General Science and Ability (CSS/PMS) Contents • Endocrine Glands • Circulatory System • Digestive System • Excretory System • Central Nervous System Human Physiology
Physiology is the study of how the human body works. It describes the chemistry and physics behind basic body functions, from how molecules behave in cells to how systems of organs work together. It helps us understand what happens in a healthy body in everyday life and what goes wrong when someone gets sick. Glands Gland is a group of cells which secrete special chemicals called hormones. Types of Glands • Endocrine Gland: They secrete hormones directly into the blood stream for example thyroid gland • Exocrine Gland: They release their products onto body surfaces like the skin such as sweet glands, salivary glands Pancreas, Liver (Largest Gland in human body). Major Endocrine Glands • Pituitary Gland Thyroid Gland • Parathyroid Gland Adrenal Gland • Pancreas Gonads • Pineal Gland Major Endocrine Glands Major Endocrine Glands • Hypothalamus • It is a part of forebrain. It secretes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which are stored in the posterior part of pituitary gland. It controls all endocrine glands. • Pituitary Gland • Pituitary gland is very small (equal to the size of pea). It is also called master gland because it control the secretion of other glands. • It is divided into two sections an anterior (meaning front) and posterior (meaning back) • Hormones released from the anterior pituitary are • Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) • Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) • Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) • Luteinizing Hormone (LH) • Prolactin (PRL) • Growth Hormone (GH) • Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) • Hormones released from the posterior pituitary are • Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) • Oxytocin Major Endocrine Glands Thyroid Gland • It is in the centre of the neck, at the front, below the Adam’s Apple. It is made of two lobes joined in the centre. • It secretes major hormones- Thyroxin and Calcitonin • The body needs a substance called iodine which is found mainly in salt. Deficiency of iodine can lead to swelling of thyroid gland; a condition termed as Goiter Parathyroid Gland • These glands are present on the thyroid gland. These are 4 in numbers. Their secretion is called Para-thyroxin or Para-thormone. • It increases the concentration of Calcium ion in the blood. Major Endocrine Glands Adrenal Glands • Adrenal gland also known as suprarenal glands are yellow pyramid-shaped glands located at the top of the kidney. Each adrenal gland has 2 parts • Adrenal Medulla (inside) • Adrenal Cortex (outside) • Adrenal cortex secretes two hormones called Cortisol and Aldosterone. • Adrenal medulla secretes two important hormones named as Adrenalin and Nonadrelin. • These are released during fight, flight and fear. Major Endocrine Glands Pancreas • It is only gland in the body which acts as both exocrine and endocrine at the same time. It secretes two hormones, Insulin and Glucagon. • The effects of glucagon are opposite to those of Insulin. It raises the level of glucose in the blood while insulin reduces the level of glucose. Pineal Gland • The pineal gland is a small, pea-shaped gland in the brain. It produces Serotonin (Modulates sleep patterns), and Melatonin (Regulates melanin production in the body). Human Coordination System Nervous system is our body’s decision and communication center • It is made up of two parts • Central Nervous system: brain and spinal cord. • Peripheral nervous system: cranial and spinal nerves • Neuron • The structural and functional unit of nervous system. • Central Nervous System • Processing center of the nervous system • Receives information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous system • Brain and spinal cord are protected by three layers of connective tissues called meninges Neuron • Transmitters of message in the body. • Transmits electrochemical signal at the speed of 200 mph. • Three basic parts: • Cell body: have all cellular components • Axon: long cable that carries electric signal, Axons are covered with myelin sheets. • Dendrites: small branch like projections, they connect one neuron with the other or neuron with the environment. Types of Neuron • Sensory Neurons • Carry signals from outer body to CNS • Motor Neurons • Carry signals from CNS to the other parts of the body. • Inter Neurons • Carry information between motor and sensory neurons. Brain • Brain has three parts • Forebrain: The Thalamus, Limbic System, Cerebrum • Mid brain • Hind brain: cerebellum, pons and medulla. • Forebrain • The thalamus • It transfer sensory information to the limbic system. Sensory information includes auditory and visual information. It also transfer information from skin to limbic system. • Limbic system (Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Hippocampus) • Hypothalamus: It controls body temperature, endocrine activity, hunger (Metabolism), menstrual cycle, water balance (Thirst) and the sleep -wake cycle • Amygdala: It produces sensation of pleasure, punishment, feeling of fear and rage. • Hippocampus: it controls long term memory and is required for learning. • Cerebrum • It is the largest part of brain. It is divided into two halves, called hemisphere which are connected with each other through a band of neurons called Corpus Callosum. Left hemisphere controls right side of the body, while right hemisphere controls left side of the body. • Outer region of cerebrum is called cerebral cortex. It receives sensory information, processes them and stores them in memory for future use. It also controls voluntary movements and is responsible for thinking. • Midbrain • It connects forebrain with the hind brain. It contains reticular information, which is important in screening the input information. It contains relay center for auditory information. • Hindbrain • Medulla (It controls breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and swallowing) • Pons (It controls transitions between sleep and wakefulness) • Cerebellum (it is important in coordinating movements and maintaining position of the body. It is also involved in learning and memory storage.) The Spinal Cord
• Medulla oblongata narrows down into an oval shaped hollow cylinder, which is running through the vertebral column called spinal cord. • Extends from lower part of the brain down through spine. • Surrounded by cerebral spinal fluid that acts like a cushion’ • Various nerves branch out to the body. • 31 pairs of spinal nerves throughout the vertebral column Peripheral nervous system • Consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves • Sensory cells: carry messages to CNS • Motor cells: carry signal from CNS to internal organs. • Motor Cells are of two types: • Somatic motor nerve cells: carry message from the outer areas of the body. They are related with the senses of an individual. (Voluntary control) • Autonomic Motor nerve cells: they are of three types (Involuntary control) • Parasympathetic: slowing body functions • Sympathetic: increases body functions • Enteric division: involved with all the functions in Gastrointestinal areas, pancreas, gall bladder Excretory System • The system in which metabolic waste products are excreted out of the body is called excretory system. A pair of kidney is present for the excretion of metabolic waste products. • Structure of kidney • Each kidney is bean shaped. Its weight is less than 1% of the total weight of the body. In each kidney there is lighter outer region which is called cortex. The inner pale region is known as Medulla. There are cone shaped structure present in medulla which are known as pyramids. There is a funnel like space into which pyramids project, called Pelvis. Excretory System • Structure of Nephron • Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney. Nephrons are arranged along the both cortex and medulla region. There is a cup shape structure present at proximal end of each nephron called Bowman’s Capsule. From Bowman’s capsule there arises a long narrow tube, which is further divided into three parts • Convoluted part known as proximal tubule • Long U shaped part called Loop of Henle • Convoluted part known as Distal tubule. • Distal tubule opens into a duct called collecting duct. Afferent artery enters into the Bowman’s capsule and divide repeatedly to form a ball like structure Glomerulus. Walls of the Glomerulus are porous. From Glomerulus there arises efferent arteriole which forms a network of capillaries around the proximal, loop of Henle and distal tubule. Excretory System • Working of Nephron • Filtration • impure blood enter into Glomerulus through afferent arteriole in very high pressure, due to high pressure, impure blood get filtered in glomerulus and impure substances from impure blood passes the wall of glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. The substance which passes the wall of glomerulus and bowman’s capsule are called filtrate. Filtrate composed of glucose, salt, urea, vitamins and excess water. • Reabsorption • When filtrate goes to distal tubule, important substances from filtrate like glucose, vitamins and some salt get absorbed by blood through osmosis. • Secretion • The inner layer of the nephron also secretes nitrogenous waste products into the lumen of nephron. Circulatory System • The system in which gases are circulated throughout the body is called circulatory system. It consists of three parts, Blood, Blood Vessels, dan Heart. • Blood • Blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45% blood cells. • Plasma (8% Solid, 2% Gases, 90% Water) Circulatory System • Blood Vessels • Arteries: these carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. These carry blood from heart and distribute it to other parts of body. Blood pressure in arteries is more as compared to other blood vessels. • Veins: these carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins. These carry blood from body to heart. Blood pressure in veins is low as compared to arteries. • Capillaries: these carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Blood pressure in capillaries is least. The wall of capillaries is only one cell thick. Circulatory System (Human heart) • it is sac like pumping organ. It is enclosed in a double membrane sac called pericardial cavity. Heart is composed of special muscles called cardiac muscles. • Structure • There are 4 chambers of human heart. Two upper chambers, right and left are called atria which are thin walled. Two lower chambers are called ventricles which are thick walled. Right atrium and right ventricle are completely separated from left atrium and ventricle. The lub dub sound of the heart beating is the sound of the heart valves opening and closing • Circulation of Blood in the Heart Digestive System • The system in which breakdown of larger food particles to smaller absorbable food particles take place is called digestive system. • It consists of following parts • Oral cavity • Esophagus • Stomach • Small intestine • Pancreas • Liver • Large intestine Digestive System • Oral cavity (Mouth) • In oral cavity three structures are present, teeth, tongue, and salivary glands. • Teeth helps in grinding the food, tongue helps in mixing the food with the saliva of salivary glands. • Components of Saliva • Water: lubricates the food • Sodium bicarbonate: It helps to stabilize the PH of food. • Amylase enzyme: it acts on starch and glycogen and converts them into maltose. Chemical digestion of carbohydrates begins in the oral cavity. When food leaves the oral cavity then it is in the form of small ball like structure called bolus. This bolus then enters into the next part of digestive system called esophagus. • Esophagus • Esophagus is like a pipe which starts from the oral cavity and ends at the stomach. Its walls are composed of muscles. These muscles help in movement of the bolus from the esophagus. The movement of food from the esophagus and the whole digestive system is called Peristalsis Movement. • During peristalsis movement muscle squeezes just behind the bolus and push it forward. Digestive System • Stomach • The stomach muscle churn and mix the food with acids and enzymes, breaking it into much smaller digestible pieces. Glands in the stomach-lining produce about 2.8 liters of digestive juices each day. Gastric juice contains very strong acid HCl, digestive enzyme-pepsin. Acid attacks on microbes and kill them and helps in combustion of food. While pepsin acts on proteins and break them into smaller units. • Before the food leaves stomach it changes into semi-fluid like structure chyme, which enters into small intestine • Small Intestine • It has 3 parts, duodenum, jejunum, ILeum Digestive System • Duodenum • It is the first part of small intestine. When food enters into duodenum it causes the release of secretion from pancreas and liver. Both pancreas and liver pour their secretion directly into duodenum. Duodenum itself only secretes one enzyme called enterokinase which helps in the activation of trypsinogen into trypsin. • Jejunum • It is the second part of small intestine. Food is completely digested in jejunum. It contains 5 enzymes, which converts molecules into smaller parts The jejunum absorbs most of your nutrients. • Ileum • It is the third portion of small intestine. Absorption of foodalso take place In ileum. Internal surface of ileum has finger like projections called villi. Each villus is richly supplied with blood vessels, which absorb the food from ileum. Undigested food is not absorbed in ileum and is forward in large intestine. Digestive System • Large intestine • The large intestine forms an inverted U over the coil of the small intestine. It starts on the lower right hand side of the body and ends on the lower left hand side. • The large intestine serves important functions. • It absorbs water. • It dissolves salts from the residue passed on by the small intestine. • Bacteria in large intestine promote the breakdown of undigested material. • The large intestine moves its remaining contents towards the rectum.
