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A New Outlook
on health

Foreign Languages Press

Foreign Languages Press
Collection “Colorful Classics” #19 (English)
A collection directed by Christophe Kistler
Contact - [email protected]

Paris, 2020
ISBN: 978-2-491182-21-2

Printing:
• First printing : 100 copies

This book is under license Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International

(CC-BY-SA 4.0)
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
 Contents
Note from the Publisher 5

Introduction
The US Auto Industry’s Cyclical Crises 10
Healthcare Adopts the Car Industry’s 15
“Lean Management Principles”
Crisis of Consolidation and Overcapac- 22
ity in Healthcare
Why is the US in particular failing so 28
hard?
Healthcare in a Different Economic Sys- 30
tem
COVID-19 Unmasks the US Healthcare 34
System

A New Outlook on Health

Preface 39
1. The Fatal Illness of Medicine in Amer- 43
ica
2. The Medical-Industrial Complex 59
3. Only we can Change the Way it is 75
 Note from the Publisher

Note from the Publisher

When Foreign Languages Press decided to
republish A New Outlook on Health, it was well
before the beginning of the global COVID-19 pan-
demic at the end of 2019. Uncertain at first about
how to proceed given the urgency to confront the
concrete fallout from many of the same contradic-
tions described in the original 1975 pamphlet, we
decided to go ahead with it and do our best to give
some current context to this relevant text about
health and healthcare in the United States. With a
new introduction written by the Redspark Collec-
tive, we are republishing the entire pamphlet in its
original form with the addition of some detailed
footnotes. The footnotes include more current sta-
tistics and some updates about how healthcare and
the US economy has changed in the past forty plus
years.
We hope you find the text to be informative
and galvanizing in “understanding the world in
order to change it.”

5
 Introduction

Introduction
When this pamphlet was originally published
in 1975, its authors wrote:
We have the most advanced material base
of any society in history and the high-
est standard of living in the world. Our
technology enables us to produce goods
to satisfy any conceivable material wants.
Yet seven other societies have more doc-
tors per capita than we do. In thirteen
other countries pregnant women receive
better care. Life expectancy for males
in this country is shorter than in twen-
ty-one other countries.
This quote about the contrast between the US’
advanced capitalist economy and wealth and the
state of the health of its population is especially
stark at the time of the writing of this introduc-
tion. The COVID-19 global pandemic, which
started at the end of 2019 and began peaking in
the US at the end of April 2020, has stripped the
world of any illusions that the US could handle
the outbreak better than any other country—as
it was projected and as the Trump administration
boasted. As we send this book to press, the current
number of confirmed cases in the world is more
than 4.7 million and confirmed deaths is more
than 315,000 (although epidemiologists agree that
the real numbers for both statistics are orders of

7
A New Outlook on Health

magnitude higher). The US alone accounts for

almost a third of all of the cases and over a quar-
ter of the fatalities in the world, even though its
population is only 4.25% of the global population.
Reports of chaos in the medical system include:
• The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention refuse WHO test supplies
and then send out faulty tests across the
country;
• States fight to outbid each other and
the federal government for scarce medi-
cal supplies;
• COVID-19 hospitals allot nurses one
surgical mask per week;
• Hospital workers wear rain ponchos
and trash bags as surgical gowns and
bandanas as masks;
• The federal government gives Carte
Blanche to private corporations to
develop their own tests that are rushed
to market without regulation or regula-
tory agency approval leading to wildly
inaccurate results;
• Contradictory information about
which health insurance companies would
cover the cost of tests and treatment and
how much individual patients would be
responsible for;

8
 Introduction

• Elected officials call on the elderly to

sacrifice their lives to save the economy;
• Federal health agencies actively advise
the population that wearing masks is use-
less, then reverses course several weeks
later to advise everyone to wear face cov-
erings in public;
• Sick but uninsured people are turned
away at health clinics and hospitals only
to succumb to the illness at home;
• Bodies buried in mass graves because
hospital morgues can’t keep up with the
dead;
• The US president suggests that
COVID-19 could be eliminated by
beaming sunshine directly inside the
patient or injecting disinfectant into the
lungs.
These reports, and many more, are true.
When A New Outlook on Health was published,
hospitals were flush with money from federal grants
for expansion and modernization. Most Americans
were covered by the then-nonprofit Blue Cross
health insurance, and the method for hospitals to
maximize profits was extended inpatient care with
excessive testing. Today, on the other hand, the US
is facing a deadly pandemic with hospitals lacking
the most basic supplies like gloves, masks and dis-

9
A New Outlook on Health

infectant. How did we get here?

The answer to this question, as with most soci-
etal contradictions, lies in the path that capitalism
and imperialist expansion has charted and the
cyclical crises inherent in the capitalist mode of
production. As this introduction will outline, capi-
tal investment into healthcare made human health
a commodity. The medical industry followed the
example of the car industry’s methods to eliminate
“waste” to cut costs. And privatization eventually
led to a crisis of overcapacity in the medical indus-
try: private health insurance companies crowded
the market with a myriad of health plans; phar-
maceuticals churned out more and more expensive
medications; and private hospitals grew to fight for
a bigger share of the market. This expansion of cap-
ital into healthcare occurred while people increas-
ingly could not afford the insurance, the medica-
tions or the hospital services. To try to resolve this
growing crisis, the government used public money
to subsidize the private sector in order to increase
the number of “consumers.”
The US Auto Industry’s Cyclical Crises
In the US in the pre-deindustrialization 1970s
the union movement, although already under
attack and in a gradual decline, was still relatively
strong. In particular, the United Autoworkers
(UAW) held a lot of power in the years leading
up to the massive relocation of auto manufactur-

10
 Introduction

ing overseas. At that time, high school graduates

who went to work in car factories could still expect
to earn enough money to buy a house, a vacation
cabin and cars and send kids to college, work with
full healthcare benefits and retire with those same
benefits and a pension.
However, in the early to late 70s the US econ-
omy faced skyrocketing inflation brought on by
“cheap money” (low interest rates) to promote
short-term growth, and a nearly four-fold increase
in fuel prices when OPEC dared to flex its mus-
cle against US imperialist expansion in the Middle
East. US automobile corporations were faced with
a situation where Japanese carmakers produced
smaller, more fuel-efficient, more reliable and
cheaper cars, which began to challenge the market
domination of US carmakers. In contrast, US cars
were big, heavy, unreliable “gas-guzzlers,” made
with some of the most expensive factory labor in
the world. In the early 1900s Henry Ford faced
a similar situation when his workers were increas-
ingly unable to afford the cars that they produced.
He solved this contradiction by extracting more
surplus labor1 from the workers through assem-
1. Surplus value is a Marxist analysis of how worker labor is
exploited by bosses for profit. That is, the amount of money
that they are paid for their work is less than the amount of
money that what they produce is sold for (minus the capital
investment that an owner has to make for machinery and its
depreciation). The difference in value, the surplus value is
how owners make profit. The more surplus labor an employer
can extract from each worker, the higher the percentage of

11
A New Outlook on Health

bly line production. The result of the adoption of

assembly-line production was more cars, produced
cheaper and more quickly2—and at a much higher
rate of alienation to the worker.3
In the 1970s, at the time this pamphlet was writ-
ten, the automobile lobby had already succeeded
in securing federal backing for building highways
and quashing efforts to build public transporta-
tion, making car ownership a necessity in most
parts of the US. Car sales were fairly steady (until
the recession in the 1980s), but with Japanese car-
makers increasing their production and building
cheaper and more reliable cars, the US car indus-
try faced a growing problem: how to continue to
expand when the US market was already saturated,
and while the US industry was losing its market
dominance to the Japanese. Many began to move
their factories from the Midwest to the southern
states where workers were largely unorganized and
states had “Right to Work” laws.4
profit they can extract from that labor.
2. Ford’s Model-T dropped from $900 in 1910 ($24,453
in 2020 dollars) to $395 in 1920 ($5,098 in 2020 dollars).
While there were only about 500,000 cars on the street in
1910, in 1920 there were almost 26 million new car sales
alone.
3. The boredom and stress of working on the assembly line
doing the same repetitive labor every day for eight hours led
to “Blue Collar Blues” in the 70s. Absenteeism doubled in a
decade and workers and GM workers in Lordstown, Ohio
went on a 22-day strike against the relentlessness of the
assembly line.
4. “Right to Work” laws stipulate that unions are not allowed

12
 Introduction

With Ronald Reagan’s election in 1980 and

the subsequent “liberalization” of trade, the “pro-
tectionist” trade barriers that had advantaged US
carmakers came down. So too did the barriers to
the US auto industry’s ability to open maquilado-
ras5 across the Mexican border where environmen-
tal measures were lax, and most importantly, labor
was unorganized, not well regulated, and cost a
fraction of what it cost to pay a UAW member.
As they moved most manufacturing to Mexico,
US car makers also learned from its competition,
studying the Japanese manufacturing model called
“Lean Manufacturing,” developed by Taiichi Ohno
of the Toyota Corporation.
The Japanese manufacturing model came to
the forefront in the 1980s6 as part of the race to
make cars more quickly at lower costs, solving one
crisis, but eventually driving the industry to its
to negotiate contracts that require all members who benefit
from the contract to pay union dues. These laws are presented
as giving individuals the right to decide if they want to join
the union, and in reality are a way for employers to promote
disunity among the workers in an organized shop.
5. Maquiladoras are foreign-owned factories in Mexico
where cheap labor assembles duty/tariff free products for
export and consumption outside of the country
6. Japanese carmaker Toyota even tried to demonstrate the
superiority of its model on US soil, opening a joint venture
plant in Fremont, California with General Motors in 1984,
a unionized shop. Winning over shop leaders to the Toyota
way, the plant still faltered until it was shuttered in 2010.
Toyota went on to build several manufacturing plants in the
US, but none of them were ever unionized: organized work-
ers made production less “lean.”

13
A New Outlook on Health

next crisis of overcapacity.7 The bits of manufac-

turing that remained in the US out of convenience
because of its dependency on geographical location
or more specialized skills or machinery began to
employ “Lean Manufacturing Principles” to elim-
inate waste. The main “waste,” or cost that most
impacted their profit margin, was permanent,
unionized labor with health and retirement ben-
efits. With the ever-present threat of plant shut-
downs and relocation to Mexico, the UAW lost
its base and what remained of its already faltering
militancy.
Beginning in the early 2000s, the opening up
of the car market in China saved the car indus-
try’s overcapacity crisis; private car sales in China
went from 5.6 million to 27.6 million at its peak
in 2017. Domestically, easily approved auto loans8
helped drive the constant need for customers to
buy new cars. Americans owed more than $800
billion in car loans in 2007, which, in addition
to its crisis in overcapacity and the exponentially
larger bubble created by the same predatory and

7. Overcapacity is a crisis of capitalism. As imperialism

expands to try to conquer ever more markets, it must pro-
duce more and more goods at cheaper and cheaper costs to
out-compete others. This results in contradictions in the
industries like the car industry where manufacturers are
still trying to expand production when there are already too
many cars compared to the number of consumers.
8. Sub-prime loans both in cars and housing are loans given
to people with poor credit (or poorly demonstrated ability to
repay the loan) at high interest rates.

14
 Introduction

aggressive lending practices in the housing market,

led to the financial crisis and “Great Recession”
of 2008. Rather than letting the market “correct
itself,” as neoliberals always advocate, the federal
government handed $80.7 billion of public money
over to the auto industry. This money from the
State saved the carmakers from going out of busi-
ness but could not resolve the basic contradiction
of overcapacity. With the saturation of the Chinese
market, in 2020 overcapacity reached over 14 mil-
lion cars per year; more than 14 million new cars
are produced every year that cannot be sold. US
auto loan debt reached $1.3 trillion in 2019.
Healthcare Adopts the Car Industry’s “Lean
Management Principles”
What happened in the auto industry happened
across all manufacturing industries in the US and
in most imperialist nations.9 This changed both
the access that workers had to healthcare, as well
as their attitudes towards it. The number of union-
ized workers in the US plummeted (overall from
25.7% in 1975 to 10.3% in 2019 and in the pri-
vate section specifically from 25% to 6.2%), as did
the number of workers with employer-provided
healthcare benefits. In addition, to replace the tra-
ditional health plans formerly enjoyed by a more
unionized labor force, the Health Maintenance
9. In the 1980s Ronald Reagan in the US and Margaret
Thatcher in the UK coordinated efforts to push the neoliberal
agenda, decimating barriers to imperialist expansion.

15
A New Outlook on Health

Organization (HMO) Act was passed in 1973

during the Nixon administration. This legislation
funneled millions of dollars to help the private
healthcare industry start up HMOs. Significantly,
the Act also overwrote state laws that gave doctors
the final say in determining medical treating, turn-
ing that power over to the insurance companies.
Healthcare, once a full benefit to which work-
ers felt entitled, rapidly became a commodity
that workers needed more resources in order to
consume. With the decline of the manufacturing
industry rose the corporatization of the service
sector, with its irregular, low-skill, low-wage and
oftentimes immigrant-based workforce. Employ-
ers in the service sector that provided access to
health insurance were rare, and those that con-
tinued to provide access in any sector demanded
more “employee contributions” in the form of
monthly payments deducted directly from pay-
checks.10 HMOs normalized “copays”—low point-
of-service fees initially marketed as giving individ-
uals a financial stake in determining whether they
actually needed to seek medical care. The cost of
copays rose quickly, with higher fees required to
see specialists and take specialized tests such as CT
or MRI scans.11 Blue Cross Blue Shield, once the
10. It wasn’t until 2014, after the implementation of the
Affordable Care Act (ACA), that employers who employed
50 or more full-time employees were required to offer some
sort of health insurance plan to their workers.
11. In 2003 “deductibles” and “coinsurance” were legalized,

16
 Introduction

bastion of the traditional “Cadillac” healthcare

plans for organized labor that is referenced in the
New Outlook on Health pamphlet below, had its
non-profit status removed in 1986 because the
government deemed its purpose to be “commer-
cial” rather than “charitable.” Although it retained
some special provisions, it became a fully for-profit
corporation in 1994.12
Those without access to employer-based health
insurance were unable to buy health insurance on
their own unless they were extremely wealthy; this
left uninsured people with few options for medical
care apart from emergency room visits (although it
wasn’t until 1984 that it became illegal for emer-
gency departments to turn away people because of
lack of healthcare).13
giving insurance companies the opportunity to offer health
insurance plans that set a “deductible” amount that people
would pay out of pocket before the insurance plan started
paying anything, and “coinsurance,” which was a percentage
the patient was responsible for after their deductible was met.
For instance, if a plan’s deductible was $5000 a year with a
20% coinsurance, the patient would pay for all medical costs
up to $5000. Any costs after that first $5000 would be paid
by the insurer at 80% and the patient at 20%.
12. Blue Cross developed during the Great Depression in
the 1930s, at first as a collection of community or employ-
er-based benefit plans. When the American Health Associa-
tion stepped in with guidelines for those plans organized the
Blue Cross emblem, two of its tenets was that they should
stress “public welfare” and run as a non-profit.
13. Even those with employer-based healthcare plans were
not covered for “pre-existing conditions,” or medical condi-
tions that existed before they began their insurance coverage.
For instance, if a worker signed on to their health plan in

17
A New Outlook on Health

Hospitals faced a growing population of peo-

ple who could not seek treatment—who could
not buy their services—when they were sick. Most
people who ended up in the emergency depart-
ments incurring enormous bills they were unable
to pay in full in the end. They often had to declare
bankruptcy instead, which meant that hospitals
didn’t get paid.
These contradictions mirror the crises that
occur cyclically in other sectors as part of the cap-
italist economy. What has happened in health-
care in the US is a consequence of the relentless
advance of imperialism, the penetration of capital
into every sector of society. In this late stage of
imperialism, where capital is scouring the planet,
overturning every rock in every corner to find new
markets to expand into, the public sector in impe-
rialist countries has been its most recent solution.
Sectors that were formerly public domain such as
energy, water and transport were the first to be pri-
vatized. Then the onslaught began on education
and healthcare, turning students and patients into
consumers and commodifying the minds of young
people and human well-being. Vital to this process
was changing the discourse from the logic of “the
public good” to the logic of “profit and loss.” In
the last few decades, the notion that school dis-
2000 and was subsequently diagnosed with stomach cancer,
their insurance company could deny payment by collecting
“evidence” that the cancer had already occurred before the
first date of coverage.

18
 Introduction

tricts and hospitals should perform financially just

as any other corporate business became “common
sense.” Profit and loss became the measure of the
success and failure of something as fundamental as
the development of young minds and caring for
the sick and aged.
To support its continued expansion and search
for more profit, the medical industry needed more
customers to buy more of its products. With differ-
ent market forces jockeying to make money off of
the healthcare sector in a new neoliberal era, prof-
it-making became more complicated. Hospitals,
health insurers, pharmaceuticals all competed for
more healthcare dollars. At the same time, fewer
people had the ability to pay for all of the costs
associated with getting sick. With the increased
competition and as sick people could less afford to
buy their products (just as autoworkers in Ford’s
time couldn’t afford to buy the cars they made),
hospitals followed the example of the car industry:
eliminate waste to extract greater profits.
In 2007 the “Global Lean Healthcare Summit”
was convened in the UK. According to its promo-
tional material, “The event sold out with 320 peo-
ple (over half from hospitals) attending from 147
organizations from the UK, Ireland, Denmark,
Norway, Sweden, Netherlands, Belgium, Ger-
many, Italy, Spain, Turkey, Poland, Switzerland,
France, USA, Canada, Brazil, India, South Africa,
Singapore, Australia and New Zealand.”

19
A New Outlook on Health

This summit introduced the concept of trans-

planting the principles of “Lean Management,”
developed by Toyota’s Taiichi Ohno, who was
inspired by observing customer behavior and
inventory methods in supermarkets, to the health-
care sector. The application of “Lean Principles” in
the auto industry helped carmakers resolve some of
the contradictions it faced to expand and increase
their profits. Now the healthcare industry looked
to the same solution to extract increasing profits
when medical treatments had become too expen-
sive for sick people to afford.
With presentations from think-tanks, busi-
ness schools, supermarket chains, hospitals and
medical conglomerates all extolling the virtues of
“Lean Healthcare Principles,” the forum foretold
the health industry’s wholesale buy-in of the con-
cept. The call was for a new management style, but
also to minimize waste: waste in hospital beds and
other infrastructure, waste in supplies, and most
importantly, waste in labor. By eliminating waste,
hospitals began to create scarcity. During the pre-
vious stage of capitalism, hospitals grew profits by
bringing patients in and keeping them in; the new
practice was to maximize profit by cutting costs.
Hospitals that were unable to compete by strip-
ping down their costs—such as the many run by
religious orders—were forced to close. In 1975,
there were 7156 hospitals in the US. By 2010,
there were only 4985.

20
 Introduction

In implementing “Lean Principles,” the hos-

pitals realized that it saved them money if there
were patients waiting in the hallway for beds at all
times, rather than having a few empty beds and
no wait for transfer from the emergency depart-
ment. It saved money to order supplies frequently
rather than build large stockrooms to store and
staff to manage them. It saved money when they
hired fewer nurses to care for more patients and
filled some of the gaps with low-wage, low-skill,
non-unionized nurses’ aides.
A key part of “Lean Manufacturing” is “just-in-
time inventory management.” It involves reorder-
ing the entire manufacturing supply chain. Rather
than produce car parts locally and store them in
giant warehouses awaiting orders, production of
parts shifted to anywhere in the world where it
was the cheapest and then shipped to the plant
on demand, where they were assembled “just in
time.” This method cut costs from infrastructure
for storage, but most of the “savings” came from
cuts to labor costs. The repackaging of imperial-
ism into the concept of “globalization” meant that
neoliberal policies removed barriers so that corpo-
rations could access the cheapest labor and natural
resources for their production needs.
This brings us full circle to the 2019 COVID-19
pandemic and why the medical staff in one of the
most technologically advanced medical systems in
the world are wearing rain ponchos instead of sur-

21
A New Outlook on Health

gical gowns and bandanas instead of masks. “Just-

in-time inventory management” during ordinary
times might cut some costs at hospitals. During a
pandemic, it has proven to be fatal.
Crisis of Consolidation and Overcapacity in
Healthcare
Simply eliminating waste to increase profits
is not enough to survive in a capitalist economy.
Companies that do not grow and out-compete
others in the market to generate more returns for
its investors go out of business. In the auto indus-
try, in addition to eliminating “waste” by moving
manufacturing overseas, practicing just-in-time
inventory management, and gutting unionized
labor, US carmakers increased production to try to
fight off growing dominance of the Japanese car-
makers—which increased their production expo-
nentially and led to the crisis of overcapacity in the
industry. The healthcare industry, too, followed a
similar pattern.
In 1973, at the time of the passage of the HMO
Act, there were only about 30 private companies
offering HMO plans. In 1975 there were 183 and
by 1986 there were 400. Mergers and acquisitions
are essential business strategies to any major corpo-
ration in capitalist society in order to try to dom-
inate the market. By squeezing out competitors,
corporations can be better positioned to dictate
terms to consumers, including pricing and stan-

22
 Introduction

dards. After Blue Cross became for-profit in 1994,

private companies moved to consolidate their
assets to dominate the market through acquiring
and merging with struggling Blue Cross affiliates
and other companies.
But many Americans were uninsured. In 2009,
in the midst of the last Great Recession, health
insurance companies increased their profit by
56% by raising the cost of premiums, (especially
for people who were the sickest and therefore cost
them the most money) co-pays and deductibles.
As a result, 2.7 million people lost their private
health insurance coverage. By 2010, 46.5 mil-
lion people lacked health insurance—a number
that continued to increase every year. While the
American people identified their growing inability
to afford to be sick as a crisis in healthcare, the
medical industry identified it as a crisis of capital.
The consolidation of the health insurance industry
coupled with the consolidation of hospital systems
meant that both payers and providers reached what
(bourgeois) economists term “bilateral monopo-
lies,” or a stalemate where neither side could go
to other competitors to leverage lower or higher
payments.14 Without more overall consumption
of its commodities, that is, without increasing the
14. In many smaller “markets,” the one large insurer would
be forced to negotiate prices with the one large hospital sys-
tem; each monopoly unable to pressure the other to raise
payments or lower fees because of the lack of competi-
tion.

23
A New Outlook on Health

number of sick people who could buy insurance

and medical intervention, the capital investment
in the industry was at risk.
Enter the Affordable Care Act (ACA, also
known as “Obamacare”) of 2010. Subtler than
Obama’s $80 billion bailout of the car industry,
it was marketed as the solution to the healthcare
crisis faced by Americans. In reality, the ACA was
actually a public subsidy to the private health
insurance industry. It required every person to buy
health insurance through a “Healthcare Market-
place” of private vendors if they weren’t insured
through their employers. Those who refused were
made to pay a penalty (until it was eliminated in
2019).15
At its peak in 2016 the ACA enrolled about
12.7 million people through the Marketplace.
Those 12.7 million people became monthly pre-
mium paying consumers of private health insur-
ance plans. Through its various other provisions,
including the expansion of Medicaid (for the
poor), the total numbers of uninsured people in
the US decreased from 46.5 million in 2010 to 27
million in 2016.16 The expansion of Medicaid was
15. The penalty, known as the “Individual Mandate” was
$695 per adult and $347.50 per child in 2016 (with a
maximum of $2,085 for a family), or 2.5% of total income,
whichever was greater.
16. In 2018, the number of uninsured climbed to 28.6
million. Numbers are rising because health insurance pre-
miums and copays/deductibles are going up as compared to
the “Individual Mandate” penalty. Figures are projected to

24
 Introduction

also a boon for private healthcare insurers; more

than two-thirds of Medicaid recipients received
care through federally funded but privately owned
managed care plans. Altogether, in 2016 the ACA
facilitated the introduction of more than 21.5
million people as new and regular consumers of
private health insurance. This helped fuel another
cycle of capital expansion in healthcare. Now in
2020, there are over 900 different private health
insurance companies. Similarly, in 2020, the num-
ber of US hospitals increased by 1,161. In addi-
tion to an overall increase, between 2013 and 2017
almost 20% of all of the country’s hospitals were
acquired or merged with another hospital. For-
profit hospitals as a percentage of total hospitals
grew almost 10% between 2000 and 2018.
In a broader sense, the passage of the ACA was
the federal government’s use of public money to
help solve both the consolidation and overcapacity
crises brought by private capital investment in the
medical industry.17
be higher still in 2019-220 because of the elimination of the
mandate.
17. Johnathon Gruber, an MIT professor of economics
and the director of the Healthcare Program at the National
Bureau of Economic Research, was a major advisor to the
Obama administration on the ACA. He has been a staunch
advocate for the funneling of public money to private corpo-
rations for medical research, which he claims would “jump-
start” the economy by creating jobs. His “new” theory is
actually a re-hashing of the same theory that in the Reagan
Era was called “Trickle-down Economics”: giving public
money to rich people and corporations will trickle down to

25
A New Outlook on Health

Unsurprisingly, neither the HMO Act of 1973,

nor the ACA of 2010 actually did what they were
marketed to the “public” to do: lower healthcare
costs for the individual or the State. By 2019 indi-
viduals with employer-sponsored health insur-
ance actually paid an average of $3673 more per
year than before the ACA was signed. The average
monthly cost for individuals unsubsidized ACA
plans grew to $448 a month from $393 in 2013
(the first year the ACA took effect).
In 2019 federally subsidized ACA plans aver-
aged $593 a month with a $514 a month sub-
sidy and a total of $62 billion in federal subsidies
went to private health insurance companies in the
Healthcare Marketplace. In fact, the Congressional
Budget Office reported that in 2018, the federal
government spent more per person in subsidies to
ACA ($6,300 per subsidized adult) than on Med-
icaid ($4,230); such figures make unconvincing
the claims that a “single payer,” federally managed
healthcare system would be too expensive.
Overall, total healthcare spending in the US is
expected to exceed $4 trillion in 2020—up from
$3.6 trillion in 2019. (34% of that $4 trillion goes
to administrative costs. That is, $1.36 trillion goes
to non-medical management of healthcare.) This
represents a more than six-fold increase from 1975

poor people through job creation and bolstering the econ-

omy. This theory, or rather, propaganda, has been irrefutably
disproven, yet continues to be recycled.

26
 Introduction

after factoring for inflation. Health insurance com-

panies alone took in $23.4 billion in 2018 with a
profit margin of 3.3%. This level of penetration of
capital into healthcare would not have been possi-
ble without the State subsidizing the private sector
to increase the number of consumers. The contra-
dictions inherent in the healthcare sector over the
last several decades clearly and logically follow the
path of other sectors—like the automobile sec-
tor—under neoliberalism. But when we factor in
the idea that human health is qualitatively differ-
ent from spark plugs or headlights, the contradic-
tions become absurd.
Innovations such as “Lean Manufacturing” and
the Healthcare Marketplace were and are created
to solve problems of capital. And capitalism has
proven to be nothing if not creative in the way it
solves its crises, by shifting the burden of those cri-
ses to the poor in order to continue to extract more
surplus value from workers and more resources
from the planet to make more profit. At times,
capitalism’s drive for profit may overlap with meet-
ing the needs of society and the environment —as
in the case of the creation of the public education
system to prepare an educated and disciplined
workforce. Most of the time, the overlap is inci-
dental—as in the case of some new medications
that actually cure diseases while they make its
manufacturer a bunch of money. But we must not
be confused about its purpose.

27
A New Outlook on Health

The overarching purpose of healthcare in capi-

talist society is not to care for health. If we confuse
this capitalist project as caring for the well-being of
humans, we will be confused about how to effec-
tively confront these contradictions. “Lean Princi-
ples in Healthcare” and the ACA were innovative
solutions to capital’s problem of shrinking prof-
its in the medical industry at a time when capi-
tal necessitated expansion. Before the onset of the
COVID-19 pandemic, a less than a decade after
the ACA went into effect, the healthcare industry
faced the same contradictions in a different phase
of its cycle; after a brief cycle of new hospital and
health insurance growth, we were seeing growing
consolidation and a decrease in its consumer base,
or people without insurance.
Now, in the midst of the COVID-19 pan-
demic, hospitals and insurers are concerned more
with projections of “catastrophic” losses in terms
of profits rather than human lives. In its aftermath,
these capitalist business ventures will again require
a massive bailout from the government with public
funds to solve their crisis.
Why is the US in Particular Failing so Hard?
When “public” is no more—when all of the sec-
tors that used to be considered public (education,
transport, energy, public safety, ambulances, pris-
ons, hospitals, government) have been or are in the
process of being privatized—public health no lon-

28
 Introduction

ger exists, either in concept/culture or infrastruc-

ture. Fighting and containing pandemics require
both a conceptual understanding of the “public”
by the masses and a public infrastructure driven by
public welfare rather than profit motive. The US
has very little remaining of either.
The myth of “individual” freedom in the US
has achieved a level of unquestioned primacy. Few
people will act for the public good until they are
directly affected—which is why social distancing
and mask wearing were largely disregarded until
transmission rates were so high that it was difficult
to find someone who didn’t personally know some-
one who had contracted COVID-19. Some of the
most advanced medical centers in the world reside
in the US, yet none of them were adequately pre-
pared to handle the onslaught of COVID-19 cases,
even with several months to prepare. Very few hos-
pital administrators were able or willing to spend
the time and resources to prepare for the coming
pandemic, because they have been so habituated to
the logic of short-term capital demands.
Each state, each region, each county, each city,
each hospital, each hospital unit is operating as a
separate entity from the whole. When several state
governors on the West and East coasts banded
together to form pacts to avoid competing with
one another and coordinate the reopening of their
economies, it seemed a novel and refreshing idea.
(A columnist from The New Yorker satirically sug-

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Ein einzelnes etwas beschädigtes ♀ von Ussandaui
gehört wahrscheinlich einer unbeschriebenen Art bei
Molomo Trim. und Damarensis Trim. (Proc. Z. S. 1891, p.
90, pl. IX., Fig. 17 ♂ ) an. Die gelbbraune Oberseite
entbehrt bis auf eine sehr schmale Saumbinde jeder
schwärzlichen Zeichnung. Die Hntfl. zeigen nach der
Mitte des Vorderrandes einen gerundeten schwärzlichen
Flecken. Die Unterseite scheint gut mit jener von
Damarensis übereinzustimmen. Exp. 30 mm.
153. Chrysophanus Perion Cr.
Je ein einzelnes ♂ von Mangati und Uha.
154. Alaena Caissa n o b . nov. sp.
Ein Pärchen einer Alaena Art, wovon namentlich das ♂
sehr gut erhalten ist, wurde im Hügellande bei Ngoroïne
in circa 1500 m Seehöhe im Mai 1892 erbeutet, und lässt
sich mit keiner der sechs bisher bekannt gemachten
Alaena Species[33] vereinen.
Die Vrdfl. gestreckt, beim kleineren ♂ mit schärferer
Spitze und schrägerem Saume. Grundfarbe aller Flügel
schwarzgrau. Zeichnung weiss. Letztere besteht auf den
Vrdfl. in drei hintereinander liegenden Flecken der
Mittelzelle, wovon der Basis zunächst befindliche
keilförmig gestaltet und undeutlich ist, wogegen die
beiden folgenden gerundet sind, und der an die Querader
stossende Fleck am grössten und hellsten erscheint.
Ferner tritt hinter der Mitte eine schmale, stark
geschwungene Querbinde auf, welche wurzelwärts
scharf begrenzt erscheint und überall durch die Adern
schwarz durchschnitten wird. Sie tritt zwischen dem
letzten Subcostalaste und den Radialästen am stärksten
saumwärts vor, geht hierauf zwischen den Medianästen,
wo sie breiter wird, wieder stark wurzelwärts zurück und
reicht gegen den Innenrand zu nur bis zur Dorsale.
Auf den Hntfl. ist nur eine weisse Mittelquerbinde
vorhanden, welche dem Saume parallel verläuft,
zwischen den Radialästen am breitesten ist, wurzelwärts
sich in getrennte kleinere Flecken auflöst und gegen den
Vorderrand (beim ♂ ) nur bis zum ersten Subcostalaste
reicht.
Das grössere ♀ zeigt auf der Oberseite eine etwas
blassere Grundfarbe als das ♂, so dass gegen den Saum
zu die helle Fleckenzeichnung der Unterseite
durchscheint.
Die helle Unterseite ist durch eine sehr nahe dem Saum
der Vrdfl. verlaufende schwärzliche Querlinie und durch
die fast gleichmässig gewürfelt erscheinenden Hntfl. des
♀ sehr ausgezeichnet.
Beim ♂ ist auf den Vrdfl. der Vorderrand, die Mittelzelle,
sowie ein unbestimmter Raum nach derselben (jedoch
nicht der Apicaltheil), sowie eine Mittelbinde der Hntfl.
gelblich. Beim ♀ bleibt die Grundfarbe der Unterseite
weiss.
Auf den Vrdfl. reiht sich an die drei weissen Flecken der
Mittelzelle nach aussen zu noch ein vierter, gleichmässig
schwarz umzogener Fleck an. Gegen Vorderrand und
Saum zu sind die Rippen schwarz angelegt, unter der
Spitze zieht sehr nahe und parallel dem Saume eine
feine schwärzliche Querlinie, welche beim ♂ bereits auf
der Mediana endigt, beim ♀ aber bis gegen den
Innenrand deutlich bleibt. An der Basis der Hntfl. liegen
drei Reihen unregelmässig geformter Würfelflecken, und
vor dem Saume eine Doppelreihe solcher Flecken. Der
schmale Raum zwischen Basal- und Saumflecken ist nur
beim ♂ gelb ausgefüllt, bleibt jedoch beim ♀, welches die
schwarze Zeichnung der Unterseite breiter zeigt, weiss.
— Franzen weiss, auf den Rippenenden schwarz
 gefleckt. Körper und Fühler schwärzlich, letztere auf der
Unterseite mit weisslichen Fleckchen. Die Palpen, Beine,
sowie die Bauchseite des weisslich geringten
Hinterleibes sind rostgelb. Ebenso gefärbt sind auch
einige abstehende Haare im Nacken. — Vrdfllänge des ♂
13,5, ♀ fast 16, Exp. 26 respektive 30 mm.
Caissa unterscheidet sich wohl von sämmtlichen
vorerwähnten Alaena-Arten durch die geringe Breite der
weissen Mittelquerbinde. Die auch sonst entfernter
stehenden Amazoula B. und Hauttecœuri Oberth. sind
überdies im männlichen Geschlechte bräunlich gefärbt;
Nyassa Hew. hat ungescheckte Franzen. Interposita Butl.
und Major Oberth. sind grösser, erstere zeigt auch noch
helle Flecken im Saumfeld.
Am nächsten vorliegender Art kommt jedenfalls die nur
sehr mangelhaft beschriebene Johanna Sharpe, bei
welcher über das Aussehen der Unterseite und über das
Geschlecht der Type kein Wort erwähnt ist. Caissa
scheint sich auch von dieser Art durch die drei weissen
Flecken (statt einer weissen Linie) der Mittelzelle der
Vrdfl., und durch noch schmälere Mittelbinde, welche sich
hier im Discus der Hntfl. erweitert, zu unterscheiden.
Sowohl Trimen [South Afric. Butterfl. II. (1887) p. 222] als
auch Schatz (Famil. und Gatt. der Tagf. p. 280, Taf. 50)
weisen auf Grund selbstständig vorgenommener
Untersuchungen dem Genus Alaena B. die Stellung in
der Familie der Lycaeniden an.

Hesperidae.

155. Pyrgus Diomus Hp ff r.

Drei Exemplare von Sogonoi und Usinja.
156. Pamphila Mathias F., Pagenst. l. c. p. 31, N. 71.
 Einige Exemplare von Usukuma, Simangiro und Umba
Nyika.
157. Ismene Forestan Cr. Pagenst l. c. p. 31, N. 73; Karsch
l. c. p. 265, N. 217.
Nur ein Exemplar (♂) von Serengeti.
158. Ismene Pisistratus F. Karsch l. c. p. 266, N. 218.
Je ein Exemplar von Usukuma und Katoto.
159. Ismene Anchises G e r st.
Nur drei Stücke aus der Kiwayasteppe und von Iraku.
160. Oxynetra Zambesiaca We stw.
Nur ein Exemplar von Ussui.
161. Pterygospidea Morosa Rg h fr. Ann. des k. k. naturhist.
Hofmus. 1891, p. 463; Djaelalae Pagenst. l. c. p. 31, N.
72.
Nur ein Exemplar von N. Urundi, mit der Type
übereinstimmend. Nach den kurzen Angaben über die
Unterseite bezieht sich Pagenstecher's Citat für Djaelalae
auf diese Art.
162. Pterygospidea Jamesoni Sh a r p e . Ann. a. Mag. N. H. 6
ser Vol. VI, p. 348 (1890); Trim. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
1891, p. 106, Pl. IX, Fig. 25.
Drei ganz mit der citirten Abbildung übereinstimmende
Exemplare von Unyamwesi.
163. Abantis Amneris nob., n. sp.
Eine Reihe von Stücken beiderlei Geschlechts einer
Abantis-Art aus der Kiwayasteppe und von Umbugwe
hielten wir wegen der rein weissen Grundfarbe der nur
schwarz gesäumten Flügel zu Levubu Wallgr. (Trim.
South Afr. B. III, p. 345, pl. XII, Fig. 5) gehörig. Eine
nähere Untersuchung ergab jedoch, dass hier eine
andere, der Levubu allerdings sehr nahestehende Art
vorliege, zu deren Kenntlichmachung es nur der Angabe
der unterscheidenden Merkmale bedarf.
 Flügelspannung 35 mm. Der Grund aller Flügel ist auf
Ober- und Unterseite rein weiss, ohne die schwarzen
Adern von Levubu, nur die Submediana der Hinterflügel
(Rippe 1b) ist schwarz und schliesst auf der Unterseite
zwischen sich und der Innenrandsrippe (Rippe 1a) einen
gegen die Basis schwarz gefärbten Raum ein.
Weiter ist die schwarze Apicalzeichnung der Vorderflügel
viel breiter, wodurch der bei Levubu abgeschnittene Theil
der weissen Grundfarbe in kleine gerundete Flecken
aufgelöst erscheint, wovon nur die drei ersten
zusammenhängen, während die beiden kleinen Flecken
unter dem Vorderrande von einander getrennt bleiben.
Auch die Saumflecke selbst sind kleiner und gerundeter.
Alles Uebrige, namentlich die Bildung und Färbung der
Palpen, sowie die lebhaft gelbgefärbten Schulterdecken,
scheint mit Levubu vollkommen übereinzustimmen.
Letztere Art hat jedenfalls auch in (Sapaea) Lactea Plötz
(Stett. e. Z. 1885, p. 36) eine nahe Verwandte, welche
sich jedoch zu Folge der Beschreibung durch
gelbgesäumte Abdominalsegmente, durch schmalen
schwarzen Vorderrand der Vorderflügel und die auf der
Unterseite geschwärzte Rippe 8 der Hinterflügel gewiss
specifisch von Amneris trennt.

Heterocera. — Sphingidae.

164. Sphinx Couvolvuli L.

Ein einzelnes kleines ♀ von Iraku.

Arctiidae.

165. Callimorpha Bellatrix Da lm.

 Ein Pärchen, das ♂ von Usinja, das sehr grosse ♀ von N.
Urundi[34].
166. Diaphone Sylviana Sto ll . Kirby Syn. Cat. p. 909;
Eumela Pagenst. l. c. p. 33.
Ein Exemplar von Ussui.

Nyctemeridae.

167. Nyctemera Antinorii O b e r th . Kirby l. c. p. 422, N. 57.

In einiger Zahl von Usinja.

Lithosidae.

168. Argina Leonina Wlk.

Zwei Exemplare von Mwansa.
169. Deiopeia Pulchella L.
Mehrere Exemplare von Ussongo und Uha.

Agaristidae.

170. Xanthospilopteryx Geryon F.

Vier Exemplare von Mwansa, Katoto, Majita und
Ussandaui.
171. Aegocera Menete Cr.
Ein Exemplar von Iraku.
172. Charilina Amabilis Dr u .
Ein Exemplar von Ussandaui.

Hypsidae.

173. Aganais Aphidas Ho p ffr.

Ein ♂ von Usegua stimmt vollständig mit der Abbildung
bei Hopffer (Peter's Reise), Taf. 28, Fig. 8 (♀), überein.
174. Egybolis Vaillantina Sto ll.
Einige Exemplare von Imbo Urundi.
Die systematische Stellung dieser Art bei den Castniiden,
wohin sie Pagenstecher l. c. p. 32 nach dem Vorgange
Wallengren's stellt, ist gewiss unrichtig, da die Raupe frei
lebt und fast ophiusidenartigen Habitus zeigt (Trans. Ent.
S. Lond. 1856, pl. 14, Fig. 3).

Notodontidae.

175. Heteranaphe Jacksoni Sh a r p e . Kirby Syn. Cat. p. 577

(Hyperanaphe).
Nur vier ♂ dieser interessanten Art von Urundi und Uha.

Saturnidae.

176. Philosamia Antinorii O b e r th . Kirby Syn. Cat. p. 749, N.

10.
Ein beschädigtes, aber gewiss hierher gehöriges ♂ von
Usukuma (Iraku).
177. Bunaea Alcinoe St o ll . Kirby Syn. Cat. p. 751, N. 6.
Nur ein ♀ vom Manyara.
178. Tagoropsis Flavinata Wlk. Kirby l. c. p. 755, N. 2.
Zwei Exemplare von Ussure und Ussandaui.
179. Antheraea Oubie G ú e r. Kirby l. c. p. 757, N. 12.
Ein ♂ von Mangati und zwei ♀ von Ngorongoro
unterscheiden sich von der Abbildung bei Lefevre durch
kleinere und dunklere Augenflecke der Vorderflügel und
die auf Ober- und Unterseite weissen (nicht
rosafarbenen) Querstreifen. Auch sind die Segmente des
Hinterleibes auf der Unterseite schwarz geringt. Zaddachi
Dewitz stellt wahrscheinlich die westafrikanische Form
derselben Art dar.
180. Heniocha Terpsichore Ma a ss.- We ym. Kirby l. c. p.
771, N. 8.
Ein ♂ von Ussongo.

Hepialidae.

181. Gorgopis Libania S to l l. (? Miserabilis Stgr.)

Zwei ♂ von Serengeti.

Plusiidae.

182. Plusia Chalcytes E sp . Pagenst. l. c. p. 43.

Drei Exemplare von Ngorongoro, Simangiro und
Ussandaui.

Ophideridae.

183. Ophideres Materna L.

Mehrere Stücke von Umbugwe, Kiwaya und Ussongo.
184. Entomogramma Pardus G n .
Ein wahrscheinlich hierher gehöriges Exemplar von S.
Ruanda.

Ommatophoridae.

185. Patula Walkeri B u t l. Saalmüller, Fn. Mad. Taf. IX, Fig.

137; Macrops, Rghfr., Baum. Usambára p. 329, N. 106.
Drei Stücke von Uha und den Umba Nyika-Niederungen.
186. Cyligramma Latona Cr.
In Mehrzahl von Umbugwe und S. Ruanda.
187. Cyligramma Fluctuosa D r u .
Nur ein Exemplar von den Umba-Niederungen.
 Ophiusidae.

188. Sphingomorpha Chlorea C r.

Ein Exemplar von Katoto.
189. Ophiodes Hopei B. (Tettensis Ho p ffr.). Saalmüller Fn.
Madag. p. 444.
Ein schlechtes Exemplar aus den Kilimanjaro-
Niederungen.
190. Achaea Chamaeleon G n .
Nur ein Exemplar von Mwansa.
191. Ophiusa Deliana S to l l. Taf. 36, Fig. 4. Anfractuosa B.
Pagenst. l. c. p. 44.
Ein Exemplar von Umba Nyika.
192. Ophiusa Torrida G n .
Ebendaher ein Exemplar.
193. Ophiusa Mahura F e ld . u. R g h fr., Nov. Taf. 117, Fig.
13.
Ein Exemplar von Majita.
194. Ophiusa Delta B. Pagenst. l. c. p. 44.
Ein schlechtes Exemplar von Mwansa.
195. Grammodes Stolida F. Pagenst. l. c. p. 44.
Ein ♂ vom Manyara.
196. Asymbata G e r st . (?Calesia G n .) Roseiventris G e r st.
Decken's Reisen in Ostafrika II, 1873, p. 378, Taf. XV,
Fig. 8.
Ein ♂ von Kisuani.

Remigidae.

197. Remigia Archesia Cr.

Ein Exemplar von Ikoma.

[←] II. Coleoptera.

 Bestimmt von Custos L. Ganglbauer.
Die Mehrzahl der Käfer gehört Arten an, die bereits von
Professor Gerstäcker in den wissenschaftlichen Ergebnissen von
Baron Carl Claus von der Decken's Reisen in Ostafrika (Dritter
Band, zweite Abtheilung, 1873) aufgeführt oder beschrieben wurden.
Einige Arten konnten nach Gerstäcker's Bearbeitung der von Dr. G.
A. Fischer während seiner Reise nach dem Massai-Land
gesammelten Coleopteren (Jahrb. Hamburg. Wissensch. Anstalten
1884, 40-63) und nach Léon Fairmaire: »Coléoptères des voyages
de M. G. Revoil chez les Somâlis et dans l'intérieur du Zanguebar«
(Ann. Soc. Ent. France 1887, 69-186, 277-367) eruirt werden, ein
Theil blieb vorläufig ohne genauere Bestimmung. Unter den letzteren
mögen sich wohl einige Nova befinden, doch bleibt deren
Feststellung und Beschreibung besser künftigen Monographen der
betreffenden Genera überlassen. Isolirte Beschreibungen einzelner
neuer Arten aus heterogenen Gattungen erfordern sehr
umständliche und zeitraubende Literaturstudien und sind überdies
von sehr problematischem Werthe, wenn sie nicht auf grösserem
Vergleichs-Materiale basiren.

Carabidae.

1. Carabus Deckeni Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken Reisen, III, 2,

56, T. IV, Fig. 2. — Ein ♀ aus dem Irangi-Gebiet.
Gerstäcker beschrieb Carabus Deckeni nach einem
einzelnen von Dr. Kersten auf dem Kilimanjaro in einer
Höhe von 8000' aufgefundenen ♀, bei welchem ausser
den Flügeldecken auch die Scheibe des Halsschildes
braunroth gefärbt war. Das Stück vom Irangi-Gebiet ist
bis auf die rothbraunen Flügeldecken ganz schwarz; im
Uebrigen passt auf dasselbe die Beschreibung des C.
Deckeni. Das Thier ist ungeflügelt, die Mandibeln sind
wie bei allen Carabus nahezu glatt, die Fühler sind aber
 ähnlich wie bei Calosoma gebildet, d. h. ihr zweites und
drittes Glied ist stark zusammengedrückt und hinten
scharfkantig.
2. Anthia hexasticta Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken Reisen, III, 2,
57, T. IV, Fig. 3. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.). — Von C. v.
d. Decken am See Jipe gesammelt.
3. Anthia Fornasinii Bertoloni Illustr. rerum natur. Mozamb.
Diss. I, 7, T. I, Fig. 1; Gerst. Peter's Reise Mossamb. V,
152. — Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.). — Mozambique.
4. Anthia Artemis Gerst. Jahrb. Hamburg. wissensch. Anst. I,
1884, 43. — Sogonoi, Manyara (2 Exempl.), Kiwaya-
Steppe (3 Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.). — Von Dr.
Fischer am Kilimanjaro, von Schiffslieutenant v. Höhnel
am Stephanie-See gefunden.
5. Anthia limbipennis Chaud. Bull. Mosc. 1861, II, 561. —
Irangi-Gebiet (2 Exempl.), Unyamwesi (2 Exempl.). —
Mozambique.
6. Tefflus juvenilis Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken Reisen, III, 2,
67. — Massai (2 Exempl.). — Von R. Brenner zuerst in
der Tula-Kolonie aufgefunden, von Dr. Hans Meyer nach
Kolbe (Stett. Entom. Zeitg. 1891, 28) im Ugueno-Gebirge
gesammelt.
7. Isotarsus eustalactus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken Reisen,
III, 2, 68, T. V, Fig. 6. — Oestl. Nyansa-Ufer (1 Exempl.).
— Von Claus v. d. Decken am See Jipe gesammelt.
8. Trimerus Raffrayi Chaud. Rev. Mag. Zoolog. 1878, 92;
Fairmaire, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887, 96. — Kilimanjaro (3
Exempl.). — Von Raffray in den Gebirgen von Schimba,
von Revoil bei Guélidi gesammelt.

Dytiscidae.

9. Cybister binotatus Klug Erm. Reise 1835, 28, Sharp

Transact. R. Dublin Soc. Vol. II (sér. 2) 1880-82, 721. —
Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.). — Südl. Mittelmeergebiet,
 Senegal, Nyassa, Sansibar, Mauritius, Madagascar,
Arabien.

Hydrophilidae.

10. Hydrous spec. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.).

Silphidae.

11. Silpha micans Fabr. Syst. El. I, 337, Boh. Ins. Caffr. I, 54.
— Massai (6 Exempl.), Irangi-Geb. (1 Exempl.),
Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.), Sogonoi, Manyara (7 Exempl.),
östl. Nyansa-Gebiet (2 Exempl.). — Von Egypten bis zum
Kap verbreitet.

Histeridae.

12. Hister validus Erichs. Klug, Jahrb. I, 1834, 130; Mars.

Mon. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1854, 171, pl. 6, Fig. 2. —
Massai (1 Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (2 Exempl.). —
Senegal, Abessinien, Mozambique, Caffrarien, Natal,
Kap.
13. Saprinus splendens Payk. Mars. Mon. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.
1855, 380, pl. 16, Fig. 22. — Sogonoi, Manyara (4
Exempl.). — Ueber ganz Südafrika verbreitet.

Trogositidae.

14. Alindria grandis Serv. Encycl. Méthod. X, 719. —

Sogonoi, Manyara (1 Exempl.). — Senegal, Ostafrika.

Dermestidae.
15. Dermestes vulpinus Fabr. Spec. Ins. I, 64; Erichs.
Naturg. Ins. Deutschl. III, 426. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (1
Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.). — Mit thierischen
Häuten über die ganze Erde verbreitet.

Passalidae.

16. Eumelosomus sansibaricus Harold, Monatsber. Ak.

Berlin 1880, 562. — Kiwayasteppe (1 Exempl.). —
Sansibar.

Scarabaeidae.

17. Ateuchus Aegyptiorum Latr. var. purpurascens Gerst.

Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 121. — Irangi-Gebiet (1
Exempl.). — Von C. v. d. Decken bei Mombas
gesammelt.
18. Ateuchus catenatus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 123, T. VII, Fig. 4. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.). —
Von C. v. d. Decken zwischen dem See Jipe und Aruscha
und bei Endara gesammelt.
19. Ateuchus spec. — Sogonoi, Manyara (1 Exempl.).
20. Anachalcos procerus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 127, T. VII, Fig. 3 u. 3a. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.).
— Nach Kolbe (Stett. Ent. Zeitg. 1891, 19) über
Centralafrika bis zum Kongo verbreitet.
21. Gymnopleurus virens Erichs. Arch. Naturg. IX, 231,
Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 126. — Sogonoi,
Manyara (5 Exempl.). — Ueber das tropische Afrika sehr
weit verbreitet.
22. Heliocopris Hamadryas Fabr. Syst. Entom. 22. — Irangi-
Gebiet (1 Exempl.). — Ueber Südafrika weit verbreitet.
23. Heliocopris spec. — Massai (1 Exempl.).
24. Catharsius spec. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.).
25. Copris spec. — Sogonoi, Manyara (1 Exempl.).
26. Onthophagus catta Fabr. Mant. Ins. I, 12, Gerst. Claus v.
d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 130. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.),
Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.). — Ueber das ganze tropische
Afrika und über einen grossen Theil von Asien (von
Arabien bis Bengalen und Ceylon) verbreitet.
27. Onthophagus spec. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.).
28. Trox baccatus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2,
118, Harold, Mon. 82, Fairm., Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887,
115. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.). — Ueber Ostafrika weit
verbreitet.
29. Coniopholis Elephas Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 113, T. VI. Fig. 9. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.). — Von
C. v. d. Decken bei Endara, von Schiffslieutenant v.
Höhnel bei Taveta aufgefunden.
30. Popillia spec. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.).
31. Popillia spec. — Irangi-Gebiet (2 Exempl.).
32. Anomala spec. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.).
33. Oryctes Boas Fabr. Burm. Handb. Entom. V, 199. —
Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.), Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.),
Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.), Sogonoi, Manyara (1 Exempl.),
Kiwayasteppe (1 Exempl.), Unyamwesi (2 Exempl.). —
Ueber Afrika weit verbreitet (Senegambien, Sierra Leona,
Kap, Caffrarien, Mozambique).
34. Gnathocera spec. Der trivittata Swed. sehr nahe
stehend. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (2 Exempl.), Irangi-
Gebiet (1 Exempl.).
35. Leucocelis spec. Der L. haemorrhoidalis F. sehr nahe
stehend. — Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.).
36. Pachnoda sobrina Gory et Perch. Gerst. Claus v. d.
Decken, Reisen III, 2, 101, var. a. — Irangi-Gebiet (5
Exempl.), Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.), Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet
(1 Exempl.). — Ueber das östliche Afrika von Kordofan
bis Mozambique verbreitet.
37. Pachnoda ephippiata Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 102, Taf. VI, Fig. 5. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (1
Exempl.). — Von Claus v. d. Decken bei Endara
gefunden.
38. Diplognatha silicea Mac Leay Ill. Zool. South. Afr. III, 22;
Fairm., Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887, 131; Kolbe, Sitzungsber.
Ges. naturf. Freunde, Berlin 1892, 69. — Oestl. Nyansa-
Gebiet (1 Exempl.), Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.),
Kiwayasteppe (1 Exempl.), Kagera-Nil (2 Exempl.). —
Ueber Ost- und Südafrika weit verbreitet.

Buprestidae.

39. Sternocera Boucardi E. Saunders Cist. Entom. I, 1874,

219; Kerremans Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 1888, 79. — Irangi-
Gebiet (1 Exempl.). — Abessinien, Massai, Mombas,
Sansibar.
40. Sternocera Eschscholtzi J. Thoms. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.
1879, Bull. CLIV; Fairmaire ibid. 1887, 134; Hildebrandti
Harold var. Eschscholtzi Kerremans Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.
1888, 71. — Massai (1 Exempl.). — Ueber Ostafrika weit
verbreitet.
41. Sternocera Gerstaeckeri Kerremans Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.
1888, 78. — Massai (3 Exempl.). — Diese drei
Exemplare von Massai differiren, sowie drei von
Schiffslieutenant v. Höhnel am Stephanie-See
gesammelte Exemplare von der typischen Gerstaeckeri
(Fischeri Gerst. Jahrb. wissensch. Anstalt, Hamburg
1884, 51) von Klein-Aruscha durch das Vorhandensein
von leuchtend orangegelb tomentirten Flecken oder
Querbinden jederseits an der Basis der Ventralsegmente.
Die Flügeldecken sind auf der vorderen Partie des
Rückens dunkel bronzegrün oder schwärzlich; an den
Seiten und nach hinten geht die dunkle Färbung in ein
dunkles oder helles Kastanienbraun über. Die
Flügeldecken zeigen bei den drei Stücken von Massai
auf der hinteren Hälfte neben dem Seitenrand zwei oder
drei kleine Tomentflecken, bei den Stücken vom
Stephanie-See sind sie hinten ganz ungefleckt. Die
Skulptur der Flügeldecken ist feiner als bei der sehr nahe
 verwandten castanea Ol. vom Senegal. Ebenso ist die
Punktirung der Unterseite feiner und weitläufiger als bei
dieser.
42. Sternocera pulchra Waterh. Transact. Ent. Soc., London
1879, 319, Kerreman's Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. XXXII, 1888,
94 (Cambieri Preudh. de Borre). — Irangigebiet (1
Exempl.). — Abessinien, Ost- und Centralafrika.
43. Agelia Peteli Gory Mon. Buprest. IV, 51, pl. 10, Fig. 51.
— Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.), Kiwaya-Steppe (1 Exempl.)
— Von Schiffslieutenant von Höhnel bei Taveta gefunden;
Natal.

Elateridae.

44. Tetralobus flabellicornis L. Cand. Mon. Elat. Mém. Liège

XII, 1857, 369, pl. 7, Fig. 5. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (1
Exempl.). — Ueber das tropische Afrika weit verbreitet.

Lycidae.

45. Lycus (Acantholycus) constrictus Fåhr. Boh. Ins. Caffr. I,

2, 434, Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 154,
Bourg. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova XVIII, 1882, 627. —
Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.). — Ostafrika. Natal.
46. Lycus (Lopholycus) Raffrayi Bourg. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr.
1877, 364, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova XVIII, 1882, 629. —
Massai (1 Exempl.) — Abessinien, Bogos.

Apatidae.

47. Apate cornuta Oliv. Entom. IV, 77, pl. 1, Fig. 5. — Oestl.
Nyansa-Gebiet (1 Exempl.). — Ueber das tropische
Afrika weit verbreitet.

Tenebrionidae.
48. Adesmia baccata Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III,
2, 167, Taf. IX, Fig. 1. — Irangi-Gebiet (6 Exempl.) — Von
Claus v. d. Decken am See Jipe aufgefunden.
49. Machla spec. — Massai (1 Exempl.).
50. Moluris spec. — Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.).
51. Moluris spec. — Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.).
52. Phrynocolus petrosus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 172, Taf. IX, Fig. 4. — Kilimanjaro (2 Exempl.). —
Von Claus v. d. Decken am See Jipe, von
Schiffslieutenant von Höhnel bei Taveta gesammelt.
53. Sepidium muscosum Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 175, Taf. IX, Fig. 2. — Unyamwesi (2 Exempl.). —
Ueber Ostafrika weiter verbreitet.
54. Anomalipus heraldicus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen
III, 2, 178, Taf. IX, Fig. 3. — Sogonoi, Manyara (1
Exempl.). — Von C. v. d. Decken am See Jipe
aufgefunden.
55. Micrantereus femoratus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken,
Reisen III, 2, 193, Taf. IX, Fig. 8. — Kilimanjaro (3
Exempl.). — Von C. v. d. Decken bei Mbaramu und bei
Endara gesammelt.
56. Selinus trivialis Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2,
177 (Opatrinus); Fairm., Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887, 284. —
Kilimanjaro (3 Exempl.). — Massai, Mombas, Sansibar.
57. Pycnocerus Passerinii Bertoloni Illustr. rer. nat. Mozamb.
II, 40, No. 30, Gerst. Peter's Reise nach Mossambique V,
291, Taf. XVII, Fig. 7. — Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.). —
Ueber Ostafrika weiter verbreitet.
58. Catamerus Revoili Fairm. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887, 290,
pl. I, Fig. 12. — Kiwaya-Steppe (7 Exempl.), Massai (3
Exempl.), Unyamwesi (3 Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (4
Exempl.). — Von Revoil bei Mpouapoua gesammelt.

Cantharidae.
59. Horia cephalotes Oliv. Entom. III, 53 bis, No. 3, Taf. I,
Fig. 3, Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 205. —
Massai (1 ♀). — Guinea, Sansibar.
60. Mylabris praestans Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III,
2, 206, Taf. X, Fig. 8. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (8
Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.), Kiwaya-Steppe (3
Exempl.). — Ueber Ostafrika weiter verbreitet.
61. Mylabris bipartita Mars. Mon. des Mylabrides Mém. Soc.
Roy. Sc. Belg., 2. Ser., III, 1873, 427. — Oestl. Nyansa-
Gebiet (33 Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (13 Exempl.), Kiwaya-
Steppe (1 Exempl.). — Caffranirien, Chartum, Isle de
France.
62. Mylabris bizonata Gerst. Peter's Reise nach
Mossambique V, 298, Taf. XVII, Fig. 13. — Kagera-Nil (17
Exempl.). — Mozambique.
63. Epicauta spec. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.)

Curculionidae.

64. Chaunoderus stupidus Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen

III, 2, 225, Taf. IX, Fig. 5. — Kilimanjaro (♂, ♀). — Von C.
v. d. Decken bei Endara, von Dr. Hans Meyer auf der
Route vom Kilimanjaro nach Mombasa gesammelt.
65. Cleonus sannio Herbst, Erichs. Arch. Naturg. IX, 210.
Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (1 Exempl.). — Ueber das ganze
tropische Afrika verbreitet.
66. Lixus spec. — Kagera-Nil (2 Exempl.).

Cerambycidae.

67. Macrotoma palmata Fabr. Entom. Syst. I, 2, 249, Gerst.

Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 252. — Irangi-Gebiet (2
Exempl.). — Guinea, Senegambien, Sennaar, Sansibar.
68. Phantasis gigantea Guér. Gerst. Peter's Reise nach
Mossambique V, 331, Taf. XX, Fig. 3. — Sogonoi,
 Manyara (1 Exempl.), Irangi-Gebiet (1 Exempl.). —
Ueber Süd- und Ostafrika weiter verbreitet.
69. Ceroplesis irregularis Harold Coleopt. Hefte XVI, 194,
Fairm. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 1887, 341. — Massai (2
Exempl.), Oestl. Nyansa - Gebiet (2 Exempl.), Irangi-
Gebiet (3 Exempl.), Kiwaya-Steppe (1 Exempl.), Sogonoi,
Manyara (1 Exempl). — Ueber Ostafrika weiter verbreitet.
70. Ceroplesis spec. — Massai (4 Exempl.).
71. Sternotomis spec. — Kagera-Nil (9 Exempl.).

Chrysomelidae.

72. Clythra spec. — Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.).

73. Clythra spec. — Oestl. Nyansa (1 Exempl.).
74. Corynodes Dejeani Gerst. Peter's Reise nach
Mossambique, 336. — Kiwaya-Steppe (1 Exempl.). —
Ueber Ostafrika weiter verbreitet.
75. Chrysomela americana var. limbolata Reiche Voyage
Abyss. 405, Taf. XXV, Fig. 8. — Kagera-Nil (2 Exempl.).
— Abessinien, Leikipia. — Die typische Form ist über das
ganze Mittelmeer-Gebiet verbreitet.
76. Adorium costatum Baly Transact. Ent. Soc., London
1881, 51; Fairmaire, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887, 362. —
Sogonoi, Manyara (4 Exempl.). — Nyassa, Taveta,
Tabora.
77. Adorium palliatum Gerst. Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III,
2, 279, Taf. XII, Fig. 11; Fairm., Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1887,
362. — Massai (1 Exempl.). — Mombas, Mpouapoua,
Sansibar.
78. Aspidomorpha punctata Fabr. Mant. I, 64, Boh. Mon.
Cassid. II, 348. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.). — Ueber Ost-
und Südafrika verbreitet.
79. Cassida spec. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.).
80. Cassida spec. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (1 Exempl.).
81. Cassida spec. — Massai (1 Exempl.).
 Coccinellidae.

82. Alesia Aurora Gerst. C. v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2, 294,

Taf. XIII, Fig. 3. — Kagera-Nil (4 Exempl.), Massai (1
Exempl.). — Von C. v. d. Decken bei Uru gesammelt.
83. Alesia Olivieri Gerst. Peter's Reise nach Mossambique V,
347. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.), Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.),
Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (2 Exempl.). — Mozambique,
Caffrarien, Kap.
84. Cydonia lunata Fabr. Syst. Entom. 86, Muls. Spec. Col.
Sécuripalp. 431, Gerst.; Claus v. d. Decken, Reisen III, 2,
295. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.). — Ueber den grössten
Theil von Afrika, Madagascar, Bourbon und Ostindien
verbreitet.
85. Epilachna chrysomelina Fabr. Syst. Ent. 82, Muls.
Sécuripalpes 195. — Oestl. Nyansa-Gebiet (1 Exempl.).
— Ueber das ganze Mittelmeer-Gebiet, den grössten
Theil von Afrika und über Arabien verbreitet.

[←] III. Orthoptera.

Bestimmt vom Hofrath Brunner von Wattenwyl.

Blattodea.

1. Deropeltis Wahlbergi Stål. — Kagera-Nil (1 Exempl.).

2. Nauphoeta bivittata Brunn. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.).

Mantodea.

3. Lygdamia capitata Sauss. — Kilimanjaro (1 Exempl.).

4. Hierodula spec. — Kilimanjaro (1 Larve).
5. Sphendale vincta Gerst. — Unyamwesi (1 Exempl.).