EXPERIMENT: - 01

Aim: -
Study of various measuring tools like dial gauge, micrometer, Vernier calliper and telescopic
gauges.
Equipment required: -
Dial gauge, Micrometer, Vernier calliper and Telescopic gauges, slip gauge.
Theory: -
(A) Micrometer: - Construction: -

Fig:1.1

Fig:1.2

1
It is an excellent precision tool which is used to measure small parameters and is much more
accurate than the Vernier calliper. The micrometer size can vary from small to large. The
large micrometer calliper is used to measure large outside diameter or distance. E.g. Large
micrometer is used as a special mechanical measuring tool for main engine to record the outer
diameter of the piston rod.
They are available in two types- Inside micrometer (to measure inside diameter) and Outside
micrometer (for measuring outside diameter).
The Least count of the micrometer is 0.01 mm or 0.001cm.
It consists of a screw having 10 or 20 threads per cm and revolves in a fixed nut. The end of
the screw forms one measuring anvil and a fixed anvil is in the frame. The spindle can be
advanced or retracted by rotating the thimble. Barrel is a fixed part attached with the frame.
The spindle is slide fit in the barrel. Generally, the pitch of screw thread is 0.5 mm & the
thimble has 50equal divisions on the circumference. Ratchet is provided at the end of thimble
to apply sufficient and uniform measuring pressure
Working: -
1. The least count of the micrometer was found.
2. The two jaws were cleaned and the micrometer was checked for zero error.
3. The given set of slip gauges, which is used as standard reference, was cleaned.
4. A slip gauge was placed in between the two jaws of micrometer and was adjusted.
5. The slip gauge size and corresponding micrometer reading were noted down.
The difference between micrometer reading and slip gauge size is the error.
6. The experiment was repeated with slip gauges of different sizes within the range of
the micrometer and the readings are tabulated and corresponding errors were found.
Observationtable:-
Table 1.1 measurement through micrometer

SR. MSR VSR TSR

NO.
1
2
3
4
5
LC = 0.01mm

Range= 0-25mm

Calculation: -

T.R.=MSR+LC*micrometer reading

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Slip gauges should be degreased properly.

2. While taking the reading of the micrometer over tightening should be avoided.
2
 3. Slip gauges should be increased in size with regular increments and wringing should
be done properly to get the required size.

(B) Vernier Calliper: -

Construction: -
The measuring range of the calliper can be 0 to 25, 0 to 150, 0 to 200 mm, etc. If there is an
error in the measuring instrument, then it is called zero error. And the correction done to
eliminate the error is called zero correction. Vernier calliper is primarily for measuring both
inside and outside diameters.

Fig:1.3

Working: -
1. Clean the object to be measured. Place sliding jaw against upper step of object, Open
the calliper slightly. Place the sliding jaw against the upper step of the object you are
measuring. Make sure that the head of the calliper is perpendicular to the edge of the
upper step. In above figure Main scale contains Imperial scale (in Inch.) & metric
scale (in mm) respectively. While the sliding scale is the Vernier scale.

2. Open calliper jaws, Open the jaws of the calliper using the thumb screw until both
jaws (external or internal) firmly captures the object. Figure 1.1 Vernier Calliper
3. Turn lock screw, Turn the lock screw to tighten the jaws so that you can remove your
object and take your reading.
4. Read measured value.

Observation table: -
Table 1.2 Measurement through Vernier calliper

3
 SR. MSR VSR TSR
NO.
1
2
3
4
5

LC = 0.01mm
Range=300mm
Calculation: -

T.R.=MSR+LC*Vernier reading

Precaution: -
1. The height gauges are generally kept in their cases when not in use.
2. Every care should be taken, particularly in case of long height gauges, to avoid
its heating by warmth from the hands.
3. The springing of the measuring jaw should be always avoided.

(C) Telescopic Feeler Gauge

4
 Fig:1.4

Similar to the functionality of feeler gauge, this type of gauge is also known as tongue gauge,
and it consists of long feeler gauge inside a cover with tongue or curved edge.
The long feeler strips protrude out of the cover like a telescope so that it can be inserted into
remote places where feeler gauge access is not possible. E.g. It is used to measure the bearing
clearance of the top shell.
It is essential that after the use of the telescope gauge, the strip should be cleaned and
retracted back to its housing, else it may damage the feeler strip.

5
 (D) Dial Gauge

Fig:1.5

The dial gauge is utilized in different tools as stated above and can be separately used to
measure the trueness of the circular object, jumping off an object, etc. It consists of an
indicator with the dial, which is connected to the plunger carrying the contact point. Once the
contact point is kept in touch with an object (to be measured), any unevenness or jumping
will cause the plunger to move.
The plunger is connected to the pointed in the dial. The dial is such attached that it does not
retract but swings in an arc around its hinge point to show the reading in the indicator.

6
Working: -
1. The dial gauge was mounted securely on the stand.
2. The base of the stand was cleaned and free movement of the dial gauge plunger was
ensured.
3. Slip gauges are degreased and an initial reading was set by selecting a suitable slip
gauge so that the plunger of the dial gauge just slide on the top surface.
4. Dial gauge reading with initial set up was adjusted to read zero
5. A small increment was given to the initial size of the slip gauge by combination of
slip gauges and was placed under the dial gauge plunger by lifting it. The
corresponding reading is noted down.
6. The procedure was repeated for different sizes of slip gauges within the range of the
dial gauge
7. A graph is plotted against dial gauge reading and error obtained
Observation table: -
Table 1.3 measurement through micrometer

SR. Dial gauge reading Error Total

NO.

1.

2.

3.

LC = 1/12 mm
Range=25mm to
300mm
Calculation: -

Precautions:
1. The dial gauge should be clamped to the stand properly so that the plunger is
vertical to the base.
2. The slip gauge set should be degreased properly.
3. The plunger of the dial gauge should be handled gently.

7
 4. The dial gauge reading was set to zero after giving slight initial compression to
the plunger.
5. Slip gauges should be increased in size with regular increments within the range of
dial gauge.
6. Slip gauges should be wringing properly for various combinations

Result: -
1. Study has been completed on Micrometer and result found to be: -
2. Study has been completed on Vernier calliper and result found to be: -
3. Study has been completed on Dial Gauge and result found to be: -
4. Study has been completed on Telescopic Gauge and result found to be: -

8
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Aim: - Measurement of angle and width of a V-groove by using bevel protector.
Equipment: - Bevel protector, Surface plate, V-groove.
Theory: - A bevel protractor is an instrument that is graduated spherical protractor with one
pivoted arm that we use for making off the angles. Sometimes the vernier scales have an
attachment for giving more precise readings. The device is capable of measuring angles with a
minimum count of 5′ or 5 minutes. It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles between
two faces. It consists of two arms and an engraved circular scale. The two arms can be set
along the faces between which the angles to be measured. The level protractor can measure
angles to five minutes of a degree. In this experiment, you will be introduced to the
measurement of angles with bevel protractor.

Figure 2.1 Bevel Protector

Construction of Bevel Protector: - a bevel protector is shown in
Fig.2.1
1. Swivel Plate: - The swivel plate rotates on the dial. This swivel plate has a vernier scale
that is integrated into it.
2. Magnifying Glass: - A magnifying glass is also present on the version scale in the swivel
plate. These magnifying glasses are used to see the value of angles on the main scale and,
more clearly, the Vernier scale.
3. Vernier Scale: - The Vernier scales are fixed on the swivel plate, & it moves along the
swivel plate. The Vernier scale gives the remaining angle in minutes. There are 60 minutes in
1 degree. It is added to the Vernier scale bevel protractor to increase the accuracy of angle
measurement. In the Centre, the Vernier scale has a zero. The Vernier scale has 12
partitions on either side of zero, and each division is of 5 minutes. So, there’s are 60 minutes
on each side of zeros on the Verniers scale.
4. Angle locking screw: - This angle locking screw is used to locks the bevel protractor at a
fixed angle so that the locking angle can be measured without any disturbances. This angle
prevents the swivel plate from rotating in relation to the locking screw dial or dial scale.

9
5. Dial: - This is the basis of the bevel protractor on which the other parts are present. The
main scale or dial scale is marked on this dial.
6. Dial Scale: - This dial scale is the core of the bevel protractor. It has a graduated level of
angle from a value of 0 degrees to 360 degrees. At this graduation, every tenth degree is
counted. It is divided into four divisions of 360 degrees, every 90 degrees.

7. Blade: - This blade is made of high carbon steel. This blade is a thin blade. These blades
are either 150 mm or 300 mm, depending on the bevel’s protractor. When the blades are
parallel to the stock, the zero of the Vernier scale corresponds to the zero of the main scales
or the dial scale. The blade has one end of 45 degrees, and the other has an angle of 30
degrees so that 45 degrees & 30 degrees can be directly measured using these edges.
8. Blade Lock Screw: - Blade locking screws are available to lock the blade at a fixed
location. This screw is used when we determine the required length of the blade along the
surface of the workpiece.
9. Stock: - The bevel is one of the contact surfaces in the protractor when measuring the
stock angle. Stocks are the integrated part of the dial. The dial is also rotated with respect to
the blade as it moves, & the angle value changes in the dial scale. The job or workpieces
whose angle is to be measured is placed in contact with this stock on one side. The other side
of the job surfaces whose angles are to be measured is placed in contact with the blade. The
blade of the bevel protractor goes inside the slot in the stock.

Working Principle: -It consists of a base plate attached to the main body and an adjustable
blade attached to a circular plate containing vernier scale. Adjustable blade is capable of
rotating freely about the Centre of main scale engraved on the body of the instrument and can
be locked in any position by using clamping nut. An attachment is provided at the top for the
purpose of measuring acute angles. To note the reading, magnifying lens has been provided
for easy reading of the instrument. Main scale is circular and is graduated in degrees on the
circular body. Main scale graduations are all around the circular body which is attached to
fixed base blade. Fixed base. Blade also called as stock is attached to circular body of the
bevel protractor as shown in figure. Once the reading is fixed, blade clamp fixes the reading.
Blades are about 150 mm long or 300 mm long, 13 mm wide and 2 mm thick. Its ends are
beveled at angles of 45° and 60°. Vernier scale is also marked on turret which can rotate all
over the fixed body. Adjustable blade can pass through the slot provided in turret. So as the
turret rotates, adjustable blade also rotates full 360°. There are 12 graduations of vernier scale
starting from 0 to 60°on both sides of 0 of vernier scale.

Figure 2.2 Vernier Scale

Reading
10
Procedure: -
1. The appropriate size blade to suit the given job was fixed and locked.

2. The job / component was placed by touching the reference face and the movable blade.
3. The blade was locked after ensuring the proper contact on the two faces of the job.

4. The reading was noted down corresponding to the zero of the vernier scale.
(M.S.R + V.S.C x 1/12)
5. The procedure was repeated to find out all the required angles.
Observation Table: -

Calculations: -
T.R = M.S.R + (V.S.C x 1/12)
And width of V-groove (H),
H= 2 x r x SinƟ

where, r is inclined length of V-groove

Ɵ is angle of V-groove

11
Result: -
The angle of the V-groove measured by Bevel protector is
. The width of the V-groove
is .
Precautions: -
1. Use the instrument with care.
2. Blade should be clamped only after ensuring the contact of the blade over the entire
length of the component.
3. The instrument should be cleaned before and after use.
4. Vernier coincidence should be taken without parallax error.
5. While readings are taken your eyes must be in front of the matching lines.
6. Always check the tightness of clamping screws before taking reading.

12
 Experiment No. 3
TITLE: Study of Slip Gauges. OBJECTIVE:

Students will be able to know the use and working of slip gauges.

THEORY:

Slip gauges are end standards used in linear measurements. They are used in
workshop for work where a tolerance as low as 0.001mm is needed. Slip gauges were
invented by Swedish engineer, C.E. Johnson, so they are also called Johnson gauges.
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks, made of high-grade steel, having cross section
about30 mm x 10mm. These blocks are made into required sizes and hardened to resist
wear and allowed to stabilize so as to relieve internal stresses. This prevents occurrence
of size and shape variations. After hardening the blocks, measuring faces are carefully
finished to fine degree of surface finish, flatness and accuracy. This high-grade surface
finish is obtained by super finishing process known as lapping.

Wringing of Slip Gauge:

The measuring face of the gauges is flat and it possesses high surface finish.
If two slip gauges are forced against each other on measuring faces, because of
contact pressure, gauges stick together and considerable force is required to
separate these blocks. This is known as wringing of slip gauges. Thus, wringing
refers to condition of intimate and complete contact and of permanent adhesion
between measuring faces. Slip gauges are wrung to build desired dimension. Slip
gauges are wrung together by hand and no other external means.

 Fig. (a) shows Parallel wringing of slip gauges, and

 Fig. (b) shows Cross wringing of slip gauges.

In cross wringing, the two slip gauges are first cleaned to remove dirt and
then they are placed together at right angles in the form of cross and then rotated
through 90°, while being pressed together. This method causes less rubbing of
surfaces. Almost any dimension may be built by suitable combination of gauges.
Wringing phenomenon is purely due to surface contact and molecular adhesion of
metal of blocks. Hence, wringing is defined as the property of measuring faces of
gauge blocks of adhering, by sliding or pressing the gauge against measuring
faces of other gauge blocks or reference faces or datum surfaces without the use
of external means.

13
 (a) (b)
Figure 5.1: Wringing of Slip Gauges

USES/APPLICATIONS OF SLIP GAUGES:

1. As a reference standard.

2. For verification and calibration of measuring apparatus.

3. For adjustment of indicating devices.

4. For direct measurement.

5. For setting of various types of comparators.

6. Micrometers are used to measure the small or fine measurements of length, width,
thickness and diameter of the job.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPAPATUS:

(1) Slip gauge:

14
PROCEDURE:

Example: Determine the dimension 18.356 by using slip gauge set:

Rule 1: Minimum number of slip gauges should be used to build dimension.

Rule 2: Always start with the last decimal place.

Procedure Least decimal Calculation

1) Write the required dimension 18.356

2) Starting with least decimal place i.e. 0.006. 0.006 18.356 1.006 17.35
But we can use 1.006 as to follow rule
1.
0.05 17.35 1.05 16.3
3) After subtraction the value remaining is
18.35. Here the least decimal is 0.05. But
we can use 1.05 as to follow rule 1.
0.3 15.3 1.3 14
4) Now value remaining is 18.3. Here the
least decimal is 0.3. But we can use 1.3 as
to
follow rule 1. 4.0 14 4 10

5) Now value remaining is 17. But we have 10 10 0

4 mm gauge block.

6) Final value is 10 mm and this gauge is

available. Reminder should always be zero.

7) Revised the above procedure for three

different dimensions.

8) After cleaning place, the gauge blocks

should be placed in their respective
places.

15
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl.
Dimensions Least decimal Calculation
No.
1

RESULT: - Relate results to the aim of the study.

16
 Experiment – 4

Aim: -
Measurement of angle by using sine bar.
Equipment: -
Sine Bar, Slip gauges, Gauge Block, Dial Gauge, Bavel Protractor.
Theory: -
Sine Bar is a tool used for accurate setting out of angle by arranging to convert angle
measurement to linear one. It is used when the accuracy of an angle must be checked to less
than 5'. Sine bar consists of a steel bar with two cylinders of equal diameter fastened n the
ends. A sine bar is generally used with slip gauge blocks. The sine bar forms the hypotenuse
of a right triangle, while the slip gauge blocks form the opposite side. The height of the slip
gauge block is found by multiplying the sine of the desired angle by the length of the sine
bar:

figure 4.1 figure 4.2

Construction: -
The sine bar is made of high carbon steel, high chromium (corrosion resistance) and
hardened. It consists of two rollers with steel bars. The two rollers are very precise and
highly accurate and are equal in diameter.
When the sine bar placed on a flat surface, the axes of the two rollers are parallel to each
other and also parallel to the above face of the sine bar. The steel bar has the appearance
of relief holes (To easily handle the sine bar and also to reduce overall weight). See figure
4.2.
The distance between two rollers is usually available in 100 mm, 200 mm or 300 mm. There
are two grades in the sine bar. A grade and B grade. A grade sine bar has an accuracy of
0.01mm
/m length, B grade sine bar has an accuracy of 0.02mm /m length. See figure 4.1.

17
Working Principle: -

figure 4.3
The sine bar is based on trigonometry. Angles are measured using a sine bar with the help of
a gauge block and dial gauge or spirit level. The aim of a measurement is to make the surface
on which the dial gauge or spirit level is placed horizontally.
For example, see figure 4.3, the wedge is placed on a horizontal table, to measure the angle of
a wedge, The sine bar is placed on the inclined surface of the wedge. In this case, the top
surface of the sine bar is tilted like a wedge. The top surface is made horizontal by using
gauge blocks. The sine of an angle of inclination of the wedge is a ratio of the height of gauge
blocks used and the distance between the centers of the cylinders.
When a sine bar is located on a level surface the top edge will be parallel to that surface. If
one roller is raised by a known distance, usually using gauge blocks, then the top edge of the
bar will be titled by the same amount forming an angle that calculated by the application of a
sine rule.
 The hypotenuse is a constant dimension – (10 inches or 100 mm as the
examples shown).
 The height is achieved from the dimension between the bottom of one roller and
the table surface.
 The angle is measured by using a sine rule. The dimension required to obtain an
angle from 0°-90°, incremented by 1-min intervals.
 Sine(angle) = opposite/hypotenuse.

1. Measuring Known Angles or Locating Any Work to a Given Angle: -

18
 For this purpose, the surface plate is assumed to
be having a perfectly flat surface, so that its
surface could be treated as horizontal.
One of the cylinders or rollers of sine bar is
placed on the slip gauge having height h, and
other roller is placed on piles of slip gauges
having height h. Let sine bar be set at an angle θ
then. See figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4

ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐿

Where,
L =known distance, such as100 mm or 200 mm, depending on the size of bar
used h1- h2 = height built up to correct amount with precision gauge blocks
θ = angle being checked

2. Measuring Unknown Angles of Heavy Component: -

In such cases where components are

heavy and can't be mounted on the sine
bar, then sine bar is mounted on the
component. The height over the rollers can
be measured by a vernier height, using a
dial test gauge. See figure 4.5. This is
achieved by adjusting the height gauge
until the dial gauge shows the same zero
reading each time. The difference of the
two reading being the rise of the sine bar
as shown figure 4.5

𝑅1 − 𝑅2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝐿

3. Measuring Unknown Angle of Small Components: -

19
 To measure unknown angle, it is necessary to
first find the angle approximately with the
help of bevel protractor. Let the actual angle
be 0. Then the sine bar is set at an angle and
clamped to an Anglo plate. A dial indicator is
set at one end of the work and moved to the
other and deviation in noted. Again, slip
gauges are added or removed till the dial
indicator show null deviation. See figure 4.6.

figure 4.6

Observations and Calculations: -

 Table 4.1: - For small components

Trial No. Height of Slip Height of Slip Measured

Gauge at left Gauge at right Angle (θ)
side, h1 (mm) side, h2 (mm)
1
2
3

 For Heavy Components

Trial No. Readings, R1 Readings, R2 Measured Angle (θ)

1
2
3

Results: -
The angle measured = .
Precautions: -

 The sine bar should not be used for angle greater than 60 θ.
 A compound angle should not be formed by mis-aligning.
 Accuracy of sine bar should be ensured.
 As far as possible longer sine bar should be used since many errors are reduced by
using longer sine bars.

20
 Experiment – 5(a)

Aim: -

Measurement of gear tooth thickness by using gear tooth Vernier calliper.

Equipment: -

Gear and tooth Vernier calliper.

Theory: -

The gear tooth thickness measuring vernier measures the thickness of the tooth on pitch
circle i.e., chordal thickness.

Fig. 5.1, Gear Tooth Vernier Calliper

21
Construction and Working of Gear Tooth Vernier Calliper

As shown in figure 5.1, gear Tooth Vernier Calliper consists of two beams which are in square
with each other. There are two sliding vernier scales which moves along the beams of main
scale. The tooth thickness on the pitch circle is measured as the distance between a fixed jaw
and a movable jaw by fixed adjustable jaw of vertical vernier beam. In other words, it is a
combination of two vernier with a common jaw.

Gear tooth thickness is measured at pitch circle, and it is also called as pitch line thickness.

22
Fig. 5.2, Working Principle of Gear Tooth Vernier
Calliper

23
Procedure for Measurement using Gear Tooth Vernier Calliper: -

1. Find chordal addendum by using

Equation. h = (mN/2) [2/N+1−cos90/N]

2. Set height ‘h’ on vertical vernier by using fine adjustment screw.

3. Apply vernier to gear tooth as shown in figure, so that the fix jaw can touch the flank of tooth.

4. Push movable jaw of horizontal vernier and lock it.

5. This gives the gear tooth thickness ‘W’.

Observation Table: -

Table 5.1, for chordal addendum

Sr. No. M.S. V.S.R. V.S.R. x L.C. Total Average

R. (div.) (B) Reading Dimension
(A) (C = A +
B)
1
2
3
4
5
Least Count =

Table 5.2, for tooth thickness

Sr. No. M.S. V.S.R. V.S.R. x L.C. Total Average

R. (div.) (B) Reading Dimension
(A) (C = A +
B)
1
2
3
24
 4
5
Least Count =

25
Calculation: -

In the below figure 5.3, ‘d’ is chordal addendum, which can be calculated

as, d = (N x m/2) [ 1+(2/N) – Cos(90/N)]

Where,

N – Number of teeth

m – Module

Tooth thickness can be calculated using gear tooth vernier. By setting ‘d’ in vertical
vernier, horizontal vernier gives ‘W. ‘W’ can be verified by,

W = N x m Sin(90/N)

Fig. 5.3, Measurement using Gear Tooth Vernier Calliper

Result: -

Gear tooth thickness is mm.

26
Precautions: -

1. Clean the measuring faces of paper or cloth.

2. Set the zero reading of the instrument to before measuring.

27
 Experiment – 5(b)

Aim: - To check accuracy of gear profile with the help of profile projector.

Equipment: -
Profile projector, gear, screw specimen with drilled wholes

Theory: -
Optical profile projector is a measuring instrument which projects an enlarged shadow of the
part being measured on a screen, where it is compared to a master drawing. By these devices,
complicated shaped parts can be easily checked. In any projection system, there are four
essential elements viz., source of light, collimating lens, projection lens and screen. The purpose
collimating lens is to render the beam of light from point source to the parallel.
The projection lens forms a real image on the screen of an object placed between it and
collimator. The screen is generally translucent so that the image can be viewed from the
opposite side.

The function of the roof prism is to direct the beam of light horizontally towards the back of
the projector to assist in the projection of the image. There are three types of projectors.
Those are Horizontal projector, vertical projector, cabinet projector. The figure 5.1 shows a
profile projector.

Fig. 5.1 profile projector

28
Procedure: -
1. Go through the operations and inspection manual of profile projector.

2. Remove the projector lens cap.

3. Switch on the mains and the lens cap.

4. Keep the object on the stage fitted with two micrometers and with the help of the
focusing system see that the profile is properly focused on the screen.

5. Move the two micrometers in X and Y direction (after initial setting) to measure the
centre distance between the two holes chosen.

6. By adjusting the circular scale determine the included angle of the notch.

7. For finding the radius of the specimen, find the value of r and d using X-Y micrometers.

Gear Parameters found using profile projector

 Major diameter = mm
 Minor diameter = mm
 Pitch of gear = mm
 Depth of gear = mm
 Angle of gear = degree

Observation: -

Reading from the profile projector.

MR1

=
MR2

=
MR3

=
MR4

29
=

30
MR5
=
MR6

31
 N=number of threads between two end points
Major diameter= MR1-MR4

Minor diameter=MR2-MR3

Pitch diameter=MR2-MR4
A)
depth of thread =MR1-MR2
B)
depth of thread
=MR3- MR4 Average
depth
=(A+B)/2

Pitch=MR5-MR6

Average pitch=(MR5-MR7)/2

Angle of thread=MR8-MR9

Flank angle=(MR8-MR9)/2

Results: - Accuracy of Gear profile is checked.

Precautions: -

1. Do not disturb the original setting of the mirror.

2. Never touch the surface of the mirror with bare hands

32
33
 Experiment No - 6
Aim: -
To determine the effective diameter of external thread by using three wire method.

Equipment: -
Micrometer, External threaded object (screw, bolt, etc.)

Theory:
-
• To wire and three method of effective diameter measurement.
• Care to be taken while handing floating carriage diameter
measuring machine.
• Best size of wire.

Fig 6.1: - Three wire method

Where
M= diameter over the
wires E = effective
diameter
34
D = diameter of wires
h = height of wire center above the
pitch r = radius of wire
H = depth of thread
D = major diameter of the thread

Procedure: -
1. Prepare the Wires: The three wires should be of equal length and known diameter.
These wires are often referred to as "measurement wires."
The wires' diameter is usually chosen based on the thread pitch and the type of thread
(Unified, Metric, etc.). Look up appropriate wire sizes based on your thread's specifications.
2. Clean the Thread: Ensure that the external thread you're measuring is clean and free
from debris. Use a cleaning brush or compressed air to remove any dirt or particles.
3. Calculate the Constant: calculate the constant for your specific wire and thread
combination. This constant is used to correct the measured values and obtain the
actual pitch diameter. The formula for the constant is:
Constant = (D + d) / 2
Where:
D = Diameter of the thread's major diameter (outer diameter). d
= Average diameter of the three wires.
4. Prepare the Wires for Measurement: - Place the three wires in the thread's valleys,
evenly spaced around the circumference.
The wires should be tangent to the crests of the thread. This ensures that they are in contact
with the actual pitch diameter.
5. Measure Over Wire: - Use a thread micrometer or a caliper to measure the distance
across the tops of the three wires. This measurement is the over-wires dimension. Make
sure to measure at least two positions, preferably 90 degrees apart, to account for any out-
of- roundness in the thread.
6. Calculate Pitch Diameter: - Calculate the pitch diameter using the
formula: Pitch Diameter = Over-wires dimension - 2 * Constant
7. Repeat for Accuracy: To ensure accuracy, repeat the measurement process several
times, and calculate the average pitch diameter.

35
 8. Calculate Effective Diameter: The effective diameter of the external thread can
be calculated using the pitch diameter and the thread's pitch (P):
Effective Diameter = Pitch Diameter - P
Remember that the accuracy of your measurements depends on the precision of your
equipment, the care with which you place the wires, and the accuracy of the wire diameters
used in the calculation.

Observation Table: -
Table 6.1, for three wire method

S. MAIN CIRCULAR OVER WIRE CONSTA PITCH

NO. SCALE READING(C DIMENSIO DIME.=C-
SCALE NT (E)
READING ) N (D) D-
(A) READING (B) =(A+B*LC) 2*E
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
LC =

Calculation: -

36
Result: -
External thread diameter is mm.

Precautions: -
• Wire Diameter Accuracy: The accuracy of the measurement highly depends on
the accuracy of the wire diameters. Use high-quality wires with precisely known
diameters.
• Thread Alignment: Ensure the cylindrical object's thread is clean and
properly aligned with the measurement wires. Misalignment can lead to
inaccurate measurements.
• Wire Placement: The wires should be placed precisely tangent to the crest of
the thread without causing any deformation.

37
 Experiment - 7

Aim: -

To measure flatness and surface defects in the given test piece with the help of
monochromatic check light and optical flat.

Equipment: -

● Monochromatic check light

● Optical flat
● Tripod
● Spirit level
● Clean paper
● Magnifying glass (optional)

Theory: -

An optical flat is a precision-ground glass plate with a very flat surface. When a
monochromatic light is shone on an optical flat and the light is reflected off the top and
bottom surfaces of the flat, interference occurs. This interference creates a pattern of light and
dark bands called interference fringes. The spacing of the interference fringes is related to the
distance between the two surfaces of the optical flat.

Fig7.1:- Optical flats

The flatness of a test piece can be measured by placing the test piece on top of an optical flat
and observing the interference fringes. If the test piece is perfectly flat, the interference
fringes will be straight and parallel. If the test piece is not perfectly flat, the interference
fringes will be curved or unevenly spaced.

38
Surface defects in the test piece can also be identified by observing the interference fringes.
For example, scratches and pits will cause the interference fringes to be distorted. Used for
checking the flatness of flat surfaces. Designed by National Physical Laboratory Flatness is
compared with an optically flat surface (generally the base plate of the instrument) Radiations
from a mercury lamp pass through a green filter and then a pinhole (Wavelength is of the
order of 0.0005 mm). The pinhole is placed in the focal plane of a collimating lens resulting
in a parallel beam of light. This beam is directed on the gauge to be tested via an optical flat.
The fringes formed are viewed directly above by means of a thick glass plate semi-reflector
set at 45° to the optical axis. Interference fringes are formed between
- Rays reflected from the under surface of the optical flat and those reflected from the
surface of the gauge,
- Rays reflected from the under surface of the optical flat and those reflected from the base
plate.

Fig7.2: - N.P.L Flatness Interferometer and fringe

pattern

Procedure: -

1. Set up the monochromatic check light so that it is shining down on the test piece.
2. Place the optical flat on top of the test piece.
3. Adjust the position of the optical flat until the interference fringes are straight and
parallel.
4. Use the spirit level to make sure that the optical flat is level.
5. Observe the interference fringes carefully. Note the spacing of the fringes and
any surface defects that you can see.
6. If necessary, use a magnifying glass to get a closer look at the surface defects.
39
Observation table: -

Sr.no. Fringe pattern Yes or no

1. Slight rounding off at corners

2. Gauge surface
concave/convex

3. Surface of gauge inclined

to base plate

4. Gauge are flat and parallel

to base plate

Results: -

The flatness of the test piece is determined by the spacing of the interference fringes. The
smaller the fringe spacing, the flatter the test piece. The surface defects in the test piece can
also be identified by observing the interference fringes

Safety Precautions: -

1. Be careful not to scratch the optical flat.

2. Do not use the optical flat if it is dirty or damaged.
3. Wear safety glasses when working with the monochromatic check light.
4. Before using, it should be ensured that the workpiece and the flat are clean and free
from dirt, dust and oil.
5. Do not slide the optical flat around on the surface as this may scratch the flat.
6. The bands should be viewed from a distance of at least 10 times the diameter of
the optical flats.
7. Line of vision must be as nearly perpendicular to the flat as possible.

40
 EXPERIMENT 9
Aim: -

To Perform Chip reduction co-efficient during single point turning

Equipment: -Lathe Machine, Polyamide Shaft, Vernier.

Introduction: -

1. The Cutting-edge angle

The angle between the cutting face of a cutting tool and the surface of the work back of the tool
 Depth of Cut

The depth of cut is the distance that the tool bit moves into the work, usually measured in

Thousandths of an inch or millimeters. General machine practice is to use a depth of cut up to

five

Times the rate of feed, such as rough cutting stainless steel using a feed of 0.020 inches per
revolution

And a depth of cut of 0.100 inch. Which would reduce the diameter by 0.200 inch. If chatter
marks or Machine noise develops, reduce the depth of cut.
2. The uncut chip
Uncut chip thickness is comparable to cutting edge radius in micromachining, If the uncut
chip thickness is less than a
Eritical value, there will be no chip formation, This critical value is termed as minimum
uncut chip thickness.
 The cut chip
The chip thickness ratio is defined as the thickness of the metal before cutting to the thickness
of the
Metal after cutting. Chip thickness ratio or cuttings ratio is defined as the ratio of chip
thickness Before cutting to thickness after cutting

Procedure: -

 The density of WP material is 1.14 g/em

 Effect of cutting speed on the chip length. Moreover, with increase in feed rate (0) the
value of the Chip length also increased.
 W=0.4g
OBSERVATIONS TABLE: -

Result: -

Depth of cut =

F=

vc=

Tc = w/pwl
 EXPERIMENT: 11

Aim: - Force Measurement during Orthogonal Turning

Equipment: - Lathe machine, Workpiece material (e.g., aluminum, steel), Cutting tool,
Dynamometer, Data acquisition system, Safety equipment (goggles, gloves).

Theory: - Force measurement during orthogonal turning involves analyzing the cutting forces
acting on the tool and workpiece perpendicular to each other. The most common approach is
using dynamometers or force sensors attached to the lathe setup. The measured forces can be
related to the machining parameters, tool geometry, and material properties to develop a
theory for force prediction. This can help optimize cutting conditions and tool design for
improved machining efficiency and surface quality.

Fig.11.1 Dynamometer

Procedure: -

1. Wear appropriate safety gear.

2. Set up the lathe machine with the required tool holder and cutting tool.

3. Secure the workpiece material in the lathe chuck.

4. Mount the dynamometer on the lathe carriage using appropriate fixtures.

5. Calibrate the dynamometer as per the manufacturer's instructions to ensure

accurate force measurement.
6. Connect the dynamometer to the data acquisition system.
7. Configure the data acquisition software to record and display the cutting forces.
8. Choose a suitable cutting tool geometry and material based on the workpiece
material and machining conditions.

9. Select cutting parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut.

10. These parameters can be based on the material properties and desired
experimental conditions.

11. Start the lathe machine and allow it to reach the desired cutting speed.

12. Engage the cutting tool with the workpiece and begin the turning operation.

13. Record the cutting forces (axial and radial) displayed on the data acquisition system .

14. Ensure that the cutting conditions remain constant during the experiment.

15. Collect force data at regular intervals or time intervals, depending on the
experiment's design.

16. Ensure that the data collected includes cutting forces in both the axial and
radial directions.

17. Analyze the collected data to understand the relationship between cutting forces,
cutting parameters, and material behavior.

Observation table: -
S.NO. CUTTING FEED DEPTH Fc (N) Ft (N)
SPEED OF CUT
(MM/REV)
(M/MIN)
(MM)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
LC Calculation: -

Calculate the specific cutting force using the formula: Specific Cutting Force (Kc) = Cutting
Force / (Depth of Cut * Width of Cut).
RESULT: -

Radial Force (Ft): This force component acts perpendicular to the cutting direction. It
represents the force required to shear the material and is usually the highest of the three
components. As you increase the depth of cut or feed rate, Ft tends to increase.

Tangential Force (Fc): This force component acts along the cutting direction and is
responsible for moving the chip away from the workpiece. Fc increases with higher cutting
speeds and feed rates.

Axial Force (Ff): This force component acts in the direction of the tool's axis and is related to
the tool's penetration into the workpiece. Ff increases with greater depth of cut.

These force measurements can be analyzed to optimize cutting parameters for achieving
desired surface finish, tool life, and efficiency in the machining process. Researchers and
engineers use this data to develop cutting force models and improve machining strategies.

PRECAUTUION: -

Safety: Always wear appropriate safety gear, including safety goggles and clothing, when
working with machining equipment.

Machine Setup: Ensure that the lathe machine is properly set up and in good working
condition. Check for any loose parts or abnormalities.
Tool Condition: Use a sharp and properly aligned cutting tool. Dull or misaligned tools can
lead to inaccurate force measurements.

Data Accuracy: Calibrate the force sensor accurately before starting the experiment to ensure
precise measurements.

Stability: Ensure the workpiece and cutting tool are securely fixed in place to prevent
any vibrations or movement during machining, as this can affect force measurements.
 EXPERIMENT – 12

Aim: - To measure torque and thrust during drilling under various cutting conditions.

Equipment: -
-Drilling Machine
-Drills with various point angles
-Drilling Dynamometer

Theory: -
Cutting force in drilling:
While drilling, the dill is subjected to the action of the cutting force, which can be
conveniently resolved into three components.
A tangential force PZ, a radial force PY and on axial component PX, which is commonly
referred as the thrust force in drilling.
The torque acting on the drill is mainly constituted by the tangential force PZ. The radial
component PY on both the lips usually cancel out and are taken care by the rigidity of
the work piece and the drill.
The extrusion torque at the chisel edge is negligible & the torque acting on the drill is mainly
constituted by the tangential force PZ. The radial components PY are cancel out.

Fig. 5.1

Figure- 12.1
Construction: -
The test sample were fixed on the workpiece holder on the dynamometer, then the drill of a
given point angle is on the holder of the drilling machine.
Now the drilling machine drills on specimen and the thrust force and torque signals
obtained from the two-component drilling dynamometer are noted.

Figure- 12.2

Working: -
For measuring the torque and thrust during drilling, we first set a Drill of known diameter on
the mouth of the drilling machine and set a certain depth on the drilling machine. Now, we
start the operation of drilling on a specimen of know dimensions and measure the torque and
thrust using a dynamometer under different types of drills of different diameter and under
various depth of cut.

Now, the instrumented drill was mounted by four independent-jaws chucks, which were fixed
on dynamometer. The specimen was clamped firmly to the machine spindle using a special
fixture. The effect of drilling response with the machining time, which is a function of input
parameters (thickness, drill point angle, speed and feed) which help the dynamometer for the
analysis of output parameters (thrust force, torque, delamination and temperature).
Observation Table: -
Material= Dimensions= Diameter of drill= RPM=
Feed=

Sr. No. Drill Point Reading of Dynamometer Torque Thrust

Angle For Torque For Thrust (Kg-cm) (Kg-cm)
(x mm) (y mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Result: -
The torque is and thrust is under various drilling conditions.

Precaution: -
1. Fix the drill in jaws tightly.
2. Set the depth cut and rpm of drilling machine.
3. Don’t touch anything during the drilling operation.
4. Make ensure that specimens used are of same dimensions.
 EXPERIMENT NO. -14

Objective: - To measure the temperature at the chip-tool interface during turning

operations using a thermocouple.
Materials and Equipment: -
Lathe machine, Workpiece material (e.g., aluminum, steel), Cutting tool,
Thermocouple wire (Type K thermocouple is commonly used), Thermocouple
amplifier or data logger, Heat-resistant tape, Thermocouple junction welding
equipment, Safety equipment (gloves, goggles).
Theory: -
This method employed the use of emf produced between the hot contact of tool
and workpiece and their cold ends. It could ends of two are joined a small current
will flow which can be measured by voltmeter. The workpieces insulated from the
chuck and tail stock Centre. The end of work piece is contacted in which chuck
which is connected to copper wire through slipring fixed at for end of spindle
clipped in mercury cup. The connection is made through the Galvanometer to the
tail end of tool.

Fig.14.1 Tool Work Thermocouple

 Figure 14.2 digital thermometer with K type thermocouple

Mounting the Thermocouple: -

a. Attach the thermocouple wire to the cutting tool near the cutting-edge using
heat-resistant tape. Ensure that the junction is in direct contact with the tool.
b. Insulate the thermocouple wire from external heat sources as much as possible
to prevent false readings.

Turning Operations: -
a. Start the lathe machine and initiate the turning operation on the workpiece.
b. Monitor the temperature readings on the thermocouple amplifier or data
logger.
 Fig: 14.3 Source of heat generation during turning

Procedure: -
Use a thermocouple extension cable. Plug the K-type thermocouple probe into the
designated input of your digital thermometer. Turn on the thermometer and ensure
it is set to read the temperature in the appropriate unit (e.g., Celsius or
Fahrenheit). Place the chip tool in a stable position, ensuring that it is not moving
during the measurement. This can be a workbench or any other suitable surface.
Carefully position the tip of the K-type thermocouple probe at the point on the
chip tool where you want to measure the temperature. Ensure good contact
between the probe and the tool's surface. Let the thermocouple probe and chip
tool reach thermal equilibrium. This may take a few moments, depending on the
material and the environment. Once the temperature has stabilized, read the
temperature value displayed on the digital thermometer. Note down the
temperature reading
Data Collection: -
a. Record temperature data at regular intervals or continuously during the turning
process.
b. Pay attention to any fluctuations or trends in temperature as the cutting tool
interacts with the workpiece.
Analysis: -
a. After completing the turning operation, analyze the collected temperature data
to understand how temperature varies at the chip-tool interface during different
stages of the cutting process.
b. Note any temperature spikes, changes, or patterns and correlate them with
specific machining conditions.

Observation Table: -
Parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Cutting Speed
Depth of Cut
Feed Rate

Conclusion: -
Summarize the findings from the temperature measurements and their
implications for machining processes. This experiment can help you better
understand the thermal aspects of metal cutting and optimize machining
parameters for improved tool life and workpiece quality.

Safety Precautions: -
Remember to follow all safety guidelines and consult relevant machining literature
for further insights into chip-tool interface temperature measurement and its
significance in machining processes.
a. Handle the thermocouple and equipment with care to prevent damage or injury.
b. Be cautious of hot chips and ensure proper ventilation in the machining area.
 Experiment - 16

Aim: - To prepare a job using 3D printing

machine.

Equipment: - 3D printer, SD card, filament (Eg. PLA, ABS).

Theory: -

3D printing allows for rapid prototyping and onsite manufacturing of products. Initially
done with plastic, 3D printing now uses new techniques with new materials, such as
aluminum, bronze, and glass. Biomaterials are also being incorporated, such as 3D printing
ear cartilage and liver tissue. As the 3D printing industry grows, 3D printing will become a
big part of many engineering fields.

Introduction: - 3D printing allows for rapid prototyping and onsite manufacturing of

products.

Initially done with plastic, 3D printing now uses new techniques with new materials, such
as aluminum, bronze, and glass. Biomaterials are also being incorporated, such as 3D
printing ear cartilage and liver tissue. As the 3D printing industry grows, 3D printing will
become a big part of many engineering fields.

(A). components of 3D Printer:

1. Axes: -
Fixed Rods The three axes that the 3D
printer utilizes are on the Cartesian
coordinate system. The linear fixed
rods are maintained at right angles to
each other and each represents a
coordinate axis. Movement The
timing belts and pulleys allow the
movement of the hot end (or the print
bed, depending on the type of 3D
printer) along each axes according to
the g- code (generated by slicing
software). The stepper motors power
this movement.

Fig16.1: - 3d printer

2. Extruder: -
Extrusion is the feeding of filament into the hot end of the 3D printer. This movement is
also powered by a stepper motor. Retraction This mechanism is the pulling of the melted
filament from the hot end. This movement is primarily programmed through the g-code to
prevent the formation of unwanted filament creating a bridge between two areas.
The bridging of unwanted filament is referred to as stringing or the formation of cobwebs.
Dual Extrusion Some models of 3D printers are equipped with dual extrusion capabilities.
This allows for mixed material objects to be printed. Dual extrusion can used to print out
complex objects with a different colour material as the support, making it easy to
differentiate between the object and the support.

3. Hot End: -
The hot end is heated to temperatures ranging from 160 C to 250 C, depending on the type
of filament to be used. The hot end melts the filament and pushes the melted filament
through the nozzle. The hot end needs to be thermally insulated from the other components
of the 3D printer to prevent any damage.

4. Print Bed: -
Heated Print beds that are heated improve print quality of 3D printed objects. The heated
bed is heated to the glass transition temperature of the filament being used. This allows the
model layers to slightly melt and stick to the heated bed.
Non-Heated Print beds that are not heated require adhesion in the form of glue, tape,
hairspray, etc. In the innovation lab, painters tape is frequently used for adhesion.

5. Filament: -
Filament is a consumable used by the 3D printer to print layers. Filament comes in a
variety of materials and colors. Filament can be composed of metal, wood, clay,
biomaterials, carbon fiber, etc.

a). ABS: -
ABS is a thermoplastic that needs to be heated to temperatures from 210C to 250C. ABS
can only be printed on a 3D printer with a heated bed, which prevents the cracking of the
object. When ABS is heated, it emits a strong unpleasant odor. ABS requires a complete
enclosure while printing.

b). PLA: -
PLA is a thermoplastic that needs to be heated to temperatures from 160C to 220C. PLA is
also biodegradable and emits slight odors. PLA is most frequently used in the Innovation
Lab on all 3D printers

c). PAV: -
PVA is a water-soluble plastic that is frequently used for support in dual extrusion 3D
printers. The printed object is left in water where the PVA support is dissolved and the
finished object printed in the other filament remains.

(B). Applications of 3D Printer: -

Automotive, Medical, Engineering, Customize parts, Less transport, Freedom for design
Procedure: -

(A). Preparing your 3D Model in CAD Software: -

CAD software is used to create 3D models and designs. This software is available on our
computers and the level of difficulty varies. With the exception of Sketch up Pro and the
industry standard software mentioned, all of these programs are available on the
innovation lab computers.

Solid works main idea is user to create drawing directly in 3D or solid form. From this
solid user can assemble it directly on their workstation checking clashes and functionality
of it. Creating drawing is pretty easy just drag and drop the solid to drawing block.

(B). Preparing your 3D Model for print in Idea maker software: -

These are following step for 3D printing of model

1. Install the 3D print software idea maker

2. Check repair option in this software
3. Set the nozzle parameter and build tack temperature according to the printer guide

Step: -1 Prepare the design Model using Designing Software (Solids Work, AutoCAD

etc.)

Step: -2 Convert the designed Model file in Stl, obj format.

Step: -3 Prepare the design model for printing Using Software Idea Maker and Ultimaker.
Then set all parameter (nozzle temp., build task temp and support) and also repair your
design using software option. Then after generate the file in geode format

Step: -4 ON the 3D Printer and load the filament in nozzle and give the command print by
using 3D Printing Machine.

Result: - we received our 3D model.

Precaution of 3D Printer machine: -

These are some following precautions when you print the design in 3D Printer

1. Mechanical: Do not place limbs inside the build area while the nozzle is in motion. The
printer nozzle moves in order to create the object.

2. High Temperature: Do not touch the printer nozzle -it is heated to a high temperature
in order to melt the build material.

3. Always buy replacement parts from the manufacturer for safety related equipment

4. Choose an area that has adequate ventilation and exhaust capability

57
Safety Equipment: -

1. Safety Glasses
2. Gloves (recommended for post processing)