Antenna Technology in Wireless

Biometric Systems

Rafal Przesmycki(&), Marek Bugaj, and Marian Wnuk

Faculty of Electronics, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

{rafal.przesmycki,marek.bugaj,marian.wnuk}@wat.edu.pl

Abstract. The article presents basic medical research, as well as measuring

devices and methods used in these studies. Human life parameters, which can be
obtained after the examination, were also characterized.
The concept of a wireless biometric system consisting of a research module, a
central unit and an antenna is presented. The first two elements were described
theoretically while the antenna was developed in the CST Microwave Studio
program. It is a microstrip antenna working in the frequency range from
2.3 GHz to 2.8 GHz. The energy gain of the designed antenna is from 3 dBi to
3.8 dBi. The physical model of the antenna meets the assumption of using it in a
wireless biometric system.

Keywords: Microstrip antenna
EMC
Biometric system
CST
Wireless

1 Introduction

An active lifestyle is one of the most important features of every young person. Current
times have forced the society to accept “being fit”, even in some cases it can be said
about “fitocracy”. The fit culture is characterized by an appropriate choice of diet,
active lifestyle, and the use of pro-health prophylaxis. Is it possible to minimize the
time required to perform the necessary tests in health care? Can the only concept of
“prophylaxis” be included as an open collection of measures and activities that can
quickly and at an early stage detect dangerous diseases? These questions were the
reason for the creation of this article. The main goal of the article is to prepare and
present the concept of a biometric system that allows, in addition to measurements of
select-ed human life parameters, to be sent wirelessly to specialists and medical
facilities using unlicensed frequency bands [1].

2 Overview of the Measured Biomedical Quantities

of a Human

The functioning of the human body is based on efficient information transfer. They
must be transmitted not only inside the body, but also between the body and the
environment. The main medium of information is in this case an electrical impulse, and
its carrier ions distributed along cell membranes (mainly Na, K, Ca2). The phenomenon
of the flow of ions causing depolarization of the membrane can be easily compared to
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
T. Ahram (Ed.): AHFE 2019, AISC 965, pp. 467–479, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20454-9_47
468 R. Przesmycki et al.

the flow of electric current through a given medium, and thus all rights related to the
flow of electric current apply.

2.1 Electrocardiography (ECG)

Electrocardiography, as a diagnostic procedure used to detect heart disease, is con-
nected with the discovery at the beginning of the 19th century of a galvanometer,
which was used to measure small amounts of electric current. In a modern form, the
cardiographic study uses six unipolar precordial leads, allowing the measurement of
electric field differences in the horizontal plane. The cardiologist, as a person spe-
cializing in ECG tests, chooses the method of conducting the examination. By default,
it consists in laying the patient on the bed, placing the electrodes in certain places and
starting the electrocardiograph. The measurement itself can take from several seconds
to several minutes depending on the needs.
Another type of ECG is stress testing. The subject is placed on a specialized bike,
called a cycloergometer or on a treadmill with an adjustable angle of inclination and
speed. During the examination, the cardiologist gradually increases the load. The
results obtained can be used to determine cardiac output, detect arrhythmia and the
severity of coronary heart disease.
ECG examination, which is completely different from the previous two, is the
Holter method. The process consists in a 24-h diagnosis of the patient during his daily
life during exercise, work, during rest, as well as in stress and in sleep. In order to
measure the heart rate, the subject receives a device recording the electrocardiogram
(so-called Holter), together with the electrodes that are connected to his chest. The
apparatus allows recording anomalies occurring during the test [2].

2.2 Electroencephalography (EEG)

The EEG test aims to record bioelectrical activities of the human brain. It is used for
monitoring and diagnosis of epilepsy, sleep disorders, organic brain diseases, state-
ments of poisoning with neurotoxic substances and in the adjudication of coma or death
of the brain. It is a non-invasive method. It consists of placing nineteen electrodes
(eight for each hemisphere and three on the midline of the skull), which record changes
in the electrical potential resulting from brain activity. The voltage of currents with a
frequency varying between 0.5 Hz and 250 Hz, ranges from a few to several hundred
microvolts. Due to such a low value, in order to correctly read the results, an elec-
troencephalograph is used, amplifying the signal about a million times and registering
the potentials between the electrodes. The results are presented in the form of a graphic
printout. The device averages the activity of neurons located in the area of a given
electrode, instead of receiving an electrical impulse from one nerve cell [3, 4].

2.3 Electromyography (EMG)

Another type of research is electromyography (EMG) which consists in reading the
electrical signal generated during muscle action. This signal is read during controlled
and inert muscle contraction. The test is carried out to determine the muscles’ ability to
 Antenna Technology in Wireless Biometric Systems 469

work and to identify diseases of the peripheral nervous system. However, it is not
possible to obtain information on how much strength a muscle works with, how many
meat fibers have been used at work, etc.
The EMG examination can be carried out by choosing one of two methods -
clinically or kinesiologically. The division results mainly from the method of con-
ducting the research. In the clinical trial, needle electrodes are used, which are directly
inserted into the muscle belly (a large concentration of muscle fibers from which the
skeleton muscles are created). This method is considered the most accurate because of
the possibility of observation of the action of a single motor unit, observation of muscle
located in deeper layers and analysis of the work of a single muscle, thanks to which it
is possible to assess in depth the possible anomalous state. However, this involves the
requirement of sterility of the place where the test is carried out, which can usually be
obtained in a hospital setting. In addition, due to the interference in the abdomen of the
examined muscle, the presence of a doctor is necessary [5, 6].

2.4 Electroneurography (ENG)

The next examination consists in the examination of nerve conduction, during which
the activities of peripheral nerves, i.e. motor and sensory fibers, are evaluated in
relation to the measurement of responses to controlled electrical stimuli. Appropriate
surface electrodes on the skin of the patient are used, which transmits a current in the
range from 0 to 100 mA and 2 Hz with a duration of 0.2 ms.
This signal is conducted along a specific nerve to a different, remote point. Then the
measurement of the conduction velocity of the given electrical stimulus by the nerve is
performed. Thanks to this research, it is possible to locate damaged nerves, determine
the size of pathological changes, and also the type of their differentiation. During the
examination, two electrodes are connected to the patient: a stimulating one, located
above the stimulated and receiving muscles, which located on the stimulated muscle
registers the moment of receiving the signal. The time of the signal flow between the
electrodes is one of the parameters measured from the moment of applying the current
to the moment of muscle contraction. An additional feature is also the difference in the
distance between the two electrodes, the time of potential transfer in the nerve, the
amplitude of the response to stimulation and latency [5, 6].

2.5 Temperature Measurement

The temperature of the human body is of great importance in the medical aspect,
because it can indicate the condition of the subject. In addition, by taking regular
measurements you can take an appropriate medical treatment plan. The source of the
disease is the cause of the increase in body temperature, initiated by the immune
system. Human pyrroles appear in human blood circulation, which affect the ther-
moregulatory center located in the hypothalamus, changing the biological temperature
standard. Contrary to popular belief, there is no concept of “normal temperature” [7].
470 R. Przesmycki et al.

2.6 Blood Pressure Measurement

\For testing the pressure value a sphygmomanometer is used, generally called a blood
pressure meter, while using the auscultatory method. The classic sphygmomanometers
are made of a rubber band with an air chamber in the cuff, a pressure gauge and a
pressure pump. In order to test the pressure, the pressure should be reached in the cuff to
stop the blood flow in the artery, between the diastolic and systolic pressure. At the time
of contraction, the heart pours blood into the arteries at high speed. At this moment,
audible tones arise. Remembering the value at which the clatter appears (the so-called
1st phase of the Korot cycle), the systolic pressure value is obtained. The last value at
which to listen to the clatter (so-called V-phase Korotkov) is diastolic pressure [7].

3 An Overview of the Frequencies and Antennas Used

in Wireless Biometric Systems

The frequency selection for wireless biometric systems will be based on specific needs.
It is worth remembering that if the used frequency will be higher, the relatively smaller
will be the radio range. On the other hand, the higher the frequency, the greater its
availability and the possibility of booking. When selecting the frequency, it is also
worth paying attention to the available arrangement of channels. In the licensed bands,
channels with the following width are available: 3.5 MHz, 7 MHz, 14 MHz and
28 MHz. In unlicensed bands, the channel width is usually 20 MHz. Depending on the
modulation, the larger width of the channel usually means a higher bandwidth of the
radio system. The channels are available as simplex and duplex. If we get one 28 MHz
wide duplex channel, in reality we get 2 simplex channels with 28 MHz bandwidth, or
56 MHz spectrum. Simplex and duplex channels are associated with device operating
modes. On the duplex channel with the FDD mode, the transmission is carried out in
both directions simultaneously on different frequencies. The simplex channel is related
to the TDD mode, in which the reverse-side transmission takes place within one
frequency [8].
Wi-Fi networks and hardware use unlicensed frequencies. The most popular used
ranges are 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. The popular range, 2400.0–2483.5 MHz, is used by
Wi-Fi devices operating in 802.11 b/g/n standards, and used mainly in rooms. The
maximum radiated power can be 100 mW EIRP. The mentioned frequency range is
divided into 11 channels, of which 3 do not overlap. Frequency can be disturbed by
home electronic devices, including DECT wireless telephones and microwave ovens.
Wi-Fi devices must therefore accept harmful interference from other systems operating
at that frequency [8, 9].
Subsequent popular ranges that do not require a license are 5150–5350 MHz and
5470–5725 MHz In the first one it is allowed to work with a maximum power of
200 mW EIRP indoors. Devices should be equipped with DFS (Dynamic Frequency
Selection) system to ensure compatibility with radar systems. The similar range is
5470–5725 MHz, which allows you to work with 1 W EIRP. Devices operating in this
band should support the DFS mechanism, which allows dynamic selection of the
 Antenna Technology in Wireless Biometric Systems 471

channel (frequency) depending on the radio environment parameters. 5 GHz channels

are available mainly for equipment operating in 802.11a /n standards. There is a
significant number of non-overlapping channels here [8, 9].
In the case of a wireless biometric system, the proposed solution is to use the Wi-Fi
band. 2.4 GHz technology ensures transmission of information over long distances
(over 10 m) enabling data reading from objects moving at high speed (over 100 km/h),
which is impossible in LF and HF technologies. It is mainly used for identification,
registration of fast-moving objects - for example, management of the municipal
transport fleet, registration of the passage of railway wagons. The waves used by the
2.4 GHz frequency are longer, so they are better suited for traversing larger distances
or penetration through fixed objects such as walls. They are used by the Wi-Fi module
for communication in the b, g, n standard. This frequency is also used by the Bluetooth
module, which can be placed in the mobile device and is used to connect the mobile
device - mobile phone and mobile phone - portable devices. Wireless networks rely
primarily on the IEEE 802 standard. The 802.11 family includes three completely
independent protocols focusing on coding (a, b, g). The first widely accepted standard
was 802.11b, then 802.11a and 802.11g. The 802.11n standard is not officially
approved yet, but more and more network devices are compatible with this technology.
The 802.11n standard was approved in September 2009. It can work on 2.4 GHz
and 5 GHz frequencies. It allows reaching the maximum theoretical data transfer rate
up to 600 Mb/s. Its operating range has been extended to 50 m in the room and over
100 m in the open space [9].
The quality of the Wi-Fi network is largely determined by the antenna-radio
component, i.e. the physical side of communication. In the case of Wi-Fi networks in
relation to the wired network, i.e. Ethernet, we can talk about a significant regression of
parameters such as: reliability, performance and security - at least in the colloquial
reception of these parameters by users, as well as the majority of people responsible for
implementation and supervision over the network. The directionality of the antenna is
related to its gain, the gain is achieved by shaping the signal. A typical non-directional
antenna used in AP Wi-Fi has directivity at the level of 2–3 dBi [9].
Designing antennas in contact with the human body is extremely difficult. The first
of the problems an engineer encounters is the fact that the human body absorbs energy
from electromagnetic waves, transforming it into thermal energy (this phenomenon can
be observed during a long conversation over a mobile phone - a warming ear). This
results in the fact that when the antenna is placed near the human body, its performance
drops significantly. For example, if you design a wearable antenna and measure its
efficiency, which is −3 dB, when it is placed on the surface of the body, the efficiency
can drop even to −13 dB (5%). Another obstacle is the user’s convenience, and hence
the minimization of size and the creation of flexible structures. At the moment there are
several different antenna solutions available that allow achieving harmony between
efficiency and the above-mentioned difficulties. It means the following antennas:
wearable, microstrip, textile, EBG Woodpile, reconfigurable.
472 R. Przesmycki et al.

3.1 Wearable Antennas

Wearable antennas are not the only antennas whose purpose is related to the movement
of the object. An example of this type of antennas can be those used in the so-called
Smartwatches or GoPro cameras.
The first group is characterized by the fact that they have built-in Bluetooth
antennas. The other one has built-in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and GPS. It is worth noting that
wearable antennas are increasingly used in electronics. Their design requires knowl-
edge of electromagnetic properties, such as permeability and losses arising from
contact with textile material. The antenna in question is made of conductive material
such as Zelt, Flectron or polyester taffeta of pure copper. Such a material plays the role
of a radiating element, while silk, felt and nonwoven are non-conductive substrates
[10].

3.2 Microstrip Antennas

Microstrip antennas are characterized by a small mass, thin and planar structure, which
enables the construction of complex antenna systems. In addition, their shape can be
easily and accurately reproduced by means of a printed circuit. This results in low
production costs and easy repeatability. They occur in two structures: single-layer and
multi-layer. The microstrip antenna is made of metallic elements that have been milled
or etched in a conductive layer. The radiator and mass were placed on opposite sides of
the dielectric layer (Fig. 1) [10].

Fig. 1. A typical microstrip antenna design

3.3 Textile Antennas

Textile antennas (Fig. 2) are characterized by high flexibility and easy integration with
the dress. When designing the analyzed antenna, in addition to the design itself, it is
necessary to consider the impact of the material on which the antenna will be placed.
The principle of their operation and construction is not significantly different from
microstrip antennas.

3.4 Woodpile Antennas

Woodpile antennas are antennas with a structure resembling a pile of wood. They are
based on the material EBG (Electromagnetic Band Gap), also known as photonic crystals.
They give new possibilities to control and manipulate the flow of electromagnetic waves.
 Antenna Technology in Wireless Biometric Systems 473

Fig. 2. An example of a textile antenna

They are made of dielectric structures that are periodic in both one and more dimensions.
The complete EBG suppresses the propagation mode in all three dimensions and can only
be obtained in the three-dimensional (3-D) phallic crystal. EBG materials can provide
significant benefits for attenuation and control of radiation when using the antenna. Until
now, most studies have focused on one (1-D) and two-dimensional (2-D) EBG materials.
This was because of their simpler construction. However, due to the fact that this three-
dimensional EBG materials give the possibility of greater control of antenna radiation
properties, current research has been intensified and focused on them. Antennas based on
this technology are characterized by low height, low losses and low side lobes [10, 11]
(Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. 3-D structures Woodpile EBG: a. Elementary cell (left) and periodic structure of the
wood stack, b. Elementary cell and structure of a cylindrical stack of wood

3.5 Reconfigurable Antennas

Reconfigurable antennas are antennas capable of dynamically changing frequency and
radiation in a controlled and reversible manner. This type can perform frequency,
polarization or radiation pattern reconfigurability, allowing radio systems to meet
different communication standards and usage conditions. The term “reconfigurable
antenna” refers to a system consisting of an antenna connected to a signal processor
that attempts to adjust, e.g. radiation patterns, to select or isolate a usable signal.
Reconfigurable antennas can be classified depending on the parameter that is dynam-
ically corrected. Typically, this is the operating frequency, radiation pattern or polar-
ization [10].
474 R. Przesmycki et al.

4 The Concept of a Biometric System for Measuring Human

Life Parameters

The main goal of the biometric system is to create a measurement system that would
allow the measurements of human life functions. Thanks to this, it would be possible to
observe the vital parameters of the patient throughout the study period, outside the
medical facility. For this purpose, you can use a classic pulse meter, which after
measuring a given value, converts it from an analogue form to a digital form. Then,
with use of a microstrip antenna, it would be possible to send a signal to the central
unit, which would receive data, process it and save it. On the Fig. 4 the concept of the
entire biometric system is presented.

Fig. 4. The concept of a biometric system

In the further part of the article, individual components of the biometric system with
a detailed development of the design of the antenna designed for such a system were
briefly discussed. The measuring equipment and the central unit were described only
theoretically, while the antenna was developed in the CST Microwave Studio program
and presented along with simulations and measurements of its electrical parameters and
practical execution.

4.1 Measuring Equipment

In principle, the measuring device will use an automatic wrist blood pressure meter,
because it is the most mobile and the simplest of all available methods. The analyzed
module, due to its specificity, will be able to be used in two configurations:
– “on-body” in which the blood pressure monitor is always placed on the wrist of the
patient
– “off-body” when the patient is forced to remove the device. In this case, before
making the measurement, the portable unit will signal the sound along with the
message on the screen, the need to attach the module on the wrist.
Switching between configurations can be done automatically via the cuff fastener
sensor. When first turned on, communication with the mobile device will be established
in order to pair and download the measurement configuration. The measurement
configuration consists of:
– measurement frequency - how many minutes or hours to be measured
– measurement period - for how many minutes, hours or days to be measured
 Antenna Technology in Wireless Biometric Systems 475

– notification - how many seconds, minutes before the planned measurement, signal
the user the need to mount the device, volume and notification sound.

4.2 Central Device

The central unit will be located in the patient’s home and requires permanent con-
nection to the electricity grid and access to the Internet via Wi-Fi, ADSL or LAN. It is
equipped with a charging station for a portable device and separate microUSB cables
for charging each module. The device consists of a touch screen that allows access to
data, updating the configuration of modules, as well as logging in to a special patient
portal. Each central unit has an individual identification number assigned by the
internal system that allows the medical doctor to monitor the patient’s vital parameters
on an ongoing basis and to introduce changes in the configuration of the modules.

5 Antenna Design

A microstrip antenna has been designed for the presented biometric system, which
complements the measuring device and the central unit. This antenna sends the pro-
cessed information packet to the central unit. In order to design it, CST STUDIO
SUITE from Computer Simulation Technology was used [12].
As it was mentioned earlier, an antenna powered by a microstrip line was designed
to create the system. The antenna powered by a microstrip line thanks to the easy-to-
build structure settles the ability to control the fitting by changing the line connection
location. In addition, it has a low level of unwanted radiation (about −20 dB), a narrow
bandwidth and easier integration with electrical systems. The location of the radiator
and the supply line on the same ground can cause reciprocal coupling and uncontrolled
parameter changes. In addition, radiation from the antenna can interfere with electrical
systems. However, this is also an advantage from the point of view of antenna pro-
duction and the possibility of coupling with active systems. It is also impossible to
reconcile optimal substrate parameters for the radiator and the microstrip line. Due to
the efficiency of the antenna, it is desirable that the electrical permeability of the
substrate is as small as possible [12].
The designed antenna has dimensions 158 mm and 155 mm. The length of its screen
is 23 mm, width 29 mm. Due to the small size, it is possible to easily move and attach it
in different places. The bandwidth of the designed antenna is provided on the frequency
2.45 GHz. It will be possible to use it mainly in home systems in which Wi-Fi
connectivity operating on the 2.4–2.485 GHz band is used. This allows the entire
system to work at home. In the designed antenna the reflection coefficient on the desired
2.45 GHz band obtained the value of about −57 dB (Fig. 5), which is a very satisfactory
result and allows for successive work with the system.
Figure 6 shows a graph of the VSWR coefficient as a function of frequency. The
orange color presents the results of a computer simulation, while the blue color presents
the results of measurements of the physical model of the designed antenna. In the
designed antenna the value of the reflection coefficient, on the required frequency
2.45 GHz, is close to 1, and the determined operating range from the measurements
ranges from 2.2 GHz to 2.8 GHz.
476 R. Przesmycki et al.

Fig. 5. Antenna reflective losses

Fig. 6. Standing wave ratio in frequency function

The next parameter is the input impedance of the antenna, consisting of radiation
resistance and loss resistance. The first component is associated with the power radiated
by the antenna, and the second reflects thermal losses. As in the case of each resonant
circuit in the resonant frequency, the impedance has only the real part. The antenna
input reactance depends on its geometrical dimensions. Figure 7 shows the impedance
results for the designed antenna. The orange color presents the results of a computer
simulation, while the blue color presents the results of measurements of the physical
model of the designed antenna. In the assumed antenna work band it is about 50 Ώ for
the real part and about 0 Ώ for the imaginary part (Fig. 8).
The last determined parameter for the designed antenna is radiation pattern, from
which it is possible to determine the directional gain of the antenna. For the designed
antenna, the level of directional gain reaches the value of 3.86 dBi (Fig. 9). This is a
satisfactory result that will ensure proper functioning of the biometric system at home.
With regard to the shape of the radiation pattern of the antenna, it can be observed
that the designed antenna has an omni-directional radiation pattern (Fig. 10). Due to the
operating mode, it is recommended that the antenna sends data to the central unit in any
position.
 Antenna Technology in Wireless Biometric Systems 477

Fig. 7. The real part of the input impedance of antenna in the frequency function

Fig. 8. The imaginary part of the input impedance of antenna in the frequency function

Fig. 9. Radiation pattern of antenna in three-dimensional space (3D)

478 R. Przesmycki et al.

Fig. 10. Radiation pattern of antenna in polar coordinates

6 Conclusions

The main purpose of the article was to present the designed antenna and present its
parameters, which could be used as an element of the system to measure human
biometric quantities. The CST Microwave Studio program was used to prepare the
antenna design. The antenna will work in the Wi-Fi wireless band, in order to cooperate
with other devices connected to the home network. Based on available domestic and
foreign literature, and using the CST software, the antenna was designed and modelled.
It is an antenna powered by a microstrip line, operating in the range from 2.2 GHz
to 2.8 GHz. Its impedance is 50 X. Its main assumption was the ability to work on the
Wi-Fi band, which is used in most households. This will allow the patient to be
observed throughout the whole period without having to be in a medical ward. The
antenna has an omnidirectional characteristic; it can be used as an integral part of the
biometric system. Its task is to send a processed signal containing data about the subject
to the central unit, without the need for continuous synchronization between the
devices. Antenna gain is from 3 dBi to 3.8 dBi. The antenna made meets the
assumption of using it in a wireless biometric system. In the Wi-Fi band, the antenna
has satisfactory parameter values, small size and low weight.
The article analyses the research using the fact of the flow of electrical impulses in
the human body. This allowed to explore the knowledge used to check and monitor the
vital signs of a human being. In addition, it drew attention to problems that may arise
during the implementation of the practical part of the work. The further part of the
article presents the analysis of unlicensed frequency bands that can be used in biometric
systems. A strong accent was imposed on limitations and disturbances that may occur
during antenna operation in the home. In the following, the focus was on the proposed
solution, i.e. the Wi-Fi band. His work band as well as advantages and disadvantages
were described. Antennas that are used for this type of wireless communication and
radiation characteristics and phenomena that accompany them are presented.
 Antenna Technology in Wireless Biometric Systems 479

The article also presents the analysis of the type of antennas that are currently used
in biometry. Due to the absorption of energy coming from electromagnetic waves
through the human body, transformed into thermal energy, the design of antennas in
contact with the human body is a complicated undertaking. One of the problems is also
the comfort of the examined person, which forces the minimization of measuring
instruments and their flexible construction.

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