. Dreamweaver CS4 now supports the Subversion (SVN)
version control system. Since version 5, Dreamweaver supports syntax highlighting for the
following languages out of the box:
- ActionScript
- Active Server Pages (ASP).
- C#
- Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
- ColdFusion
- EDML
- Extensible Hyper Text Markup Language (XHTML)
- Extensible Markup Language (XML)
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- Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations (XSLT)
- Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)
- Java
- JavaScript
- PHP
- Visual Basic (VB)
- Visual Basic Script Edition (VBScript)
- Wireless Markup Language (WML)
Support for ASP.NET and Java Server Pages was dropped in version CS5.
5.4.7.3 Website Design view

Design view of website has shown in figure 5.18.
Figure 5.18: Design view of website
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5.4.7.4 Real Time Clock Server
A clock server is generating for real time data monitoring of a CP station. This time is matching
with microcontroller time using GSM. In this project used Protocol was HTTP. Microcontroller
clock will be stopped, when CP station is stop. So, real time clock server is introducing this website
design.
5.5 Basic Block Diagram of this Project

Basic Block Diagram of this project shown in figure 5.19. Microcontroller collect the voltage,
current, drain point PSP from this system. Midpoint PSP data are collecting using microcontroller
and GSM network. All data stored in webserver. PSP level, voltage level is control from SCADA.
Figure 5.19: Basic Block Diagram for this Project
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Microprocessor programming has been completed using these flow Chart, shown in Figure 5.20.
Figure 5.20: Flow Chart for Microprocessor Programming
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5.6 Working Principle of Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control System
According to the design layout (Fig. 5.1) Main Remote Monitoring unit is install at CP station.
Midpoint remote monitoring unit is install at middle point between two CP station of a pipeline.
A CP station consist of a DC power source (TEG/TR set/Solar power etc.), Grounded
(Horizontal/Vertical), Drain point facilities (Including Permanent Reference Electrode), Anode
Junction box, Negative Distribution box. Drain point PSP level always higher than other test point
of a pipeline. Midpoint PSP level always lower than drain point PSP level. Using these criteria
design this system. Midpoint PSP data send to the SCADA system using website link through
GSM. These Midpoint PSP data send to the CP station remote monitoring unit. Store this data into
microprocessor EPROM. AS per NACE criteria minimum PSP level -850mV and maximum PSP
level -1200mV (instant off potential). If midpoint PSP level is below -850mV than drain point
PSP level will be increased. These PSP level by control of output DC voltage of power source
using PWM technique. Drain point PSP level also automatic control from controller unit as based
on SCADA input information. Here higher PSP level and lower PSP level will be select from
SCADA system. As per requirement of PSP level TEG or TR set output voltage will be control
using PWM technique.
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CHAPTER-6
DATA MONITORING, EVALUATION AND COST ANALYSIS
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter, key observations about Data monitoring in SCADA, website and field installation
during the study are presented Field installation of the RMICU and observation result from
Dhanua CP station are reported here.
6.2 Site Selection

Site location is Dhanua CP station under Dhanua-Savar (20” OD, 60KM) Gas Transmission
Pipeline. This CP station is also connected with Bibiyana-Dhanua and Ashuganj-Elenga Pipeline.
Midpoint is selected between Dhanua CP Station and Panshail CP Station. Midpoint is 12km
downstream from Dhanua CP station. CP Station location has been shown figure 6.1 in GTCL gas
transmission network map.
6.3 Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control Unit (RMICU) Installation

First time, RMICU was installed at Codda CP station on March 2017. That time some problem on
sensor data counting was encountered. After solving this problem, the unit was installed at Dhanua
CP station on 16 December 2017. On 23th December 2017, all types of data were collected
successfully using SCADA software.
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Figure 6.1: Site Location
Page | 65
6.4 Data Collection from Site
6.4.1 Using webserver
RMICU collect different types of data: TEG output voltage, Ampere, Drain point PSP, CP station
status ON or OFF, data sending time. Voltage, ampere and drain point PSP information of CP
station are store in webserver on hourly based. The website images are shown in figure 6.2, 6.3,
6.4, 6.5 and related description given in table 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4 using identification number.
Figure 6.2: Website Screenshot of page-1
Table 6.1: Identification of website page-1

Identification
Description
Number
1 Domain Name: http/www.setbangla.com/gtcl
2 Pipeline Name & Location
3 Recent Data: Every hour 6 (six) time data update. Update time can define as
per requirement.
4 Menu bar for Month selection
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Identification
Description
Number
5 Month selection
Page | 67
Identification
Description
Number
6 Hour (00 hrs. to 23 hrs.)
7 Date selection
Identification
Description
Number
8 CP station data collected from Dhanua CP station.
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6.4.2 Using SCADA System
CP station data are collecting using SCADA Monitoring system. SCADA software image shown
in figure 6.6 and 6.7. Describe this image using identification number in Table 6.5 and 6.6
Figure 6.6: Main Page of SCADA System
Table 6.5: Identification of SCADA Main page

Identification
Description
Number
14 CP station Location
15 Select SCADA Menu bar for CP station number one (CP1)
16 Details information of CP station (CP1)
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CP Station Control Interface of SCADA System:
Figure 6.7: CP Station Control Interface of SCADA System
Table 6.6: Identification of SCADA based CP station

Identification
Description
Number
time shown here
2 Internet Status: If internet is connected Status shows “On” otherwise shown
“Off”.
3 System Type: Three types of System in menu bar. For selection of 1=All
system off, 2=Auto system and 3=Auto + Time system.
All system will be off after selection of 1, Auto system work as per based on
select of high level PSP and low level PSP. Auto + Time system work based
on Auto system and interruption time selection.
4 High level PSP and Low level PSP selection menu bar. High level and low
level PSP can be select as per system requirement.
5 On time and Off time is required to measured Off potential as per NACE
criteria.
6 CP Send Time: As per selection time, CP station data will be update in
SCADA system.
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7 Password: If write down password is correct than all selected data will be
send to the CP station monitoring unit and save it to the microprocessor.
8 Graph: This graph shown PSP level vs Recent Time.
9 Midpoint PSP Selection menu bar.
10 Send Data menu bar. Here all sending information shown in a string.
6.4.3 Collection of OFF potential

Using this SCADA software instant OFF potential can measure. After sending OFF time, instant
OFF potential will be shown in menu bar (Identification number 13).
6.5 Data Evaluation

CP station data can be evaluation from SCADA system and webserver.
6.5.1 Data Evaluation using SCADA system

Using SCADA system, CP station Status can be easily Evaluated. According to figure 6.7, CP
station data evaluation describe in table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Data Evaluation using SCADA system
Identification
Description
Number
time shown here.
CP Station Condition:
- If Voltage and Ampere value is zero.
- If Sending Time not update
2 Graph: This graph shown PSP level vs Time.
CP Station OFF condition:
- If no value available in graph. It means that CP station and controller
unit are off condition.
RMICU OFF condition:
- If PSP value suddenly decreases from setting value and not change this
value again previous condition.
Note: In that case, make a call that SIM number to confirm CP station Status.
3 Received data can monitor from this area. And easily confirm CP station
status.
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6.5.2 Data Evaluation using webserver:
CP station all data are monitoring from website. Here, website address is
www.setbsngla.com/gtcl/cp1/december.php (shown in figure 6.8). Everyday 24 hours’ data are
store in web server. In 15 minutes’ interval recent hour data updated. Pipe to soil Potential (PSP),
Output DC voltage and output DC Ampere data has store in website. From this data, easily
evaluate Cathodic Protection system status.
Figure 6.8: CP Station Data Evaluation using Webserver
CP station Status:
Condition-1: Voltage, Ampere and PSP data are available within acceptable limit: CP station is
ON condition.
Condition-2: Voltage, Ampere and PSP data are not available until 2 or more hours. If call not
send to GSM: CP station is OFF condition. Required to be station maintenance.
Condition-3: Voltage, Ampere and PSP data are not available until 2 or more hours. If call send
to GSM (i.e ringing): CP station is ON condition but GSM/GPRS internet data limit
end. Need to be recharge.
Condition-4: Voltage, Ampere and PSP data are available but data are not acceptable limit:
Required to be increase voltage level using SCADA command. If not reached
acceptable limit, required to be visual inspection and maintenance of CP station.
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6.6 Comparative Cost Analysis
For Comparative cost analysis, RMICU installation, monitoring and maintenance cost is compare
with GTCL existing CP monitoring and maintenance (traditional) cost. Determination of Cost of
GTCL existing monitoring and maintenance is based on GTCL 2016 contract agreement [23, 24].
I. GTCL Existing CP system monitoring and maintenance (Traditional) cost analysis as

per contract agreement:
GTCL have 55 nos. CP station and 50 nos. midpoint test post for 1850Km (approx.) pipeline
corrosion control.
Third Party Payment:

Monthly:
1. Monthly CP Station Monitoring and Maintenance cost=4,600.00
2. PSP reading collection cost from Midpoint test post=1,500.00
3. Field Engineer’s (GTCL) allowance required for supervising during monitoring and
maintenance=25,000.00
Yearly:
1. Yearly CP Station Monitoring and Maintenance cost=4,600.00×55nos×12=30,36,000.00
2. Yearly PSP reading collection cost from Midpoint=1,500.00×50nos. ×12=9,00,000.00
3. Yearly Allowance required for GTCL Engineer= 25000×12=3,00,000.00
A. Gr. Total Yearly CP system monitoring and maintenance cost = 42,36,000.00
II. Cost Analysis of GTCL CP system monitoring and control using Remote Monitoring and
Intelligent Control System:
a. First Year Cost:
CPS Remote Monitoring & Controller Unit cost with installation= 30,000.00
Midpoint Monitoring Unit cost (incl. Solar panel and Battery) with installation= 20,000.00
Considering as per field experience, Yearly 3 times maintenance required for TEG Based CPS
(per CPS) =15,000.00
Total cost calculation for first year:

Total Installation and Maintenance cost for 55 nos. CPS=55×30000.00=16,50,000.00
Total 50 nos. Midpoint monitoring and installation cost=50×20,000.00=10,00,000.00
Total 55 nos. CPS Maintenance cost per year= 55×15,000.00=2,25,000.00
Domain and Hosting Cost/year=10,000.00
Total Internet Expenses for GTCL CP system/yr.= (55×300+50×200) ×12=3,18,000.00
Consider, Website & SCADA Development cost for GTCL CP system=20,00,000.00
Consider, RMICU Maintenance Cost/yr. required=3,00,000.00
B. Gr. Total Cost for First Year RMICU System for GTCL=55,03,000.00
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b. Cost from Second Year:
Total 55 nos. CPS Maintenance cost per year=55×15,000.00=2,25,000.00
Domain and Hosting Cost/year=10,000.00
Total Internet Expenses for GTCL CP system/yr.= (55×300+50×200) ×12=3,18,000.00
Consider, RMICU Maintenance Cost/yr. required=3,00,000.00
Consider, Website and SCADA software maintenance cost/yr.=1,00,000.00
C. Gr. Total for RMICU system maintenance cost from second year=9,53,000.00
III. Comparison Existing CP system Vs. RMICU system for 10 years’ life time:
Consider, Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control system life time=10 years
Total Cost for 10 years’:
D. Total cost for Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control system of GTCL
system=55,03,000.00+9×9,53,000.00=1,40,80,000.00
Here, D=B+C×9 years
E. Total cost for Traditional CP system monitoring and maintenance cost (as per
Contract agreement 2016) =10×42,36,000.00=4,23,60,000.00
Here, E=A×10 years
F. Total Savings Using Remote Monitoring and Maintenance System instead of
Traditional Monitoring and Maintenance system =4,23,60,000.00-1,40,80,000.00
=2,82,80,000.00
Here, F=E-D
As per above comparison, Remote monitoring and intelligent control system is cost effective with
traditional monitoring and maintenance system. Graphical representation price comparison of
Remote monitoring and intelligent control system vs traditional monitoring and maintenance
system shown in figure 6.9. This price calculation is based on GTCL contract agreement [23].
Consider, constant price for next 10 years.
Cost Comparision
60
Existing CP System
Remote CP System
50
40
Cost (Lac Tk.)
CP System Monitoring &

30 Maintenance Cost for 10 Years
* Existing System = 423.6 Lac Tk.

20
* Remote System = 140.8 Lac Tk.
10 Cost Savings = 282.8 Lac Tk.

= 66.8 %
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Years
Figure 6.9: Cost Comparison
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6.7 Benefit of this Project
Cathodic protection (CP) systems are fundamental to pipeline integrity management and are
widely used on transmission and (high or intermediate pressure) distribution pipelines in gas,
petrochemical and water sectors. To comply with regulatory safety standards, routine
measurements of CP levels are required. Manual measurements, apart from their high costs, may
only indicate problems after they have occurred, which can result in pipelines’ lack of protection
until the fault is discovered. Remote monitoring of CP is a new development that automates data
collection process and provides operators with a proactive surveillance system. The system
monitors the output voltage and current from TR set or TEG in order to ensure that the correct
level of CP is applied. In this project, attempt has been made to build a device with SCADA
remote monitoring & intelligent control method in cathodic protection systems using GSM
system.
Historically, the CP data required for compliance and operational purposes has been collected in
the field manually. Pipeline operators have trained their technicians to carry out various
measurements and have implemented data management schemes to record and report the data.
The scale of this activity has increased in proportion to the expansion of pipeline networks over
many years.
With pressure on all companies to maximize the productivity of their labor force, manual data
gathering is increasingly witnessed as a poor utilization of human resources. By identifying and
reporting problems as they occur, remote monitoring ensures continuous effective CP; thus, it
maintains or extends the operating lifetime of a pipeline. It increases safety by eliminating the
requirement for measurements at roadside and inaccessible locations as well as eliminating
electrical hazards to technicians. Moreover, it may help companies to improve their environmental
performance.
On the other hand, Traditional/manual system is not capable to measure instant OFF potential.
Instant OFF potential measurement is recommendation of NACE. Using GSM based SCADA
monitoring & control system, OFF potential measurement is possible. In this project, all CP station
can be instant off using synchronization from SCADA.
In manual system, Monthly one times data monitoring and recoding possible. After monthly
monitoring, CP station present status not possible to know. In Remote monitoring system, CP
station present status is available. CP station Output can be control using remote monitoring and
also CP station can be stopped emergency situation.
Remote monitoring & intelligent control system is cost effective as well as NACE and ISO
standard recommendation can be maintained.
Page | 75
CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Conclusions
Based on the study, development and application of Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control
of Cathodic protection system for GTCL operated gas transmission pipelines in Bangladesh
several important conclusions have been drawn and mentioned as follows:
a. The Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control Unit development for cathodic protection
system is the combination of microprocessor, GSM device based standard communications
technology and SCADA system. This system has been used to monitor essential parameters
related to CP station data, instant OFF potential, Drain point and midpoint PSP readings
from the pipeline existing CP system sitting at office desk.
b. Up to Date information and condition of CP system can be easily monitored at any time.
Besides, necessary action can be taken in proper time deploying skilled labour more
effectively if any CP station power unit may go shut down or other deviation found in the
system.
c. This system will be greatly reducing the maintenance and monitoring cost of CP system of
the pipeline as well as improve the quality of service.
d. Manpower shortage, lack of logistics supports, timely action obstacles and dependency on
third parties for maintenance and monitoring of CP system in conventional way will also
be reduced to a greater extent.
e. Cost of Remote Monitoring and Controller Unit including design, development and
application has been a very small amount compared to the total CP system installation
budget. Unit Cost per CP station is approximately Tk. 25,000/-
7.2 Recommendations
Based on the results and earlier conclusions, following recommendations have been made to
reduce CP system monitoring and maintenance budget and also for effective, well-managed and
enhanced control of CP system for the Gas Transmission pipelines in Bangladesh.
a. The Remote Monitoring and Controller technology should be applied to the existing
cathodic protection system to monitor essential parameters related to CP station data, Drain
point and midpoint PSP readings from the pipeline properly, intelligently and effectively.
b. For the performance measurement of cathodic protection Remote Monitoring and
intelligent Control technology, a test installation may be done in existing pipeline and CP
station where appropriate.
Page | 76
c. For total control and better performance evaluation of the CP system, Remote Monitoring
and Intelligent Control technology can be linked with the SCADA system using webserver.
d. Entire CP system of Gas transmission pipeline need to be established under the Remote
Monitoring and Intelligent Control technology for better and improved regular
Maintenance and Monitoring.
e. For new pipeline project, In the period of CP system Design mandatorily include Remote
Monitoring and Intelligent Control technology of Gas Transmission Pipeline.
7.3 Scope of Future Study

Following study can be conducted on the basis Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control
technology:
1. Study on control of DC source input system to stopped the CP station. Example, Gas supply
of TEG, TR Set input supply voltage.
2. Study on Solar based CP system including Remote Monitoring and Intelligent Control
technology.
3. Study on TR set with battery backup CP system including Remote Monitoring and
Intelligent Control technology.
Page | 77
References:
[1] Peabody, A., W., “Control of Pipeline Corrosion”, Second Edition, NACE
International- The Corrosion Society, 2001.
[2] “Monthly Cathodic Protection system Maintenance Report for the Month of February
2017 (Part-A)”, Pipeline Integrity Department, Gas Transmission Company Limited,
Dhaka, 2017.
[3] “Monthly Cathodic Protection system Maintenance Report for the Month of February
2017 (Part-B)”, Pipeline Integrity Department, Gas Transmission Company Limited,
Dhaka, 2017.
[4] Maziar I., and Maryam I., “Remote Monitoring of Oil Pipelines Cathodic Protection
System via GSM and Its Application to SCADA System” International Journal of Science
and Research (IJSR), Volume 3 Issue 5 (May 2014), ISSN: 2319-7064 (Online).
[5] “CP-1 Cathodic Protection Tester Course Manual” NACE International, January-
2008.
[6] Koch, G.H., Brongers, M.P.H., Thompson, N.G., Virmani, Y.P. and Payer, J.H.
“Corrosion Cost and Prevention Strategies in the United States,” FHWA-RD-01-156,
Ofﬁce of Infrastructure Research and Development, Federal Highway Administration,
March 2002.
[7] Syrett, B.C. “Mansfield, Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, Corrosion Testing
Made Easy”, NACE International, 1997
[8] Summers, G., N., “Remote Monitoring of Pipeline Cathodic Protection Systems,”
Pipeliner, pp. 46-50, April-June 2009.
[9] Wenk, R.L. “Field Investigation of Stress Corrosion Cracking”, Proc. Fifth
Symposium on Line Pipe Research, Pipeline Research Council International, 1974, p
T-1
[10] Mercer, W.L. “Stress Corrosion Cracking—Control through Understanding”, Proc.
Sixth Symposium on Line Pipe Research, Pipeline Research Council International,
1979,p W-1
[11] Beavers, J.A. “Assessment of the Effects of Surface Preparation and Coating on the
Susceptibility of Line Pipe to Stress Corrosion Cracking,” Pipeline Research Council
International, 1992
[12] Beavers, J.A., Thompson, N.G. and K.E.W. Coulson, “Effects of Surface Preparation
and Coatings on SCC Susceptibility of Line Pipe: Phase 1-Laboratory Studies”, Paper
No. 93597, CORROSION/93, NACE International, 1993
[13] “Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems,” RP0169-96, NACE International
[14] “Standard Test Method Measurement Techniques Related to Criteria for Cathodic
Protection on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems” Last Revised
2012. www.nace.org/Pipelines-Tanks-Underground-Systems.
Page | 78
[15] “Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems,” RP0169-96, NACE International
[16] Summers, G., N., “Remote Monitoring of Pipeline Cathodic Protection Systems,”
Pipeliner, pp. 46-50, April-June 2009.
[17] Stephenson L.D. and Ashok Kumar “Remote Monitoring of Cathodic Protection and
Cathodic Protection System Upgrades for Tanks and Pipelines at Fort Carson”
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Center, June 2007.
[18] Ligang “SIM900A Hardware Design” Version 1.01, Shanghai SIM com Wireless
Solutions Ltd. China, 2009.
[19] “Microcontroller-PIC18F4550 Datasheet”, Microchip Technology Inc. USA.
www.microchip.com.
[20] “Flowcode 7-Datasheet”, Matrix Technology Solutions Ltd., UK, 2017.
www.matrixtsl.com.
[21] “Proteus Design Suite 8.5 User Manual”, Labcenter Electronics Ltd. UK.
www.labcenter.com.
[22] “Adobe Dreamweaver, version-CS5” Adobe System Incorporated, USA,
www.adobe.com/dreamweaver
[23] Contract Agreement for “Cathodic Protection system operation, Maintenance &
Development of GTCL operated Beanibazar-Kailashtilla, North-South, Rashidpur-
Ashuganj, Ashuganj-Bakhrabad, Bakhrabad-Chittagonj, Bakhrabad-Demra and
Bakhrabad-Sirdhirganj pipeline (Part-A)”.
[24] Gerhardus Koch, Jeff Varney, Neil Thompson, Oliver Moghissi, Melissa Gould, Joe
Payer “International Measures of Prevention, Application, and Economics of
Corrosion Technologies Study” NACE International, Houston, Texas, USA,
March 2016.
Page | 79

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REMOTE MONITORING AND INTELLIGENT CONTROLS OF CATHODIC

PROTECTION SYSTEM OF GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINES.

Biplab Chandra Das

MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND MINERAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Biplab Chandra Das

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND MINERAL RESOURCES ENGINEERING

I express my gratitude to the management of Gas Transmission Company Limited (GTCL) as

Table 2.1 Consumption Rate (K) for Various Metals 11

Table 6.2 Identification of website page-2 67

Table 6.3 Identification of website page-3 68

Table 6.6 Identification of SCADA CP station 70

Table 6.7 Data Evaluation using SCADA system 71

Figure 2.1 Illustration of Acid and Alkaline pH 5

Figure 5.6 Screenshot of Flowcode 7 48

ADC Analogue to Digital Conversion

In GTCL, Monitoring and Maintenance of CP systems is done once in a month (traditional

The expected outcomes are:

2.2 Classification of Corrosion

2.3 Electrochemical Reactions

Figure 2.1 Anodic Process (half reaction)

The electrode or metallic site where oxidation occurs is called an anode.

Figure 2.2 Cathodic Process (half reaction)

Figure 2.3 Basic Corrosion Cell – An Electrochemical Circuit

2.3.3 Corrosion Cell

Electrochemical corrosion involves the transfer of electrons across metal/electrolyte

Figure 2.4 Corrosion Cell

2.3.5 Cathode Reactions

Hydrogen Ion Reduction–more common in acidic environments

Figure 2.5 Typical Local Action Corrosion Cells on a Structure

Figure 2.6 Electron and Ion Flow

2.3.7 Charge Transfer in the Electrolyte

2.3.8 Conventional Current Flow

2.3.9 Sign Convention

Structure-to-electrolyte readings are considered negative to the reference electrode. When

2.4 Reference Electrodes (Half-Cells)

Structure-to-soil potentials are measured in reference to an electrode. What is often referred to

The standard hydrogen electrode half-cell is awkward to use in most circumstances in

2.4.1 Copper-Copper Sulfate Electrode

Figure 2.7 Copper-Copper Sulfate Reference Electrode in Contact with Earth

2.5 Driving Force for Corrosion

2.6 Corrosion Rate

Table 2.1 Consumption Rate (K) for Various Metals

Metal Kg/A-yr Lb/A-yr

2.7 Factors that affect the Corrosion Rate

Conductivity or its reciprocal (resistivity) is an important parameter in the study of corrosion

2.7.2.3 Effect of pH on the Rate of Corrosion

Figure 2.8 Illustration of Acid and Alkaline pH

Figure 2.9 Effect of pH on the Rate of Corrosion

2.8 Causes of Corrosion

2.8.1 Dissimilar Metals (Galvanic Corrosion)

Metal Volts vs Cu-CuSO4

2.8.3 Mechanical Stresses

2.8.5 Temperature Differences in the Electrolyte

2.8.6 Dissimilar Soils

2.8.7 Oxygen Concentration Cell

2.8.8 Metal Ion Concentration Cell

2.8.9 Microbiological Influences

2.9 Forms of Corrosion