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GENDER, DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE
SERIES EDITOR: WENDY HARCOURT

Gender, Democracy
and Institutional
Development in Africa

Njoki Nathani Wane

Gender, Development and Social Change

Series Editor
Wendy Harcourt
The International Institute of Social Studies
Erasmus University
The Hague, The Netherlands
The Gender, Development and Social Change series brings together path-­
breaking writing from gender scholars and activist researchers who are
engaged in development as a process of transformation and change. The
series pinpoints where gender and development analysis and practice are
creating major ‘change moments’. Multidisciplinary in scope, it features
some of the most important and innovative gender perspectives on devel-
opment knowledge, policy and social change. The distinctive feature of
the series is its dual nature: to publish both scholarly research on key issues
informing the gender and development agenda as well as featuring young
scholars and activists’ accounts of how gender analysis and practice is shap-
ing political and social development processes. The authors aim to capture
innovative thinking on a range of hot spot gender and development
debates from women’s lives on the margins to high level global politics.
Each book pivots around a key ‘social change’ moment or process concep-
tually envisaged from an intersectional, gender and rights based approach
to development.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14999
 Njoki Nathani Wane

Gender, Democracy
and Institutional
Development in Africa
Njoki Nathani Wane
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada

Gender, Development and Social Change

ISBN 978-3-030-11853-2    ISBN 978-3-030-11854-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11854-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019934989

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
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To all those who believe that something good still exists in the continent
of Africa
 Foreword

This book is a refreshing treatise on Africa that captures the imagination

of its readers and invites them to be more open minded and accepting of
the historical realities and contributions of Africa to the world. Its eight
chapters take us through pulsating historical analyses that outline the
incalculable political and economic challenges disrupting this vast conti-
nent’s development agenda today. This analysis is not however steeped in
a pitiful depiction of events that romanticize a troubled past. Rather, the
authors of the eight informative chapters of this book passionately locate
Africa’s true contribution to world civilization, demystifying the often
deliberate and conscious attempts by international organizations, institu-
tions of learning, and the intellectual opinion-setter community to denude,
denigrate, and mitigate its rich and powerful contributions to the world
civilization today.
The book therefore highlights what existed in Africa’s past and laments
the underrepresentation of the impact of the creative genius of Africa on
the global cultural and political landscape. It presents an irresistible argu-
ment that the development project of the nations of Africa cannot proceed
without this acknowledgment that is so critical to both Africans and non-­
Africans. The destiny of Africa, it contends, is all wrapped up in the lessons
it takes from its past into its future. For the authors of this book, no analy-
sis would be complete if those who carry Africa’s destiny in their hands do
not tap into a vision that considers the importance of strategic foresight.
The authors further contend that there is a need for both Africans and
their descendants to engage in some degree of introspection to take stock
of their place in the world as having emerged from a truly great and

vii
viii FOREWORD

t­ hriving civilization and the potential to walk this path again in the future.
Africa’s young sons and daughters must take their place in the world and
feel that vital connection to their past and to humanity in general. They
must see themselves as initiators, creators, inventors, and shapers of civili-
zations destined to craft a new existence. Part of this realization will have
to be an acceptance of the history of slavery and colonization, neo-­
colonialism, and imperialism that rid African nations of their pride, dig-
nity, and self-worth. The book sounds the clarion call for Africa to transit
to a new and bright outlook, steeped in the reality of its historical ghosts
which are proving difficult to exorcise but also its vision of restoration of
its humanity, its love, and a better future. The book starts off with an
examination and analysis of the indigenous philosophies of Africa and
their ubiquitous influence touching every aspect of society. It calls for
frank and brutal discussion of these philosophies and the surmounting of
the old stance of these philosophies as less significant even in intellectual
and academic circles. Further calls are made for the merging of indigence
and conventional world views which could well be the fountainhead to a
new and viable dispensation. African philosophies are the total embodi-
ment of the way of life of Africans—their religion, their source of libera-
tion, their source of transformation. These philosophies cannot therefore
be divorced from everyday existence nor a vision of the future.
This seminal work also explains the dilemma of Africa in relation to its
development thrust. As the nations of Africa continue to battle their slave
and colonial past, their wounds continue to fester in the face of social,
economic, and political battles from an inequitable world. To add insult to
injury, there is the ever-pervasive media which continues to depict Africa
as the jaundiced child. The second chapter therefore argues that there is a
continuing saga of negativity which has historically condemned Africa to
its portrayal as a second-class citizen. There is however acknowledgment
that internal squabbles—political and otherwise—have contributed to
Africa’s share of its developmental afflictions.
The book also advances that Africa made its contribution to vibrant
trade and travelling activities both by land and by water. This very devel-
opment facilitated several dimensions of Africa’s creative economic and
cultural genius located in its empire building, business and profit-making,
commodity transactions, and its settlements. In this context, Africa’s sci-
ence does not only form a part of its culture but, as illustrated in the book,
is the very embodiment of its culture.
 FOREWORD ix

In its developmental drive, the states of Africa need to acknowledge the

impact of a Eurocentric curriculum as inimical to its progress. Therefore,
this inspiring work calls for an indigenization of teaching and learning and
its criticality in education. Against the backdrop of African nation-states’
history of colonialism, imperialism, neo-colonialism, post-colonial, and
anti-colonial struggles, the book demands a discussion on the cultural
diversity and ethnicity of Africa which it perceives as an asset to its pro-
gram of development. It therefore claims that on-going research into the
African past must remain a frontline and continuing pursuit as this vast
continent journeys to a bright and prosperous future. The volume vividly
conveys the role of women in Africa and invites its readers to ruminate on
women’s historic role in Africa. In this context, it brings to light stories of
pride, industry, self-defense, and leadership. The book does not ignore the
significance of virtue in the lives of both men and women. Rooted in their
profound spirituality, Africans’ everyday existence is grounded in the qual-
ity of relationships they nurture between individuals, in communities, in
the world, and in the environment. This was the foundation of the cultiva-
tion of ideals of caring, respect, and harmony which were tacitly deduced,
if not ostensibly manifest.
The book ends with an invitation to the reader to imbibe African phi-
losophy in this ultramodern period and examine its pertinence in a rather
Eurocentric setting. Imminent, prospective actors through their youthful
lenses can hopefully transform the current intellectual disequilibrium by
deconstructing and validating African philosophical underpinnings of col-
lectivism, intergenerational interdependence, and the added value of com-
petition and opposition as necessary ingredients for the nurturing of
successful leadership preparation as Africa marches on to its inevitable,
practicable destiny.

St. George, Grenada Damian E. Greaves

 Acknowledgments

This book would not have been written without the hard work of all the
contributors to this volume who were all my graduate assistants and who
have now completed their PhDs and are working in Canada or outside
Canada. To all of you: Alberta, Erick, Akena, Ahmed, and Bailey. I sin-
cerely thank all each one of you for your commitment and dedication to
this project. I still remember with fond memories the many Saturdays that
we met during the initial stages of this book. Your interest on various
aspects of the African past has made this edited book a reality. I would also
like to thank all the numerous people who have read different drafts of this
book, your comments and suggestions strengthened the final arguments
presented in the book. And to my family, Amadou, Koyiet, Nairesiae, Sein,
Aziz, and Moodi, asante sana for your love.
To my Creator, thank you for your guidance at every step of the
journey.
2019

xi
 Contents

1 Introduction  1
Njoki Nathani Wane

2 African Traditional Philosophies  7

Ahmed Ali Ilmi

3 Ancient Governance in Africa 37

Francis Adyanga Akena

4 Trade, Routes Trade, and Commerce in Pre-colonial

Africa 67
Alberta O. Akrong

5 African Indigenous Education 99

Njoki Nathani Wane

6 The Spirit of African Indigenous Science123

Solomon Belay Faris

7 Women and Gender Relations in Africa143

Erick Fabris and Njoki Nathani Wane

xiii
xiv Contents

8 The Science of African Spirituality165

Solomon Belay Faris and Njoki Nathani Wane

9 Centering African Women’s Leadership Course: A

Conversation187
Osholene Oshobugie and Danielle Cantave

10 Conclusion: Continuity and Futurity—Ancient Africa

Survives201
Hermia Morton Anthony

Index207
 Notes on Contributors

Francis Adyanga Akena obtained his PhD from the University of

Toronto in 2014. He is a lecturer at Kabale University in the faculty of
Education. Previously, he taught at the Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education University of Toronto and was a post-doctoral fellow at the
College of Education, University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, in
2016. He is a passionate educator with keen teaching and research interest
in African indigenous science, indigenous knowledge, social and environ-
mental justice education, education in emergencies and post-emergency
contexts, and global citizenship education. Akena has been a keynote
speaker at various conferences in Canada focusing on education of chil-
dren in developing societies. He has been a teacher with the York Region
District School Board (YRDSB) in Ontario. His recent publications
include Researching Indigenous Science Knowledge Integration in Formal
Education: Interpreting Some Perspectives from the Field (2017),
International Journal of Educational Development in Africa, Spiritual
Discourse in the Academy: A Globalised Indigenous Perspective (edited with
Wane & Ilmi, 2014), Traditional Knowledge in HIV/AIDS Treatment
and Prevention Program in Northern Uganda (2015), and Journal of
Family Medicine & Community Health. At the Society for the Advancement
of Science in Africa (SASA), Akena holds the docket of Director
Administration concurrently with Director of student affairs.
Alberta O. Akrong is a sociologist and specializes in workplace, non-­
profits, women, social development, and policy issues. Born in Accra,
Ghana, Akrong’s research is influenced by professional experiences and

xv
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

projects she continues to be involved in from the corporate, academic, and

non-profits in Africa and abroad. Akrong holds a PhD in Education
Sociology and Comparative International Development from the
University of Toronto, a Master’s degree from the same university
with empirical inquiry in adult learning, a Sociology and English
Honors from the University of Ghana, and a Diploma in Public
Relations and Advertising from the Ghana Institute of Journalism in
addition to leadership, health, project, and executive management train-
ing she had obtained from other institutions. She is the co-­editor of
Women Writing Letters: Celebrating the Art (2013) with Tara Goldstein
and has two forthcoming articles—“From Policy to Periphery: Women
Influencing Change” (2018) and “Interpreting Empowerment” (2018).
Akrong is the Director of Innovative Strategies Ventures, a business devel-
opment firm, and likes architecture and fashion. She also volunteers her
time mentoring young scholars and empowering marginalized women.
Hermia Morton Anthony holds a PhD in Social Justice Education from
the University of Toronto. Her dissertation focused on indigenous episte-
mologies and knowledge production. She has extensive experience in pub-
lic policy, education leadership, post-secondary institutional change and
curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation. Her research
interests include equity, womanisms, feminisms, Caribbean studies,
afrocentricity, and liberation praxis.
Danielle Cantave is a dynamic and multilingual Black Canadian feminist
with a strong background in Education, Anti-racism, Social Justice,
Equity, and Community Services. Cantave has a strong foundation in
African indigenous knowledge, in critical analytical skills, and with decolo-
nial literature. Cantave has a substantial experience working with children,
youths, and adults. She holds close to her heart the betterment of society,
and she demonstrates her commitment to benevolent work in each of the
communities in which she has lived. Whether in Québec, Ontario, or
Manitoba, Cantave has been consistent with her willingness to give back
to society. In 2017, she was the recipient of the Akua Benjamin Award for
Community Service, an Award of Black Excellence from the University of
Toronto. Her long-term career goal is to work in academia and to inspire
others to pursue higher education by fostering lasting relationships with
the community. She is a doctorate ­student in Social Justice Education at
the University of Toronto, and her research mainly focuses on the Haitian
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Creole language as a tool of ­resistance against settler colonialism, on indi-

geneity, as well as on Francophonie and francophone identities.
Erick Fabris holds a PhD from the Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education, University of Toronto. He is a student of anti-racist and anti-
colonial feminist thought. As a white male settler (second-generation
Italian), he has done activism, advocacy, and scholarship against forced
psychiatric treatment. He continues working to understand psych, race,
gender, and class oppressions. His non-fiction narrative, Tranquil Prisons,
is a qualitative study of carceratory treatments in Canadian society.
Solomon Belay Faris holds a PhD in science education from Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education, the University of Toronto. He is an
assistant professor in Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, offering curricu-
lum and pedagogical courses including sustaining his research interest in
indigenous knowledge. His major collaborative research includes the
extraction of scientific and spiritual concepts from the making of
Ethiopian contemporary rock-hewn churches.
Ahmed Ali Ilmi PhD (University of Toronto), is the author of “Say
Walahi” Generation: Identity, Profiling, Tradition & Survival from a
Somali Canadian Perspective (2013), and he also co-edited (with Njoki
Wane and Francis Adyanga) Spiritual Discourse in the Academy: A
Globalized Indigenous Perspective (2014). His research interests include
Black studies in Canada, African philosophical thought, and Somali cul-
tural knowledges. Ilmi is an adjunct professor in the Department of
Historical Studies Mississauga at the University of Toronto.
Osholene Oshobugie is in her final year of graduate studies at the Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. Indigenous
African education gives African/Black children roots in the knowledge of
their past and their future, and prepares them to be well equipped for the
solutions of their indigenous societies, at home and in the diaspora. It is in
this form of education that Oshobugie has dedicated her scholarship and
research. She is using an African storytelling methodology for her self-study
research into the knowledge of self which is the goal for African-centred
education. She has worked in the field of community development and
social services for over seven years, and has experience working with com-
munity members to foster an appropriate indigenous African-centred edu-
cation for African/Black children. She is a recent recipient of the University
of Toronto Graduate Community Development Award and is committed
to community initiatives that enhance the lives of community members.
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Njoki Nathani Wane is a recognized scholar in the areas of Black femi-

nisms in Canada and Africa, African indigenous knowledges, African
women, and spirituality. One of her most recent publications is Indigenous
African Knowledge Production: Food Processing Practices Among Kenyan
Rural Women. She has co-authored an anti-racist training manual, Equity
in Practice: Transformational Training Resource, with Larissa Cairncross;
Ruptures: Anti-colonial & Anti-racist Feminist Theorizing with Jennifer
Jagire and Zahra Murad; and A Handbook on African Traditional
Healing Approaches & Research Practices with Erica Neeganagwedin.
She has also co-edited Spirituality, Education & Society: An Integrated
Approach with Energy Manyimo and Eric Ritskes and The Politics of
Cultural Knowledge with Arlo Kempf and Marlon Simmons. Wane
headed the Office of Teaching Support in 2009–2012. She has been
nominated TVO Best Lecturer and is the recipient of the Harry
Jerome Professional Excellence Award (2008) and of the African
Women Achievement Award (2007). She is also a recipient of the
prestigious David E. Hunt Award for Excellence in Graduate Education
for 2016, University of Toronto, and the President of Toronto Teaching
Award, 2017.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Njoki Nathani Wane

Abstract Most foreigners who set foot on African soil fall in love with the
continent. They are spellbound by the natural beauty of Africa and its
deep tradition. Though currently besieged by innumerable political and
economic challenges, Africa is a proud continent that contributed to the
rise of civilizations. Colonialism in Africa was like a nuclear war or a holo-
caust. It devastated the continent and continues to linger, becoming the
worst nightmare in the history of Africa. Despite some sincere efforts by
international organizations and foreign countries to mitigate its woes,
Africa continues to stutter in the quagmire of poverty, and her voice
remains underrepresented in the international political landscape.
Regardless, the true picture of Africa is not lost. This book is one more
effort to carry forward the viable past into the future. If Africa has to be
launched in a meaningful development endeavor, both Africans and for-
eigners need to understand what existed in the past and what lessons we
can take for the future. The introduction provides highlights of the book
such as the fundamentals of African traditional philosophies and the cur-
rent upheavals in governance of post-colonial African states.

Introduction
Most foreigners who set foot on African soil fall in love with the continent.
They are spellbound by the natural beauty of Africa and its deep tradition.
Though currently besieged by innumerable political and economic

© The Author(s) 2019 1

N. N. Wane, Gender, Democracy and Institutional Development in
Africa, Gender, Development and Social Change,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11854-9_1
2 N. N. WANE

c­ hallenges, Africa is a proud continent that contributed to the rise of civili-

zations. Colonialism in Africa is like a nuclear war or a holocaust. It devas-
tated the continent and continues to linger, becoming the worst nightmare
in the history of Africa. The direct colonialism that disrupted the “life-as-
usual” situation in Africa persisted in its corroding effect through educa-
tional, cultural, economic, and political colonization. Despite some sincere
efforts by international organizations and foreign countries to mitigate its
woes, Africa continues to stutter in the quagmire of poverty, and her
voice remains underrepresented in the international political landscape.
Epistemologically, Africa’s contribution to a universal generation and appli-
cation of knowledge is not acknowledged or well taken.
Regardless, the true picture of Africa is not lost. African and other con-
cerned scholars are articulating their resolution to see this bleak picture
shine brighter and brighter. Ours is one more effort to carry forward the
viable past into the future. If Africa has to be launched in a meaningful
development endeavor, both Africans and foreigners need to understand
what existed in the past and what lessons we can take for the future. Many
have contempt when Africa’s proud past is retold. However, for Africans,
understanding and glorifying the past are the beginning of regaining dig-
nity and indicative of possible comeback. It is important for everyone to
realize that Africans had once enjoyed a peaceful and thriving civilization
in the past, which also shows that they have the potential to do so now and
in the future. This knowledge boosts the self-worth and self-confidence of
young people of African descent, which are very vital in their learning.
When African people and their descendants around the world start to
see themselves as part of a long history of civilization in which they have
been part, they will be awakened to the fact that they are where they are
for a reason. They can still feel the connection to their ancestors, to the
next generation, and to humanity in general. They can continue to see
themselves as originators and fashioners of civilization. The history of slav-
ery and colonialism is a challenge set to test our humanity, and we can
overcome it by reclaiming our humanness, our love, and our vision to a
better future. This book was written to help everyone see Africa and
Africans in a new light, to embrace Africa and Africans as an asset, and to
seek their knowledge and wisdom in the new world order. In order to take
the readers through a different mental and physical map of Africa, in each
chapter, we raise different issues and explain facts and perspectives.
 INTRODUCTION 3

In the second chapter, Ahmed examines the fundamentals of African

traditional philosophies. He argues that “African philosophies are the
foundations of African societies in as much as they are overarching prin-
ciples governing everyday life of the African … [they] are the common
thread which connects African peoples with their African roots”.
In the third chapter, Akena explains that the social, political, and eco-
nomic spectrum of the modern global era is deeply manufactured in favor
of the more developed countries. With reference to Africa, he continues to
explain, the media has largely contributed significantly in portraying the
continent of Africa with cynicism. Consequently, facets such as preventa-
tive diseases wrecking mayhem, famine, wars, HIV/AIDS, illiteracy,
piracy, and failed states have become common features through which
Africa is portrayed. The objective of his chapter is to lay bare the motives
behind the negative depictions by arguing that such negativity in depic-
tion needs to be situated within a historical context. This however is not
to negate the fact that there are challenges with which the continent is
struggling. To debunk the biased depiction therefore, the chapter acknowl-
edges the current upheavals in governance of post-colonial African states
and argues for the emulation of some forms of ancient government prac-
tices not only to show African potentials but also to create a roadmap for
a strong united states of Africa to usher in peace, stability, and sustainable
development.
In the fourth chapter, Alberta Akrong advances the position that the
continent of Africa cannot be discussed without mentioning its historical
travel and trading activities. Trade has been and is still an integral part of
the people of the land dating back to pre-colonial times and even to the
period of medieval Europe. Trading activities were conducted both on
land and by water ways, and these events contributed to making the con-
tinent accessible to reach resources—both human and material. She argues
that on the one hand this historical pursuit seems to be the genesis to
access creation into Africa’s hinterland through the support of livelihood
creation, business and profit-making, commodity exchanges, settlements
formation, and empire building, while on the other hand it somehow facil-
itated the further success of European domination of Africa. It was obvi-
ous that the European success of penetration and eventual take-over of
Africa were because they could easily access the trade route passes for the
slave raid activities and raw materials collection to the trading ports for
eventual shipment from out of the continent.
4 N. N. WANE

In Chap. 5, Njoki Wane provides an overview of African indigenous

knowledge and its centrality in indigenizing education. She argues that a
discussion of African indigenous knowledge as a transformational project
does not take place in a vacuum but rather within the context of a history
of colonialism, imperialism, neo-colonial, post-colonial, and anti-colonial
discursive frameworks. In this discussion, she acknowledges the ethnic and
cultural diversity and the historical contingencies and specificities of
African peoples. She also acknowledges that some common elements in
African indigenous knowledge systems can be found in diverse or variant
forms among indigenous peoples of the world. The chapter is based on an
on-going research into African past. The project opens a window onto
African peoples, their educational and philosophical thought. Often mis-
represented, seldom understood, and frequently ignored, the land mass of
12 million square miles or 31 million square kilometers is one of the larg-
est continents on planet Earth. Its peoples, comprising many hundred
ethnic groups, speak more than 2000 languages and regional varieties of a
language or dialect. One major conclusion of this work is the need to
acknowledge and recognize the multiple and collective origins of knowl-
edge. Her research indicates that this conversation is critical, as it impacts
on the forms of knowledge, which are legitimated within the academy.
Therefore, for any meaningful learning and teaching to take place, it is
necessary for educators to rethink or reimagine how indigeneity may be
infused within the Eurocentric curriculum.
In the sixth chapter, Solomon discusses what science is in the African
context. He says not only science is part of a cultural activity but also sci-
ence itself is an African culture. He gives examples of the different African
sciences to drive home the point that Africa has primacy in the scientific
world and has a lot of potential to shape its future.
In the seventh chapter, Fabris and Wane search literature to consider the
lives of women in ancient Africa. An Internet search for women in Africa
uncovers the usual litany of despair in Africa, but what of the herstories of
African women? Black feminists, all women of color, have started to recover
stories of pride, hard work, self-defense, and rulership. As usual they have
also been met with skepticism from Westerners, especially men. As women
around the world push for a better society, we welcome stories that show
ways in which ancient women often had a more central role in society. What
would a world with many women in positions of power look like?
The purpose of Chap. 8 is to unearth the centrality of spirituality in the
lives of African peoples. Spirituality has been one of the main pillars for
 INTRODUCTION 5

Africans. As Wane et al. (2007) have stated elsewhere, the culture of

African people was rooted in their spirituality, and they saw their spiritual-
ity as a springboard to everything that they did. African people’s spiritual-
ity was nourished through their everyday practice and in particular the
evocation of the Creator’s name. For instance, Wane recalls while growing
up in a rural area, her mother used to call on the name of the Creator,
Mwene Nyaga, at dawn and later in the evening as the last frames burnt
out and everyone was in their beds ready to sleep. According to Wane, the
morning evocation was to give thanks to the Creator for having protected
the family throughout the night and for having given every member of the
family another day to witness the wonders of the world. In the evening,
Wane states, her mother would give thanks for the day’s blessings. The
chance to witness spiritual rituals is a unique phenomenon found through-
out ancient African societies. Throughout these rituals, what was empha-
sized was the quality of relationship developed between communities and
the relationship between individuals and the world or environment. The
need to cultivate an attitude of caring, respect, and harmony was not spo-
ken but implicitly inferred.
Chapter 9 frames a discussion on the application of ancient African
philosophy in a twenty-first-century classroom and its relevance to cur-
riculum on leadership training in a Eurocentric institution. The students
discuss the transformative value of the course on classroom relations and
perceptions of leadership skills and practice. The course validates commu-
nalism and intergenerational interdependence and concurrently decon-
structs competition and opposition as endemic to successful leadership
practice.
The contributors have revisited existing sources of knowledge and
through robust analyses have shed new light on earlier findings. They have
drawn on previously unwritten sources of proverbs, everyday practices,
and common sense to deliver untapped knowledge. Knowing ancient
Africa through the lens of conscious Africans delivers on the objectives of
this project.
 CHAPTER 2

African Traditional Philosophies

Ahmed Ali Ilmi

Abstract African traditional philosophies are multiple bodies of living

comprehensive knowledges which encapsulate holistic ways of knowing.
In its cosmological sense, it’s the common thread which connects African
peoples with their African roots. It encompasses an intergenerational
ancestral connection between the living, the dead, and the unborn. It is a
moral and ethical communal existence which is built upon notions of col-
lective social responsibility to one’s clan, family, and community, their
ancestors, and the Creator. From a spiritual point of view, it is about giving
thanks to the Creator, to the ancestors, and to the environment. In
essence, African philosophies are an everyday embodiment of Wisdom as
a being who is connected to a greater purpose in life. In this chapter, I will
articulate my understanding of what constitutes African philosophies as
well as provide synopses of the current contemporary debates on Africa
philosophies. I will then highlight the dis-positioning of African philoso-
phies within Eurocentric institutions. I will conceptualize the foundation
of African philosophies. After that I will engage in a discussion about
African communalism.

Introduction
African traditional philosophies are multiple bodies of living comprehen-
sive knowledges which encapsulate holistic ways of knowing. As such, they
are social constructs which enable members of a community to think in

© The Author(s) 2019 7

N. N. Wane, Gender, Democracy and Institutional Development in
Africa, Gender, Development and Social Change,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11854-9_2
8 A. A. ILMI

and through specific cultural norms wherever they are raised. African phi-
losophies are the foundations of African societies in as much as they are
overarching principles governing the everyday life of Africans. In its cos-
mological sense, it’s the common thread which connects African peoples
with their African roots. It encompasses an intergenerational ancestral
connection between the living, the dead, and the unborn. It is a moral and
ethical communal existence which is built upon notions of collective social
responsibility to one’s clan, family, and community, their ancestors, and
the Creator. From a spiritual point of view, it is about giving thanks to the
Creator, to the ancestors, and to the environment. In essence, African
philosophies are an everyday embodiment of Wisdom as a being who is
connected to a greater purpose in life. Moreover, it is about becoming in
as much as it is about being.
African philosophies enable one to interpret their world through their
own worldviews and cultural experience. It captures and gives meaning to
the significance of the African ritual ceremonies and oral traditions in rela-
tion to one’s notions of self and community. What is profoundly unique
about African traditional philosophies is the elasticity of its teaching which
allows for multiple interpretations in various cultural contexts within
Africa. As such, close study of African institutions such as eldership, ora-
tory, proverbs, and kinship indicates that although all African societies
function differently, there are striking commonalities between all African
philosophies.
African traditional philosophies are embodied experiential values that
are carried by African people as they journey through life. As such they are
lessons which are instilled in African beings from the cradle to the grave
through orators and they are embedded in the social fabric of every African
soul. Moreover, they expand beyond the abstract understanding of phi-
losophy as a discipline because they encompass myths, physical and spiri-
tual dimensions which connect members of a particular community to
their environment, to each other, and to their ancestors. From infancy
babies are conditioned to adhere to African philosophies of their commu-
nity through lullabies that are sang to them by their mothers and as they
grow older by their grandparents as a means of ensuring that children are
aware of the way of life in their communities.
I contend that the transmission of tradition in this method ensures the
continuum of the social order encapsulated in those teachings. Through
childhood and adolescence, proverbs and rituals are instrumental in social-
 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHIES 9

izing African youth. As such, it defines every youth’s relationship with

their Creator, their inner souls, their families, and their communities.
Adolescence which often entails an initiation process geared toward grant-
ing the African child the right of passage, a process which is founded upon
certain key principles that have been passed down intergenerationally to
insure the survival of those principles for the greater good of society. In
this chapter, I will articulate my understanding of what constitutes African
philosophies. Thereafter, I will provide synopses of the current contempo-
rary debates on Africa philosophies. I will then highlight the dis-­positioning
of African philosophies within Eurocentric institutions, after which I will
conceptualize the foundation of African philosophies. Finally, I will engage
in a discussion about African communalism.

What Constitutes African Philosophies?

In his work entitled African Religions & Philosophy, Mbiti (1969) explains
that:

Philosophy should be used to: refer to the philosophical understanding of

African peoples concerning different issues of life. Philosophy of one kind or
another is behind the thinking and acting of every people and a study of
traditional religions bring us into those areas of African life where, through
word and action, we may be able to discern the philosophy behind. This
involves interpretation of information before us, and interpretation cannot
be completely free of subjective judgment. What, therefore, is ‘African
Philosophy’, may not amount to more than simply my own process of phi-
losophizing the items under consideration: But this cannot be helped, and
in any case I am by Birth African. (p. 2)

Although Mbiti’s articulation of African philosophies is situated in reli-

gious thought, his understanding not only highlights the complexities in
defending African philosophies but also indicates the elasticity of defining
what exactly African philosophies are. I am not suggesting that any disci-
pline can pass for African philosophies and/or that African philosophies
are so vague and methodologically hard to define. But rather than in
defining African philosophies, one must have had a comprehensive under-
standing of what that African way of life is all about. Going back to Mbiti’s
excerpt in which he stated “in any case I am an African” (p. 2) is striking
at the core of what African philosophies are all about.
10 A. A. ILMI

According to Theophile Obenga (2004), philosophy could be defined as:

As a systematic reflective thinking on life. Therefore, is not a single phi-

losophy that could be excogitated except in relation to life, society, exis-
tence, and universe. Even abstract reasoning about the conditions or
quality of being nothing (“Nothingness”) still deals with something in the
universe, since the universe is the totality of all that is. Human beings
always need to discern what is real, true, right, or lasting. Such insight is
wisdom, because understanding what is true, right, or lasting necessarily
elevates the mind. (p. 33)

The excerpt above indicates that the African societies have always tried to
reflectively make sense of their existence through rationally thinking about
their world. It is these deep thoughts that have been constructed as gov-
erning philosophical principles to regulate the code of conduct. As such,
African philosophies are the moral pillars of any given African society.
Molefi Asante and Abu Abarry (1996) in their edited collection African
Intellectual Heritage state “Philosophical statements emerge out of con-
crete context of social, political, and behavioral modalities” (p. 285). In
agreement with Molefi Asante and Abu Abarry’s take on African philoso-
phies, in studying the discipline, one must come to know the particular
principles regulating any given African society to gain a deep intellectual
understanding of the often complex web of social relations which are
operationalized in African communities. Kwame Gyekye (1987) in his
book, An Essay on African Philosophical Thought, wrote:

African philosophical thought is expressed both in the oral literature and in

the thoughts and actions of the people. Thus, a great deal of philosophical
material is embedded in the proverbs, myths and folktales, folk songs, ritu-
als, beliefs, customs, and traditions of the peoples, in their art symbols and
in their socio-political institutions and practices. (p. 13)

With his assertion, Gyekye gives a practical theoretical understanding of

what African philosophical thought is all about. In his paper The Question
of African Philosophy, Bodunrin (1981) argues that:

Philosophy begins in wonder. The universe itself provided [humans] with

the first source of wonder. There are the stars, the oceans, the phenomena of
birth, life, death, growth and decay. [Humans] wonder about whether there
is a guiding force behind all these things, etc. All human society is organized
according to what are accepted to these fundamental questions. (p. 163)
 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHIES 11

Thus, positioning his discussion around the curious nature of humans to

try to find some answers to some of their deepest thought, Bodunrin hints
at the sophisticated manner in which Africans come to philosophize their
world. As a strong proponent of African philosophical tradition, Luctus
Outlaw (1997), in his short essay, asserts:

“African philosophy” is the phrase I use as a “gathering” notion under

which to situate the articulations (writings, speeches, etc.), and traditions of
the same, Africans and peoples of African descent collectively, as well as the
sub-discipline- or field-forming, traditions-defining, traditions-organizing
reconstructive efforts which are (to be) regarded as philosophy. Use of
qualifiers “Africans” is consistent with the practice of grouping and identi-
fying intellectual traditions and practices by the national, geographic, cul-
tural, racial, and/or the primary practitioners-and/or are the subjects and
objects—of the practices and traditions in question… However, “Africana
philosophy” is meant to include as well the work of those persons neither
African nor African descent but who recognize the legitimacy and the
importance of the issues and endeavours to constitute the philosophizing of
persons African or African-descended and who contribute to the discus-
sions of their efforts, persons whose work justifies their being called
“Africanists.” (p. 267)

Although Outlaw’s contestation is steeped in oppositional intellectual-

ism, the fact that it is merely situated within a diasporic context is a strong
indicator that there are common threads that run through the African
philosophical creed. Hence, indicating that there is a common origin of all
African traditions and African philosophies is the glue that permeates all
African societies.
On the question of African philosophies, Martin Bernal (1987) in his
classic work The Black Athena: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece,
1785–1985, argues that indeed what is deemed to be Greek philosophy is
rooted in Egyptian philosophy. Another strong proponent of the African
philosophy is Theophile Obenga (2004), mentioned earlier, who success-
fully argued in 1974 before the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) with Cheik Anta Diop that ancient
Egyptian civilizations are Black. The arguments presented by scholars are
quite significant in providing strong evidence that the origins of civiliza-
tion are African. H. Odera Oruka (1990) in his edited collection SAGE
Philosophies: indigenous thinkers and modern Debates about African philoso-
phy also points to the dis-positioning of African philosophies by highlight-
12 A. A. ILMI

ing how Greek Philosophers of the past could be called philosophers with
one utterance while African Sages were not recognized as philosophers in
their communities. This in turn raises very important questions such as:
Why are African traditional philosophies not classified as philosophies?
What are the contemporary debates on African traditional thoughts? What
are the politics of claiming African philosophies? In the following section
of this chapter, I would like to open up a discussion on the essence of the
contemporary debates about African philosophies.

What Are the Contemporary Debates on African

Philosophies?
In his essay “The Question of African philosophy,” P. O. Bodunrin (1981)
opens up a debate on the roots of the very question he names his article.
The author alludes to the fact that the question of African philosophy is
rooted in a bigger question that is, is there an African philosophy? (p. 161).
He also goes on to break down the nature of how African philosophies
have been taken up through academic discipline in what he describes as
(1) Ethno-philosophy as being the works of anthropologists, sociologists,
ethnographers, and philosophers who study African communities; (2)
Philosophic sagacity, a study which rejects a holistic approach of African
philosophies; and (3) Nationalist-ideological philosophy, which is a politi-
cal theory searching for ways to evolve the African communalism. This
theory, as the author puts it, was championed by the likes of Pan-Africanists
such as Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, and Leopold Senghor (p. 62).
Bodunrin’s theory highlights the particular position that African tradi-
tional thought occupies both as an intellectual discipline in the academy
and as a holistic way of African life. Why else would it be placed between
historically Eurocentric disciplines and radical Pan-Africanists? My ques-
tion is, in studying the African way of life, must we look outside the con-
tinent to the West? How did the Africans conceptualize the study of
African Philosophies? And how did they make sense of their studies?
Bodunrin (1981) goes on to point out that “in Africa, the challenge to the
traditional world views and belief systems came chiefly from contact with
Western Europeans” (p. 163), thus stressing the politics of marginalizing
African traditional world views. Then, the writer states “Philosophy is con-
scious creations. One cannot be said to have a philosophy in the strict
sense of the word until one has consciously reflected on one’s beliefs. It is
 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHIES 13

unlikely that such conscious reflections did not take place in traditional
African; it is however left to research to what extent it has” (p. 169). In
agreement is the author’s contestation, the very question of whether
African philosophies exist negates African world views. Unfortunately, that
is where the very foundation of African societies has been placed.
Another writer, who has highlighted how the Western canon has
attempted to disenfranchise African traditions, is D. A. Masolo (1994). In
his book African Philosophy in Search of Identity, he looks at African phi-
losophies through a very contemporary political lens. The beginning
words of his book read as follows:

The birth of the debate on African philosophy is historically associated with

two related happenings: Western discourse on Africa, and the response to
it. This dialogue has taken many forms and has discussed a variety of topics
and ideas depicting the individual’s role and impact in the shaping and
control of one’s identity and destiny. At the center of this debate is the
concept of reason, a value which is believed to stand as the great division
between the civilized and the uncivilized, the logical and the mystical.
(Masolo 1994, p. 1)

In essence, he encapsulates the parameters of the debate in relation to the

African philosophies to signify the epistemic aggressive nature of Western
epistemologies against the African world views. Moreover, what is pro-
foundly moving is the fact that Masolo’s (1994) work connects with the
idea of search for the African identity and notions of the political return to
the African way of life. I find this somehow fascinating because of the idea
of return and/or the ideas of political resistance through the embodiment
of the African way of life, but indeed because African philosophies and
their holistic ways of life have never been lost. I am mindful of the current
contemporary political climate in which African philosophies are being
disenfranchised, in particular when it comes to academic discipline.
In African Philosophy in Our Time, Kwasi Wiredu (2004) narrates his
academic experiences in an African university of not being exposed to
African philosophies while he was studying until the time of his graduation
in 1958 and often being put off by the word “primitive” when he did.
Although he situates his discussions within a Eurocentric institution in
search of his African ways, nevertheless, the fact that he searches outside
himself to try and find something that is deeply rooted in him is a strong
indicator of the dis-positioning of African philosophies within the Western
14 A. A. ILMI

academy and how this affects the African learner. Wiredu’s narrative also
leads me to think of a larger question, that is, do African philosophies and
traditions actually belong in the historically Eurocentric institutions? Well
my answer is yes, African philosophies do have a place within the academy.
As such, African philosophies are the foundation for African humanity, and
they give meaning to the indigenous way of life.
Thus, they offer a comprehensive understanding to some of the great
contributions Africa has made to the world that is beneficial to all learners,
in particular the African learners who have been taught that the roots of
World philosophy are/is Greece. My intention here is not to advance the
notion that African traditional philosophies need the Academy to be vali-
dated. I advance the position that African philosophies must be under-
stood within historical context to begin uncovering some of the African
traditions that have greatly impacted humanity.

The Dis-positioning of African Philosophies

in Eurocentric Institutions

Obenga (2004) writes “It is a mere prejudice to believe that the philo-
sophical epoch of humanity begins among the Greek in the fifth century
BCE. This prejudice implies that other ancient people did not engage in
speculative thought” (p. 31). In agreement with Obenga’s ideas, if the
first humans are to have been African and indeed the oldest human fossils
have been discovered in Eastern Africa, then we should study African tra-
ditional philosophies to bring nuances to the true essence of African
thought. In studying African philosophy holistically as a discipline, one
must reconceptualize African philosophies in and through their embodied
experiences and make sense of their universe. In most African societies,
there are creation myths that essentially tell a story of how the community
came to exist in this world. There are also proverbs and rituals which
explain some of the values that are embedded in the social fabric of a par-
ticular society, and there is in addition an encompassing holistic way of life.
Therefore, in thinking about African philosophies, we must take into
account all the richness in the body of knowledge that constitutes the
African way of life. Many Africans have championed the African way of life
and have produced scholarly works positioning their cultural philosophies
within the academic institutions that were instrumental in negating those
traditions through various interdisciplinary methods. Those scholars have
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