Alternative Format GTM Copy - Compressed

GENERAL TEACHING
METHODS
Course
Become a 21st Century Teacher
Learning and Active Teaching Assessment and Classroom Instructional

cognition and Learning evaluation management materials
This course is also available online
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CONTENT
01 LEARNING AND COGNITION
02 ACTIVE TEACHING AND

LEARNING
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
03 AND ORGANIZATION
04 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
05 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
01
LEARNING AND COGNITION

CONTENT
1 THEORIES OF LEARNING 3
What is learning 3
Types and processes of learning 4
Behaviourism 4
Constructivism 5
Social-Constructivism 7
Cognitivism 8
Conclusion on learning theories 10
2 LEARNING STYLES 11
Introduction to learning styles 11
Interpersonal learners 11
Intrapersonal learners 12
Kinesthetic learners 12
Verbal learners 13
Visual learners 14
Logical learners 14
Auditory learners 15
One size does not fit all 15
3 LEVELS OF COGNITION 17
Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy 17
How Bloom’s Taxonomy is useful for teachers 18
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1 THEORIES OF LEARNING
Learners experience the curriculum in very different ways depending on their

background and abilities. Their general level of development and academic attainment
is usually very different, even among learners who are peers. In many cases the
differences will emanate from different abilities, for example: delayed speech, poor
social skills and even lack of attention in class. This makes us wonder how the
information presented in class is turned into knowledge for the learners.
Therefore, this subtopic seeks to introduce you to cognition as a process through which
knowledge is acquired through experiences, sensations and thoughts. It will also
introduce you to learning, which is a process of acquiring knowledge through experience.
Last, this subtopic will also explore how both cognition and learning are interrelated, as
cognition is particularly important for teaching because it is the process that leads to
learning.
What is learning
Learning is a complex process, but what is learning exactly? Consider the following
definitions and the implications each has for teaching:
• Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skill through study,

experience, or teaching.
• Learning is experience that brings about a relatively permanent change in
behavior.
• Learning is a change in neural function as a consequence of experience.
• Learning is the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge.
• Learning is an increase in the amount of response rules and concepts in the
memory of an intelligent system.
Regardless of which theory of learning is being applied, it is essential that teachers

enable an open and flexible approach to their practice. Each learner has individual
needs and slightly different ways of learning. This individuality suggests that for there
to be an effective use of theories of learning, they should be used simultaneously,
drawing on the benefits and overcoming the limitations of each.
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In order to support learners in learning and developing knowledge, a teacher needs to
plan strategies and respond to learners effectively through taking into account the
diversity in the classroom and the learning needs of individuals. To do this effectively, it
is helpful to understand some of the main theories about learning and how these might
manifest themselves in the classroom. It is in this regard, we will take critical analysis of
the following four key theories of learning:
• Behaviourism
• Constructivism
• Social-constructivism
• Cognitivism
Types and processes of learning
Behaviourism
Behaviourism defines learning as a change in the behaviour of the learner. The learning
theory suggests that in order to have learning, the learners must be actively engaged
and being rewarded immediately to reinforce their activity. Behaviourism concentrates
on the aspects of learning that are overtly observable and measurable. The desired
behaviour is advanced by external stimuli. Therefore, it is mainly based on the stimuli-
response associations: given the right stimulus, you will get the right response.
If a learner shows desirable behaviour in class, the concepts op Behaviourism tells us to

reinforce this behaviour as a teacher (stimuli), as it will be likely that the desired
behaviour will become more probable in the future (response). Likewise, undesirable
behaviour that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. All behaviour is acquired by the
shaping of behaviour using and anticipating on stimuli-response associations. The
Behaviouristic learning theory emphasizes that the response is observable and
measurable, as knowledge and skill can be demonstrated through the learners’
observable behaviour.
History
Psychologists Pavlov, Watson and Skinner were responsible for the development of the
behaviouristic learning theory in the early part of the twentieth century. Watch the
below as an extra reference and get more background information on the research each
of the psychologists conducted and how their ideas influenced the behaviouristic
learning theory. The video will also give you extra insights on the stimuli-response
model where the behaviouristic approach is based on.
Link to the video: https://bit.ly/36KrQKh
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Key principles and classroom implications
The main principles underpinning the behaviouristic learning theory are:
• Learning at its best takes place through the teacher taking control over the
learning process, who is actively reinforcing learners in order to get the
desirable learning outcomes
• Learning outcomes are measurable/observable
• Repetition and practice is key to achieve learning, as it strengthens the relation
between stimulus of the teachers and the desired response by the learner
• Feedback is vital to achieve learning, as the teachers stimulates the learner to
give the desired response to measure learning outcomes
• Positively reinforced behaviour (for example, by rewards, praise or recognition)
is likely to be repeated
• Negatively reinforced behaviour (for example, by ignorance) is less likely to be
repeated
Constructivism
Learning, according to the constructivist theory, occurs when knowledge is constructed

by the individual as a result of their experiences in the world. The core concept of
constructivism is that knowledge is constructed as learners build new knowledge on the
basis of what they have already learned. As learners enter learning situations with
knowledge acquired from previous experiences, their prior knowledge influences what
new or modified knowledge they will build from the new learning experiences.
To build from the new experiences, learning must be active, the learner is not a passive
receiver of transmitted information. If the new experience is inconsistent with learners’
present knowledge, this knowledge must be adjusted to accommodate the new
experience. Teachers would do this through the creation of scaffolds. This is where the
teacher provides a means for learners to apply already existing skills to acquire new
knowledge. The constructivist teacher is curious about learners’ current understanding,
provides experiences in which learners are actively involved, allows responses to guide
subsequent lessons, promotes relevant experiential learning, and fosters self-reflection.
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History
Dissatisfaction with the limitations of Behaviourism led researchers to look for ways to
explain the unobservable changes that took place when learning occurred. These
developments were rooted in the work of Jean Piaget, in the 1920s. Piaget’s view was
that learning occurs when knowledge is constructed by the individual as a result of their
experiences in the world. This progresses through distinct stages (Stages of Cognitive
Development), he termed:
• Sensorimotor (birth - 2 years): experiencing the world through senses and

actions
• Pre-operational (2 years - 7 years): representing things with words and images
but lacking logical reasoning
• Concrete operational (7 years - 11years): thinking logical about concrete event
• Formal operational (11 years - onwards): abstract, hypothetical thinking,
systematic deductive reasoning, interest in issues
Furthermore, Piaget formalised that people construct new knowledge from their prior
experiences through the processes of accommodation and assimilation. People
assimilate when they integrate a new experience into their already established mental
framework and accommodate when they reframe their mental representation of the
world to incorporate their new experience.
The main principles underpinning the constructivist learning theory are:
• Learners come to the classroom with prior understandings and experiences.

To promote learning, teachers must address and build upon this prior
knowledge.
• Teachers must think about what a child already knows, so that new
knowledge can be related to existing schemata (assimilated or
accommodated).
• Teachers must look for misconceptions in the learners’ existing knowledge
and provide learning activities that enable the learners to understand the
limitations of their current conceptions.
• Teachers must prepare learning tasks in which the learners can actively
participate as learners’ own discovery as a crucial element in learning.
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Social-Constructivism
The social-constructivist learning theory claims that learning is dependent on socio-

cultural influences. Therefore, it is through interaction and exercise of communication
that people learn. It is the teacher’s role to create a situation where the learner can
compile their own interpretations by using interpretations of others around them.
Teachers would do this through the creation of scaffolds. This is where the teacher
provides a means for learners to apply already existing skills to acquire new knowledge.
In this view, the social-constructivist learning theory is a supporter of Piaget’s work
(Constructivism), but they disagree on one key point: Social-constructivism criticizes
Constructivism for focusing on the individual learner rather than on the social context
in which learning takes place and advocate that interaction between learners, through
language, influences the level of conceptual understanding.
History
The development of Social-Constructivism roots in the work of Russian Psychologist Lev

Vygotsky. Vygotsky’s view was that learners learn optimally from interaction with their
peers, whether their peers are of the same age or of a higher age and whether they had
the same development stage or not.
Vygotsky made reference to the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and suggested
that there is a difference between what a person is able to do on his own and what they
can achieve with the help of somebody who has greater knowledge than them.
Vygotsky claimed that if a teacher can provide scaffolds with a focus on interaction
during this time then the child’s knowledge could be brought to a higher level as they
learn from each other. The zone of proximal development is best understood as the
difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with
help. Vygotsky stated that a child follows an adult's or peers’ example and gradually
develops the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance. It is the distance
between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers. In this view, the best
type of learning takes place when the learners are expected to develop skills that are
slightly beyond their grasp, but they can develop with the help from peers.
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The main principles underpinning the social-constructivist learning theory are:
• Learning is collaborative in nature and the social context is a major factor.

• All cognitive functions originate as products of social interactions.
• Learners can transmit knowledge to each other through language, as they are
received by other learners, knowledge is co-constructed.
• It is the teacher’s task to encourage team work and collaboration, organize
discussions and debates, provide opportunities for group work and group
study.
• Classrooms need to be places where teachers create environments in which
learners feel encouraged and secured enough to be able to express and
explore their thoughts, feelings and emotions.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received, organized,

stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information processer, like a
computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behaviour, viewing learning
as internal mental processes. In this view, learners are actively involved in the way they
process information. Knowledge, memory, thinking, and problem solving are areas for
development.
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History
Cognitivist theory developed as a reaction to Behaviorism and gained credence in the

1950s. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because they felt that behaviorists thought
learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that thinking plays an
important role. Although many researchers contributed to the development of the
learning theory (e.g. Bruner, Vygotsky, Bloom, Ausubel), Piaget’s views had a
tremendous impact. Spurred by the work of Piaget (Constructivism), knowledge is
viewed as symbolic mental constructs, or schemata. When a learners' schemata are
changed, learning takes place. As neuroscientists continue to discover more about how
the brain works, cognitive psychologists and educators are concerned with how to use
that knowledge in the classroom.
The main principles underpinning the cognitive learning theory are:
• Learning is a process of organizing information into conceptualized models.

• Instructions should be organized, sequenced and presented in a manner that
is understandable and meaningful to the learner.
• Retention and recall is important to build schema’s in the brain.
• Memory is supported by organizing learning material.
• Teachers must provide tools that help learner’s brain process information.
Link to the video: https://bit.ly/3qy8tfd
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Conclusion on learning theories
Based on the four theories of learning previously discussed, you must have drawn
conclusion that learning is a complex process that brings together cognitive, emotional,
and external (environmental and social) influences and experiences that involves
learners acquiring, enhancing, or adjusting her/his knowledge, values, skills, or views of
the world. Though different learning theories involve contrasting ideas, in many cases
the theories are not mutually exclusive but demonstrate overlapping or connecting
ideas. Therefore, as a teacher, you will find yourself moving seamlessly through all
learning theories.
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2 LEARNING STYLES
Learning styles have been described as learners' tendency to adopt a particular strategy
in learning based on their personal characteristics. Some people believe that this has
implications for the classroom, as a learner’s preferred learning style may affect the way
in which they respond to your teaching. Therefore, this subtopic seeks to introduce you
to different learning styles learners can adopt and how you can anticipate on different
learning styles in the classroom as a teacher.
Introduction to learning styles
A learner's individual learning style refers to the preferential way in which they absorb
process and retain information. Learning styles depend on cognitive, emotional and
environmental factors, as well as prior experiences. In other words, everyone is
different and different modes of learning suite different learners. Learning styles are
also termed ‘learning preferences’ or ‘learning strategies'.
How do you prefer to learn or process information? Taking the questionnaire below,
you can discover your own learning styles and find out how they influence the way you
understand and process information.
Watch the below video and get an introduction to learning styles:
Link to the video: https://bit.ly/3orQ9mk
Interpersonal learners
Interpersonal learners love to interact and prefer learning through communication and
interaction. Interpersonal learners are true people persons. They enjoy heading up
committees, participating in group learning projects, and communicating with other
learners and adults. They enjoy school activities such as speech, drama, and debate
teams. The strengths of people with a high degree of interpersonal intelligence are in
communicating with and understanding other people. They may be good at leading and
organizing other people and groups, understanding other people and resolving
conflicts. The classroom implications discussed in the subtopic on Social
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constructivism are corresponding for interpersonal learners' preference to absorb
information.
Suitable teaching and learning activities
• Groupwork
• Class discussions and debates
• Peer tutoring
• Micro-teaching
• School clubs and social gatherings
Intrapersonal learners
An intrapersonal learner is someone who prefers working alone, which is the exact
opposite of an ‘interpersonal learner’. These are self-motivated learners that like to set
individual goals, and prefer to study by themselves with their own thoughts and ideas
rather than with others that intrude on those thoughts. They are very self-aware of their
own strength and weaknesses and may have very high self-management skills. This
learning style is also termed ‘solitary learning style’.
• Learning contracts
• Independent study (provide resources as books, websites, videos)
• Allow learners to set goals and tasks for themselves
• Allow learners to study quietly and free from distractions
Kinesthetic learners
Kinesthetic learners absorb information best by doing, experiencing, touching, moving,

or being active in some way. In other words, they best absorb information using their
body, hands and sense of touch. Often, students with a kinesthetic learning style have
a hard time learning through traditional lectures. In those circumstances, they fidget or
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can't sit still for long, they want to get up and move around. They would prefer to pull
an engine apart and put it back together, rather than reading or looking at diagrams
about how it works. This learning style is also termed ‘tactile or physical learning style’.
• Learning by doing: hands on learning methods, using manipulatives, imitations

and practice
• Discovery learning and experiments
• Constructions games
• Demonstrations
• Field trips and excursions
• Role-playing and simulations
• Allow frequent breaks
Verbal learners
Learners with a verbal learning style prefer to learn verbally by reading or listening.
Thus, this learning styles involves both written and spoken words. It is possible to hear
such a statement from a verbal learner “I prefer to read instructions on how to do
something rather than have someone show me.” It is necessary to present to them
plenty of reading materials, as they love reading and writing. Verbal learners are
naturally born speakers and find it easy to express themselves, both in writing and
verbally. This learning style is also termed ‘linguistic learning style’.
• Activities to verbally express themselves: presentations, speeches

• Round table discussions and classroom debates
• Role-playing
• Simulations
• Word-based tasks: scripting, assertions
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• Interviewing
• Repeating and rephrasing
• Group study
Visual learners
Visual learners learn best by engaging their visual senses. The whiteboard, texts for
reading, or information on computers all help them succeed in the classroom. It's
important to distinguish that some visual learners prefer the written form of the
language, such as a book that explains grammar or vocabulary. This preference is similar
to an analytical approach. Other visual learners prefer diagrams or charts that illustrate
grammar or vocabulary.
Although most people believe notes aid memory, visual learners see notes as a
prerequisite to memory. In other words, if they don't write down the information
and/or draw charts and diagrams, then they won't remember the information. Note
that listening skills are a primary component of oral communication. Extra opportunities
should be given to build listening ability, with many opportunities for visual learners to
hear and process the information. This learning style is also termed ‘spatial learning
style’.
• Visual aids: charts, diagrams, images, mind mapping, use of whiteboard

• Flashcards with images and/or words
• Use color, layout, and spatial organization
• Allow and give time to write notes in the class
Logical learners
Logical learners enjoy learning that is systemic or follows given procedures. Logical
learners like using their brain for logical and mathematical reasoning. They typically
work through problems and issues in a systematic way, and they like to create
procedures for future use. They can recognize patterns easily, as well as connections
between seemingly meaningless content. This also leads them to classify and group
information to help them learn or understand it. Logical learners are often very well
with numbers and can perform complex calculations. This learning style is also termed
‘mathematical learning style’.
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• Problem-based learning
• Open-ended questions
• Diagrams
• Puzzles
Auditory learners
Auditory learners prefer to collect and confirm information via listening. Some of these
learners learn best when the teacher explains orally. They can quickly process and act
upon the information. Information written down has less meaning until auditory
learners also hear it. Such learners enjoy a setting where they are able to clearly hear
the sound in a learning situation and can easily sit at the back of the class, as they can
benefit from lectures more than the other learners do.
Some auditory learners learn best when participating in speaking activities in

pairs/groups. These learners more effectively absorb and retain the information with
dynamic use of the language. This learning style is also termed ‘musical or rhythmic
learning style’.
• Storytelling
• Read information out loud (e.g. instructions)
• Provide auditory resources: CD's, podcasts
• Speaking activities in pairs/groups
One size does not fit all
Every person uses more than one learning style in the course of learning. Therefore,
one single approach to teaching does not work for every learner or even for most of the
learner. The educators’ awareness of the various learning styles of the learners and
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their efforts towards matching the teaching and learning styles may help in creating an
effective learning environment for all the learners.
A teacher can adopt a variety of strategies in catering for different learners in his class,
for example:
• Having a variety of learning aids on display in the class as diagrams and

images.
• Varying teaching methods to cater for a variety of learning styles, such as
group work, individual assignment, problem solving, dramatization, field trips
and quizzes.
• Being conscious about the seating arrangement in your class. Learners can be
allowed some freedom to choose where to sit and seats should be arranged in
a variety of ways to cater for the differences.
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3 LEVELS OF COGNITION
Learning, from a cognitive point of view, involves mental operations or thinking skills. It
is important for teachers to clearly understand these metal operations in terms of levels
of complexity in order to design meaningful lesson competencies expected of the
21st century learner. Therefore, a multi-layered model, named Bloom’s Taxonomy, will
be introduced in this subtopic to help you understand different levels of cognition.
Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification of cognitive skills into hierarchical levels of

complexity that can help teacher teach and learners learn. While the affective and
sensory domains have been given less attention, the cognitive domain has been the
primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure
curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities. The image below visually
demonstrates the hierarchy of Bloom’s taxonomy, separating lower order thinking skills
form higher order thinking skills.
Levels of cognition
According to Benjamin Bloom, there are six levels of cognition. Each of these levels of
cognition have verbs that can be used in stating lesson objectives in preparing to teach.
Some of the verbs that can be used to state lesson objectives are mentioned below
together with the categorized level of cognition:
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Knowledge: remember or recall previous learned information.
Example: recall country capitals, memorize a poem

Verbs: define, repeat, list, name, …
Comprehension: demonstrate an understanding of the facts.
Example: summarize the plot of a story, explain a process in one’s one words
Verbs: explain, interpret, paraphrase, defend, convert, estimate, …
Application: apply knowledge to actual situations, use of a concept or method.
Example: use a formula to solve a problem

Verbs: apply, develop, restructure, illustrate, modify, …
Analysis: break down objects/ideas into simpler parts and find evidence to generalize.
Example: explain how the steps of the scientific process work together
Verbs: analyze, compare, examine, contrast, investigate, experiment, …
Evaluation: make and defend judgments based on internal evidence or external

criteria.
Example: make a judgment regarding an ethical dilemma

Verbs: evaluate, compose, criticize, appraise, defend, justify, support, …
Creation: Compile component ideas into a new whole or propose alternatives.
Example: design a new solution to a problem that acknowledges the previous

failures
Verbs: create, combine, compose, generate, reconstruct, rewrite, combine
How Bloom’s Taxonomy is useful for teachers
Many educators love Bloom’s Taxonomy because, among other benefits, it gives them
a way to think about their teaching and the subsequent learning of their learners.
The framework can be used to state lesson objectives in preparing to teach.

Furthermore, as the framework provides an order for cognitive behaviors, it can be
applied to evaluate the complexity of tasks, to create assessment, to simplify or
complicate an activity to help personalize learning, and many more.
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Last, as Bloom’s Taxonomy helps classifying classroom lesson objectives, it helps
teachers to variate among the levels of complexity with a focus on achieving higher
levels of the hierarchy. The framework helps teacher to develop critical thinking and
higher order cognitive abilities, which are aligned with 21st century skills, in learners. A
framework for 21st century learning focuses on four key skills that are known as 'the 4
Cs': Critical thinking, Communication, Collaboration and Creativity. Watch the video
below to get an introduction to the 4Cs and how it can effect your teaching practice and
learners' learning.
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02
ACTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

CONTENT
1 FOUNDATION AND RATIONALE 3

Introduction to active teaching and learning 3
Defining active teaching and learning 3
Rationale of active teaching and learning 4
2 METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND TOOS 5
Methods 5
Problem-based learning 6
Project-based learning 7
Learning stations 7
Learning contracts 8
Techniques 9
Groupwork 9
Demonstration 10
Presentation 11
Brainstorming 12
Simulation 13
Storytelling 14
Drill 15
Tools 16
Quiz 16
Roleplay 17
Low cost experiments 18
Flashcards 18
Videos 19
Images 20
Charts and maps 21
Diagrams 21
Student portfolio 22
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1 FOUNDATION AND RATIONALE
Many reforms are geared to enable teachers to move away from standard ‘learning by
rote’ methods. On the other hand actively engaging learners is encouraged to develop
learners’ knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for the 21st century. To develop both
learners' and teachers’ competencies, it is important for teachers to understand the
foundations and rationale of actively engaging learners. Therefore, this subtopic focuses
on the underlying principles of Active Teaching and Learning.
Introduction to active teaching and learning
To direct attention to the process where learners are actively engaged in learning,
educators sometimes refer to student-centered pedagogy, child-centred pedagogy,
critical thinking pedagogy, inquiry or discovery-based teaching. In this General Teaching
Methods course reference is made to Active Teaching and Learning as an overarching
term to describe to underlying principles and methods common to actively engaging
learners in the teaching and learning process.
Defining active teaching and learning
Active teaching and learning is an approach that informs the practices of teaching based
on the belief that people learn best by actively constructing knowledge rather than by
passively adding memorised facts to an existing store of knowledge. In active teaching
and learning, engaging learners to think critically about problems prevails over the
transmission models where teachers are the central source of knowledge, engaging
learners mainly through rote memorisation.
Active teaching and learning derives from an alternative theory of knowledge known as
constructivism. While not opposed to the use of scientific methods to create
knowledge, constructivism assumes that knowledge emerges through reflection on
one’s experiences, ideas and interactions.
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In other words, knowledge is created through a process of new information interacting
with prior knowledge and experiences of learners. Several prominent education
scholars, such as Jean Piaget, demonstrate the relevance of constructivism to pedagogy.
They show how knowledge is relevant when it is ‘in use’ and linked to previous
experience rather than when it is ‘delivered.’
Constructivism suggests that teachers should create the conditions for learners to
discover and actively construct knowledge -to ‘learn to learn’- and to develop the higher
order thinking skills of analysis and synthesis through inquiry-oriented activities.
Rationale of active teaching and learning
Teachers often rely on the traditional teacher-centered education styles where they are
viewed as the information provider while learners simply listen, memorise and take
notes. This approach has proven to limit the skills and knowledge development of
learners. Research shows that active teaching and learning fosters understanding,
memorisation and problem-solving abilities (mental cognitive processes) and helps to
canalise emotions, motivation, and interpersonal relationships (psychological factors).
With active teaching and learning, learning systems shift focus from the teacher to the
learner and foster independent reasoning, problem solving and critical thinking.
Learners become more likely to retain a higher percentage of knowledge and skills
because they engage with different types of study materials, participate in and out of
the classroom and exchange information with their peers.
Watch the below video and learn more about what learners and teachers experience
while integrating active teaching and learning in their classrooms.
Link to the video: https://bit.ly/37xQuwS
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2 METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND TOOS
After an introduction to the foundation and underlying rationale of active teaching and
learning, this subtopic provides you with a series of methods, techniques and tools that
facilitate the effective panning and delivery of the active instructional process. A variety
of hands-on Active Teaching and Learning instructional methods, techniques and tools
and how to integrate them during the teaching and learning process is introduced.
Methods
A method is an organised, orderly, systematic, and well-planned procedure aimed at

facilitating and enhancing learners’ learning. A method considers the abilities, needs,
and interests of the learners and is employed to achieve certain aims of instruction. To
make it an effective instrument, it should be presented with a certain amount of
efficiency and ease. More so, the teaching method aims to achieve greater teaching and
learning output, thus saving time, efforts and even money on the part of both the
teacher and the learner.
Methods direct and guide the teacher and the learners in undertaking any lesson or
activity. Remember that there is no such thing as the best method. Thus, there is no
single correct way to teach a class. Instead, there are many good ways of teaching the
learners.
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Problem-based learning
Problem-based learning is a method that challenges learners to learn by solving

problems presented in the form of case studies and simulations. This method enables
learners to be self-directed and to acquire lifelong learning skills. Problem-based
learning produces critical thinkers and problem solvers as learners integrate knowledge
and skills from a number of disciplines. It motivates learners to find and use appropriate
learning resources. The method is rooted in the experiential learning tradition. Its
characteristics include:
• Complex, real world situations that do not have one ‘right’ answer
• The teachers acts as a facilitator
• It addresses a specific problem while calling for knowledge and skills from
several disciplines
• Tends to be shorter than project-based learning, and follows specific,
traditionally prescribed steps
• The outcome is a proposed solution, expressed in writing or in an oral
presentation
Overview of key steps
1. Identify a problem relevant to the curriculum. Focus on complex, real world

situations that do not have one right answer (lesson planning)
2. Split students into small groups, assign the problem to several groups for them
to work on (lesson delivery)
3. Let students investigate the problem and generate ideas from various
sources (lesson delivery)
4. Pose critical questions to enable students analyse ideas and knowledge
obtained from various sources (lesson delivery)
5. Let students present their findings and solutions to the class (lesson delivery)
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Project-based learning
Project-based learning engages individual or groups of learners in a design-research

implementation process culminating in the public exhibition of a final product , such as
a publication, artwork, service, object, etc. During this process, learners make multiple
drafts and try-outs, learn to make choices and how to demonstrate the concepts and
skills they have acquired. In agreement with the teacher, learners can choose any kind
of project provided it is related to the curriculum and to a real life context.
Doing project-based learning, learners become motivated and self-directed critical

thinkers and problem solvers, able to research and integrate knowledge from various
sources and disciplines to acquire lifelong skills.
1. Define to project selection criteria (lesson planning)

2. Guide learners in designing and planning each step of their project and support
them to define their project goal and final product (lesson delivery)
3. Guide learners in the research and implementation phases (lesson delivery)
4. Organise feedback sessions on planning, progress, problems, solutions, etc.
(lesson delivery)
5. Organise an exhibition where all final products are presented to peers,
academic staff, parents, community members, etc. (lesson delivery)
Learning stations
Learning stations (also called ‘corners’ or ‘activity centres’) are specific areas in a
classroom where learners rotate from station to station to complete an educational task
using different approaches. A debriefing session follows after to discuss what was
learned at the different learning stations. During this session, learners can also answer
questions and explore next steps.
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A classroom learning station is a designated place in a classroom where learners
complete an educational task. This could be at a computer, where learners are asked to
investigate a topic (e.g. through an online search assignment). This could be a table
where historical objects are on display for examination. This could be a boom box where
learners listen to music from a particular time period. The fundamental objective of all
tasks at learning stations is to promote the use, elaboration, and application of concepts
to advance learner understanding.
1. Determine the overall objective (lesson planning)

2. Define the different tasks for each station (lesson planning)
3. Explain the different tasks and timing for each learning station (lesson delivery)
4. Assign learners in manageable groups and move around the stations to assist
the learners (lesson delivery)
5. Facilitate participatory debriefing sessions (lesson delivery)
Learning contracts
A learning contract is an agreement, written collaboratively between a learner and a

teacher that details what is to be learned, how it will be learnt, and how that learning
will be verified. It sometimes involves the learner’s parents. Learning contracts allow
learners to decide what they wish to strive for, which activities they will engage in, and
how they will demonstrate that they have satisfactorily completed their studies.
1. Identify the learning objectives in relation to the curriculum and determine

where the learner should be in regard to each competency. Ensure that the
objectives describe what learners will learn, not what they will do.
2. Develop a rubric clearly indicating learning objectives, measurable criteria,
tasks and levels of achievement required, and grading system.
3. Specify the material and human resources needed, and the methods and
strategies (techniques, tools) that will be employed.
4. Specify realistic target dates for follow-up meetings and for completion of the
contract.
5. Carry out the contract.
8
Techniques
The objective of using different techniques is to engage teachers in the use and
development of teaching and learning resources and in sharing these resources, not
only with their colleagues, but also with their learners. Different techniques have
different potentials to enhance active teaching and learning.
All the techniques introduced address the process where teachers and learners are
constructing knowledge and insight in the world around them through
active exploration, experimentation and reflection by interacting with each other and
the learning materials. Techniques have the potential to innovate and/or transform
classroom teaching and learning practice. The different techniques can for example
support collaborative learning, problem solving, meaningful learning, etc.
Groupwork
Group work is a form of cooperative learning that involves having learners work
together to maximise their own and one another’s learning. Group work technique is
mainly used to generate ideas, increase learners’ confidence in their answers,
encourage broad participation in plenary session, promote higher level of reasoning and
learn concepts in-depth, develop skills such as teamwork, critical thinking, interpersonal
communication and peer teaching.
Typically, a group consists of around 5-10 learners, though in large classrooms, group
work can be organised for as many as 15-20 learners. Whether you use a small or large
group in a teaching/ learning situation depends on the nature of the assignment,
Effective group work assigns responsibilities to all members and brings discipline in
cooperative learning to both dominant personalities and to shy learners. The outcome
of group work is usually better and richer than what an individual would have done.
9
1. Design the task(s) for the group activity(s) (lesson planning)
2. Determine the groups’ size and assign learners groups (lesson delivery)
3. Clearly describe the objectives and assignments given to each group, and
identify learner roles (secretory, timekeeper, spokesperson, etc.) (lesson
delivery)
4. Set and explain ground rules to learners including duration of activities and time
of transitions (lesson delivery)
5. Monitor the group activities, facilitate knowledge sharing and analysis of
findings (lesson delivery)
Demonstration
Demonstration is a specific type of presentation and a technique of teaching by example

rather than simply explaining. Demonstration is a visual practical presentation of a
concept, process or skill showing how something works or is performed. The learners
perform a demonstration to ascertain learning.
The demonstrator performs the tasks step-by-step to enable the learners to repeat the
same task independently or in groups. Here, the teacher supports the learners in their
attempts, provides guidance and feedback, and offers suggestions for alternative
approaches. Demonstration helps learners to ‘learn-by-doing’ when there is not enough
equipment, when specialised knowledge is required or when safety of the learners is at
stake.
1. List the equipment, teaching aids and other materials that you will need during
the lesson (lesson planning)
2. List relevant questions for before, during and after the demonstration to
engage the learners and assess their understanding (lesson planning)
3. Prepare the equipment before the lesson (lesson planning)
4. Arrange the classroom seating to enable all learners to clearly view the
demonstration
5. While giving the demonstration, ask the relevant guiding questions you had
earlier prepared (lesson delivery)
10
Presentation
A presentation delivers content through oral, audio and visual channels allowing
teacher-learner interaction and making the learning process more attractive. Through
presentations, teachers can clearly introduce difficult concepts by illustrating the key
principles and by engaging the audience in active discussions. When presentations are
designed by learners, their knowledge sharing competences, their communication skills
and their confidence are developed.
1. Define the objectives of the presentation in accordance to the lesson plan

(lesson planning)
2. Prepare the structure of the presentation, including text, illustrations and other
content (lesson planning)
3. Set up and test the presentation equipment and provide a conducive seating
arrangement and environment for the audience (lesson planning)
4. Invite the audience to reflect on the presentation and give feedback (lesson
delivery)
5. After the presentation, propose activities or tasks to check the learners’

understanding
Tips
• Use Mentimeter for interactive presentations and to get instant feedback from
your audience. www.mentimeter.com
• An infographic; graphic visual representations of information, data, or
knowledge, is an innovative way to present. Use the digital tool Canva to
create your own infographics. www.canva.com
• Use the Microsoft software PowerPoint, to easily create digital presentations.
• The purpose of a presentation is to visually reinforce what you are saying.
Therefore the text should contain few words and concise ideas organised in
bullet-point.
• Support your text using images.
• Provide time for reflection and interaction between the presenter and the
audience, for example by using Mentimeter.
11
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a technique to generate ideas and thoughts. It does not have the
purpose to find a solution for a specific problem, but to gather a list of spontaneous
ideas from learners. Different brainstorming techniques can be applied to facilitate the
process of gathering and organising ideas. For all these techniques, learners are given a
specific task on a given topic and to share their ideas at various levels. Example
techniques are:
Paper-carousel
Each participant spontaneously notes an idea on a sheet of paper, then passes it to
the neighbour on the right side. On the sheet of paper you got from the left side,
each participant notes a second idea. The last two steps are repeated until the
learners get back their original sheet of paper. The best ideas are highlighted and
selected.
Falling leaves
While standing in a circle, each learner notes down ideas on a flash card and drops
them on the floor. Each learner looks at the ideas dropped on the floor and will not
drop the same idea. After a set of time, the session is stopped and related ideas are
clustered, appropriate heading is provided.
Think, pair, share

Each learner first thinks individually through a task. Then, the class is organised into
pairs who share ideas and come up with a consensus solution. next, couples are
organized to pair up (groups of four) to consequently share ideas and also come up
with a consensus. Last, each group of four presents their ideas in plenary.
1. Clearly define the topic to be brainstormed (lesson planning)
2. Choose the type of brainstorming that is more relevant to your class: Paper-
Carousel, Falling Leaves, Think/Pair/Share (lesson planning)
3. Set up ground rules for the group to function: timing, learners’ active
participation, number of ideas per person, etc.
4. Facilitate the process until the end to help learners to come up with several
relevant ideas (lesson delivery)
5. With the learners clarify, merge, categorise and evaluate the ideas generated
by the group (lesson delivery)
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Simulation
Simulation is the setting-up of a realistic environment modelling a real life situation or

a scientific process by using role-play, models, games, virtual labs, etc. Simulation
involves learners trying out situations, such as future occupational experiences as it
happens in reality.
In this learning process, they will be able to learn by doing, predict outcomes and
express their feelings, perceptions and experiences. Simulation is useful to analyse
phenomena, objects or events. It can assist learners in identifying problems and
solutions and enables them to apply previously learned theory in a realistic way.
Teachers can use simulations to illustrate how things work so that learners get a better
insight of complex processes.
1. Design or choose the simulation tool relevant most suitable to your

lesson: role-play, low-cost experiment, virtual lab program and make sure it is
well integrated in the lesson plan.
2. Create a positive learning climate so that learners feel comfortable using the
technique.
3. Prepare the instructions on flashcards or on the board to ensure that they are
clear for everyone.
4. Allow time for feedback on the simulation and to summarise the learning
points.
Tips
• Make the simulation as similar as possible to the real life situation. For example,
if you teach road transport use models of buses and taxis, and characters
representing pedestrians, drivers or policemen.
• Make sure to gradually introduce learners to the simulation technique, starting
with a simple situation in which the whole class can participate.
13
Storytelling
People like hearing stories, putting themselves in the place of characters and telling and
re-telling stories. Stories are helpful to convey society’s culture, values and history in
form of legends, fables, myths and real life experiences. Storytelling is used to present
or demonstrate processes, introduce ideas, challenge learners or illustrate abstract
concepts such as life, honour, wisdom and courage.
Photo stories can give more body to a story as one image can tell more than thousand
words. Storytelling promotes creativity and critical thinking as well as confidence,
fluency in speech, listening, reading and writing skills. It develops imaginative skills and
inquiring minds and provides opportunities to transfer learning, deepen understanding
of concepts and retain information. By capturing the attention and interest of the
learners, storytelling boosts the teacher-learner relationship and makes the
instructional process lively and interesting.
1. Identify ideas.
2. Design a scenario or a plan.
3. Collect data and resources: text, images, music, actors, voices, equipment etc.
4. Develop and rehearse the story.
5. Prepare for sharing: presentation, publication etc.
Tips
• Select a story relevant to the concept(s) to be learnt.

• Apply appropriate gestures, facial expressions, posture, movement, tone of
voice and pace.
• Keep the story short and lively.
• Design relevant questions about the story to check the learners’ understanding.
• Provide a conducive environment for the presentation and to enable sharing of
ideas.
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Drill
A drill is a classroom technique to aid memorisation by way of spaced repetition. Drills

promote the acquisition of knowledge or skills through repetitive practice.
Drill is a useful technique to introduce a new lesson and to familiarise learners with new
concepts. Flashcards and quizzes can be used to execute a learning drill. A flashcard
bears information in words or numbers while a quiz is a form of mind game in which
the learners (as individuals or in teams) attempt to answer questions correctly. Both
can also be used to consolidate or assess knowledge after finishing a certain section.
Drill exercises can give the teacher immediate feedback about learners’ understanding
at each phase of lesson.
1. Choose the drill tools most suitable to your lesson theme: flashcards or quizzes
2. Adequately prepare for your chosen tools.
3. Prepare the ground rules that will encourage active participation by the
learners: timing, members’ active participation, number of ideas per person,
etc.
Tips
• Drill exercises should be short to allow assessing progress several times during
the lesson.
• Provide enough time for all learners to actively participate in the drill.
• Provide enough time to correct misunderstandings or respond to the learners’
challenges.
• Try to alternate between different drill tools (flashcards, quizzes) to maintain
learners’ motivation until the required level of achievement is attained.
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Tools
Tools should inspire teachers to reflect on teaching methodologies and learners’

learning. Tools will not automatically change the teaching practice and the learning
activity as it all depends on how teachers and learners use them. All tools have the
potential to innovate and transform teaching and learning practice, with a focus on the
learner and real-world applications. Teachers are expected to have the skills to explore
a series of teaching and learning tools and understand the added value of
these resources for the enhancement of Active Teaching and Learning.
Quiz
A quiz is a mind game in which learners (as individuals or in teams) attempt to answer
questions correctly. Quizzes are usually scored in points and many are designed to
determine a winner from a group of participants. In an educational context, a quiz is
sometimes used to assess learners. It often has fewer questions of lesser difficulty and
requires less time for completion than a test.
Quizzes can be used to introduce a new topic. This gives the teacher an instant idea of
what learners already know about the topic. Quizzes can be used to revise learners’
retention of previous lessons or at the end of a lesson. This allows the teacher to get
feedback on learners’ progression.
1. Design the quiz: blackboard, flipchart, flashcards, etc. (lesson planning)

2. Determine the resources you need: computer, projector, manila paper,
markers, audio-player, etc. (lesson planning)
3. Carefully design questions relevant to your lesson plan and set clear ground
rules for the learners (lesson planning)
4. Set the scoring system and time learner get per question (lesson planning)
5. If learners are participating in teams, think about the composition of those
teams (lesson planning)
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6. Decide whether you want to award the winners with a prize (lesson planning)
Tips
• Amaze learners by creating your quiz using speciliased digital tools

as Kahoot!, Quizzizz and Mentimeter
• Quizzes can be useful to implement drilling techniques.
• Quizzes can be organized as a form of groupwork.
Roleplay
Roleplaying is a sort of simulation allowing learners to impersonate the behaviour of

specific roles such as a supervisor or a client who must make a decision in a real life
context. To try to respond as their given character would, learners conduct research,
and engage in higher order thinking. By interacting with their peers, learners
experiment and learn to deal with unfamiliar real life situations while also exercising
their observation and communication skills.
1. Prepare a scenario relevant to the lesson (lesson planning)

2. Distribute clear instructions (handouts) for the roles that learners will play
(lesson delivery)
3. Give learners time to prepare and rehearse their roles (lesson delivery)
4. After each performance, allow time for class discussion and to summarise the
learning points (lesson delivery)
Tips
• Encourage and give time to learners to research their character’s features.

• Set ground rules in order to ensure a conducive environment for all to feel safe
while acting.
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Low cost experiments
Unlike what many may think, you don’t need a big fancy lab full of expensive materials
and you can use experiments in any subject (not only science). Many experiments can
be conducted with the help of simple and inexpensive everyday materials. For learners
and teachers, it stimulates creativity.
Experiments are a form of simulation. The main objective of low-cost experiments is

to enable teachers to introduce practical activities to the learners, thus improving their
critical thinking and problem solving skills. Practical activities allow linking theory with
practice and daily life. Moreover, with practical activities you can address specific skills
and attitudes with learners such as team work, accuracy and creativity.
1. Decide which kind of experiment you want to set up (lesson plan).

2. Look for low-cost materials.
3. Try out the experiment in advance.
4. Set up the experiment in class.
5. Clearly explain all the different steps and leave time for learners to design
and/or execute the experiment themselves.
Flashcards
Flashcards are cards bearing information such as words or numbers, or questions and
answers on either or both sides. They can be used in classroom or during private study.
Flashcards can support learning of any subject matter. In the classroom, an immediate
teacher overview of the learners’ understanding of the topic at hand can be obtained
by asking learners to display their answer to a specific question on a flashcard.
Coloured cards can also be used for learners’ self-assessment of their level of
understanding (e.g. green card for “understood”, yellow card for “need support”, red
card for “not understood”). For example, flashcards can be used question and
answers drills, interactive education games, or the assess learners' progress.
18
1. Prepare the flashcards according to your need (blank, coloured or pre-filled

cards).
2. Explain the rule to the drill to the learners.
3. With the learners, observe and discuss the answers of the class.
4. Use the results to guide the current and/or future lessons.
Tips
• Create flashcards online using Quizlet. Quizlet employs you to create sets of
terms and descriptions in the form of flashcard and provides you with several
ways (e.g. quizzes and other interactive games) to review the content on the
flashcards. You might also encourage your learners to create their own
flashcard decks to share with their peers.
• There are also other uses for flashcards: in private study, flashcards are useful
to summarize, memorize and classify knowledge for further revisions; pre-filled
flashcards can also be used to design interactive educational games for any
subject.
Videos
Videos are used to record, playback, broadcast and display moving visual images.
Educational videos have been widely used in classrooms, as they can provoke reflection
and discussion and provide deeper insight of issues that have been introduced.
Videos are particularly useful to explain a process or an action. As videos can be paused
and rewinded at any time, teachers and learners can control the speed (e.g. slow
motion) or repeat particular fragments as needed. With their smartphone or with a
cheap video recorder, videos can be produced by teachers and learners to document
an experiment, a role-play, a class trip etc. As learners are involved in acting or making
the video, their motivation to participate, assess, and receive feedback increases.
1. Select the process or action you want to show.

2. Search a relevant video online.
3. Show the video and pause it on the parts you want to emphasise.
4. Allow for class discussion.
19
Tips
• There is a wealth of educational videos on specialised websites

as TeacherTube, TED, Teaching Channel, Edpuzzle, etc.
• Amaze learners by creating your own educational videos using Powtoon
www.powtoon.com
• Download videos, so you can use them offline.
Images
"Every picture tells a story and one image says more than a
thousand words..."
An image can be used to introduce, express, share, and describe a range of subjects
(concepts, stories, trips, phenomena, persons, objects or events). Teachers can use
images to present a problem through visual stories that learners will be encouraged to
solve. For example, a picture of a tropical storm/melting ice caps can be used to
introduce the concept of global warming. The use of images in teaching and learning
has benefits to support learner’s comprehension, retention, and application. It
stimulates spatial intelligence and increases the motivation of the learner.
1. Select the concept, story, phenomenon, person or event you want to depict.
2. Find or draw the picture(s) you need.
3. Brainstorm with the learners which words or concepts come to mind.
4. Guide the learners discussion by questioning their interpretations.
Tips
• Many images, photos and editing software are available online, such
as Pics4Learning.
• A digital photo story can combine different media: images, text, voice, motions
and music.
• Think of images that would present the subject in just one or a few images.
20
Charts and maps
Charts and maps can be used to present abstract ideas or show their relationships in a
visual form. A chart is a graphical representation where data is represented by symbols
such as bars, lines or slices. A map is a graphical representation of tri-dimensional space
where physical, social, medical or other features can also be indicated, e.g. brain map,
DNA map, cosmic map etc.). It can be static (road map) or animated (weather forecast).
1. Choose the kind of charts and maps you need, according to the data you want
to illustrate.
2. Draw your charts and maps before the lesson, either by hand (with flipchart,
manila paper or rice-sacks, colour markers and a ruler) or by computer using
free office software or maps available on the internet.
3. Display the charts and maps in class in a visible way (stick it to the board, or use
a projector).
Tips
• Bring the world inside your classroom using Google Maps and Google
Earth mapping services.
• Make simultaneous reference to the chart or map to enhance understanding
of the concepts introduced.
• Engage the learners in researching or drawing maps and charts helps them to
memorise the lesson.
• Charts and maps should be designed in a clear and attractive way (colours,
labelling, etc.)
• Charts and maps can be used at the different stages of a lesson to facilitate
discussion and consolidate knowledge
Diagrams
A diagram is a visual representation of information used to show how conceptual

objects are interrelated. Diagrams are particularly useful to study complex
21
material. Diagrams are useful to transform text-based data and information in a visual
representation. Learners’ attention is also more likely to be attracted by a diagram
rather than by a long text. Finally, diagrams help learners with a visual rather than verbal
memory to better retain the displayed information.
1. Define the kind of diagram you need, according to the topic you want to
describe.
2. You can draw your diagram by hand, but there are also free online diagram
software available, such as Draw. Also, Microsoft software
as Excel and PowerPoint are useful to create digital diagrams.
3. Display the diagram in class in a visible way (stick it to the board, or use a
projector).
Tips
• Use different shapes and colours to depict objects, processes and relations and
remember to include a legend.
• Ask the learners to make diagrams in class or as an assignment: they will have
fun while checking and summarizing their knowledge.
Student portfolio
A student portfolio is a systematic collection of learner work and related material that
depicts a learner's activities, accomplishments and achievements in one or more
subjects. Portfolios allow for competence-based assessment by measuring the learner’s
growth and development. Learners develop a sense of ownership about their portfolios
and understand where they made progress and where improvement is
needed. Contents of a learner's portfolio may vary with the level of the learner and the
types of assignments given in class. Some examples are:
• Learner’s work (assignments, assessments, evaluations, score sheets, sample

products, attendance sheets).
• Reflections, teacher observations, conference records, progress reports,
worksheets, artefacts (poems, letter, reading logs and audio /videotape
recordings, photos, sketches).
1. Decide together on the portfolio content, such as samples of learner's work,

reflections, teacher observations and conference records, and agree on
timelines.
22
2. Develop assessment criteria and procedures to keep track of the learners’
progress.
3. Plan for formal learner-teacher conferences as well as informal meetings in
which progress is reviewed and discussed, and reflection encouraged.
Tip
Ask your learners to develop their portfolio online (E-portfolio) using Padlet
(www.padlet.com) Padlet is an application where learners can easily create a virtual
pin board to hold resources and to showcase their work.
23
03
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
AND ORGANIZATION
CONTENT
1 INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION 3

Defining classroom management 3
The role of the teacher 3
Defining classroom organization 4
Classroom seating arrangement 5
Overview of classroom seating arrangement styles 6
Benefits of effective classroom management and organization 7
2 STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 8
The teacher as a model 8
Desired learner behaviour 8
Rewarding learners 10
Types of rewards 10
Reinforcing learners 11
Delivering a reinforcer 12
3 LESSON PLANNING 13
Definition of a lesson plan 13
Components of a lesson plan 14
Lesson plan template 14
2
1 INTRODUCTION TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND
ORGANIZATION
Get ready for an introduction to classroom management and organization. This first
subtopic will give you everything you need to get comfortable with the concepts
'classroom management'/'classroom organization' and its underlying principles.
Defining classroom management
Classroom management refers the collection of techniques that teachers use to

encourage effective learning by minimizing distractions and disruptions. It includes all
of the things that a teacher does toward fostering learner involvement, cooperation,
and a productive working environment. When classroom management strategies are
executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviours that impede on learning and by
so doing reinforce the practices that foster learning.
A teacher can have great lesson plans and materials. However, if a teacher cannot
manage her/his class, effective learning will not happen. So, what are the essential
elements of good classroom management? It is important for a teacher to have good
classroom management skills. Both technical and personal relationship skills are
important in classroom management. Below are management skills required of a
teacher:
• Planning a programme of learning and teaching for your class

• Decision making concerning resources, teaching strategies and discipline
• Organizing learning activities
• Attending to learner diversity
• Coordinating learning in the classroom with learning from other sources
• Communicating with learners and parents
• Establish good relationship with the learners
• Establish class expectations, consequences and goals
The role of the teacher
Classroom management is one of the core responsibilities of the teacher. It is an

important function and concerns the co-ordination and co-operation necessary for
learning. A teacher has the authority to direct and facilitate what goes on in the
classroom. However, the teacher’s authority does not mean being autocratic,
domineering or an overt use of power. Instead, a positive teacher’s authority is a quality
3
that facilitates a smooth operating classroom and is at the heart of successful group
management.
The role of the teacher in classroom management include:
• setting the tone and culture for learning in the classroom

• building a warm and friendly learning environment
• mentoring and nurturing the learners’ behaviour
• being a role model
Defining classroom organization
Classroom management and organization are intertwined. While rules and routines
influence learner behaviour, classroom organization affects the physical elements of
the classroom, making it a more productive environment for learners. How the
classroom environment is organized influences the behaviour in it. For example, actions
as simple as establishing fixed locations for laboratory supplies and designating specific
places for other classroom supplies can have a dramatic effect on classroom
organization and, consequently, on learning.
Classroom organization is evident in a room even if no one is present. Furniture

arrangements, location of materials, displays, and fixed elements are all part of
organization. Effective teachers decorate the room with learner's work, they arrange
the furniture to promote interaction as appropriate, and they have comfortable areas
for working. They also consider learners' needs in arranging the room by leaving space
for wheelchairs to manoeuvre, having walkways so learners can access what they need
with minimal disturbance to others and organizing in such a way as to allow the teacher
to freely move around the room to monitor progress. Effective teachers think about the
little details that enhance the use of available space in the classroom including different
types of classroom settings for different teaching activities.
Considerations for effective classroom organisation
In order to organize a classroom effectively, it is important to create a positive and safe

environment for your learners that will maximize learning and will minimize the
frequency of behaviour problems. The following actions can be taken into
consideration:
Floor space
• Count the number of desks and chairs needed

• Try to ask for furniture or needed items well ahead of time
• Place the desks where learners can easily see the teacher
• Keep high-traffic areas clear
4
Learner area
• Plan areas for learner's belongings.

• Provide space for learner's binders, back-packs, lunch boxes, umbrellas, shoes,
etc.
• Plan for learners to hang up/store jackets or coats.
Wall space
• Cover one or more bulletin boards with coloured paper and leave bare for
learner work.
• Display classroom ground rules
• Post procedures, assigned duties, calendar, clock, emergency information,
schedules,menus, charts, maps, etc.
• Have a consistent place for listing the day’s or week’s assignments
Classroom seating arrangement
Classroom organization can significantly influence learning. The physical setup of chairs,
tables, and presentation in a classroom can impact how the teachers communicates
with learners and how the learners interact with each other. Furthermore, this can
impact engagement, motivation and focus. Therefore, it is important that teachers
consider ways to modify seating arrangements and match them with the demands of
classroom activities in order to help maximize learning.
Link to the video: https://bit.ly/3gb7mxt
5
Overview of classroom seating arrangement styles
Traditional
The traditional lecture setup typically consists of rows of fixed seating where learners
face the teacher with their backs to one another. The highest communication
interactions between teachers and learners typically occurs with learners in the first
row or along the middle of the classroom.
Roundtable
A classroom seating arrangements may consist of learners sitting in a circle or around a

single large table. This seating arrangement can also be formed using individual desks.
Learners and teachers all face one another in this setup, which can support whole-class
as well as pair-wise dialogue.
Horseshoe or Semicircle
The horseshoe or semi-circle offers a modified roundtable setup, where all learners
face each other while the instructor can move around the classroom. The horseshoe
encourages discussion between learners and with the teachers
Double Horseshoe
This seating arrangement involves an inner and outer horseshoe, and similar to the
conventional horseshoe, invites greater discussion than the traditional format. It is
more limited by the backs of learners within the inner circle facing learners in the
outer circle. However, learners may also more easily interact with those nearest to
them or turn around and face learners behind them for group work.
Pods (Groups, Pairs)
The pod or pair arrangement can be designed with learners’ individual desks. With
regards to stations, teachers can place several tables together to form learners groups
(e.g. 3 - 4 learners), or pairs. This arrangement is useful when learners will work in
groups or pairs for a large portion of class time.
6
Benefits of effective classroom management and organization
Learner benefits
The prime benefits of a well-organized classroom will accrue to the learners.

The organization and procedures of the teachers (or lack thereof) are, after all, ever
present reminders to the learners of how to behave, how to conduct tasks, and how
best to be effective without discord in a group. Respect for others, consideration,
efficiency, pride of accomplishment, security in knowing what, how, when, and where
to do something - all these positive elements are the hallmarks and characteristics of
learners who learn in well-organized classrooms. Learners like a predictable, safe, and
orderly environment and they like going to a school that provides that environment. For
these reasons alone, it is important for teachers to pay close attention to good
classroom management and organization.
Teacher benefits
Aside from the benefits to learners, good organization brings powerful help to the
teacher. In fact, it can be truthfully said that the first “aide” any teacher has is his or her
ability to organize the classroom well. The immediate benefits of a well-organized
classroom to the teacher are clear; less wasted time and therefore more efficiency. Not
so immediately apparent, perhaps, are the following very significant elements:
• improved learner-teacher relations

• improved parent-teacher relations
• increased job satisfaction
• increased enthusiasm for professional growth
• increased academic progres
7
2 STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
In a well-managed classroom there is a strong sense of classroom management where

learners feel safe and respected and have the desire to learn. In a well-managed
classroom, learners also know what is expected of them, learners can make the choice
to follow those expectations or not. It is always possible that learners do not behave the
way a teacher expects them to. This subtopic puts light on strategies for effective
classroom management in order to give you more insights in achieving desired learner
behaviour.
The teacher as a model
Teachers have an important role in instilling desired behaviour of learners. as

they should be models/exemplary in behaviour. This is possible by attending school
regularly and punctually, having knowledge of and enforcing school rules and
regulations without fear or favour. Knowing each learner as an individual and keeping
learners busy by giving them meaningful work to do and involving them in school/class
activities to avoid idleness and redundancy.
Teachers should also involve learners in making class rules; practice democracy and
involve learners in problem solving, observe and assess their learners carefully, make
learners feel loved and that their time at school is put to good use, make the learners
to understand and enjoy what they are doing at school, be firm, unbiased and objective,
refrain from using harsh word and unfair punishment, and be consistent in the way
learners are handled.
Desired learner behaviour
If learners do not behave the way a teacher expects them to, punishment is commonly
used to achieve desired behaviour. Learners are commonly punished for giving wrong
answers, failures, coming late, truancy, vulgar language, etc. Most forms of punishment
hurt, embarrass and frustrate learners rather than discipline them. Therefore,
punishment is not the best way of inculcating discipline because discipline backed by
punishment leads to hostility and depending on adult authority to behave.
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However, where punishment cannot be avoided, it should be equitable to the offence
committed with a genuine desire to teach the learner self-control and good behaviour.
It should be appropriate to the age and character of the learner as well as the change
of behaviour desired. A teacher who uses consistent discipline strategies exhibits more
effective classroom management than an inconsistent teacher. This is because
classroom discipline refers to the strategies a teacher uses to manage learner behaviour
and attitude during instructional time.
Alternative for desired behaviour of learners
As most forms of punishment embarrass and frustrate learners rather than discipline
them, teachers must look at alternative means to achieve desired behaviour of learners.
Guidance and counselling will make the learner feel cared for, valued and loved;
isolation will cause sense of embarrassment and guilt leading to behaviour reform;
changing position in class to minimize bad influence and peer pressure; assigning
leadership roles to stubborn learners will lead to create a sense of responsibility.
Depriving interest, while others engage in something interesting or are set free will
make the learner think through their misconduct.
Discipline is essential and cannot be separated from teaching. For the most part, how
you teach will determine behaviour, for instance:
• A flexible, classroom set up

• Discipline as feedback and as learning
• Peer involvement in rules and enforcement
• Class meetings emphasizing the affective dimension of the classroom
• Pairing, partners, and cooperation
• Adding movement, music, humour, and "chance" elements to the lessons
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Rewarding learners
Motivating your learners to learn and to participate can be very hard. Some teachers
have their hands full with class management and they don’t even get to teaching. In
order to stimulate learning and to motivate good behavior, lots of teachers use rewards
for learners. Rewarding is a type of behavior management that focuses on rewarding
what is done well by learners. Teachers focus less on reprimanding learners for
misbehavior and more on rewarding good behavior and accomplishments.
Learners are motivated to achieve and conform to appropriate behaviours when either
intrinsically or extrinsically rewarded. Those Learners who prefer intrinsic motivation
enjoy, personally challenging projects and accomplishing educational tasks just for the
love of learning. On the other hand, learners who prefer extrinsic motivation look for
fame, grades, and praise. The type of reward given to learners must be fair and
consistent for all learners but also must vary for each task. Advantages of rewards are
the following:
• Promote appropriate behaviour

• Increased motivation for full effort on classroom tasks
• Positive leaner welfare
• Boosted self-esteem
• Higher learner achievement
Types of rewards
Teachers can offer many types of rewards to learners, but they all fall into the
categories of compliments, symbols, tokens and prizes.
Praise
Verbal praise is the most common form of rewards that teachers offer learners. It
consists of complimenting learners when they behave in a way that is positive. When
offering praise, make sure to offer it promptly, so the emotional impact of the action is
still present. Furthermore, be specific with praise. Let the learner know exactly why
what she/he did was admirable, and that your words aren't empty and automatic.
Symbolic rewards
Symbolic rewards are rewards in the form of objects that represent exemplary
performance of character or achievement. Perhaps the most common form of symbolic
reward is the gold star. Others could be the inclusion of the learner's name or
photograph on a bulletin board or poster. Symbolic rewards operate similarly to praise
in that they are public demonstrations of favour toward a learners. Symbolic rewards,
unlike praise, have the ability to last longer than a single spoken statement, and can
serve as reminders for learners to maintain their good standing.
Token rewards
Tokens are physical rewards that represent value, or a form of currency that can be
redeemed for a prize such as a voucher, extra free time or outings.
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Tangible and activity rewards
Tangible rewards and activity rewards are awards you supply directly to the learner,
without the step of symbols or tokens in between. A tangible reward is a prize for
positive behaviour or achievement, and includes items such as school supplies or other
physical objects. Activity rewards are intangible prizes, such as getting to be line leader
or being the teacher's helper, being a team captain during activities.
Reinforcing learners
A reinforcer is an event that occurs after a behaviour, and due to the reinforcer the
behaviour is likely to occur again in the future. Basically, if something is expected or
enjoyed after engaging in a behaviour, one is likely to do the behaviour again.
By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the child will be more likely to perform
the same actions again in the future. But positive reinforcement can also increase the
probability of not only desirable behaviour but also undesirable behaviour. For example,
if a learner screams to get attention and is successful in getting it, the attention serves
as positive reinforcement, which increases the likelihood that the learner will continue
to scream when looking for attention.
Types of reinforcers
Natural and direct reinforcers
This type of reinforcement results directly from the appropriate behaviour. For
example, interacting appropriately with peers in group activities will lead to more
invitations to join such activities. The natural reinforcement for appropriate bids for
attention, help, participation, etc. is providing the attention, help and opportunity to
participate. The goal should always be to move the learner to natural and intrinsic
reinforcement.
Social reinforcers
These are reinforcers that are socially mediated by teachers, parents, other adults and
peers which express approval and praise for appropriate behaviour. Comments (“Good
job,” “I can tell you are working really hard,” “You’re nice”), written approval (“Super”),
and expressions of approval (nodding your head, smiling, clapping, a pat on the back)
are all very effective reinforcers.
Activity reinforcers
Activity reinforcers are very effective and positive for learners. Allowing learners to
participate in preferred activities (such as games, computer time, etc.) is very powerful,
especially if part of the reinforcement is being allowed to choose a classmate with
whom to participate in the activity. This also provides social reinforcement from the
partner.
Tangible reinforcers
This category includes edibles and other awards. Awards can be in the form of
certificates, displaying work and letters home to parents commending the learners’s
progress. These are powerfully motivating reinforcers.
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Delivering a reinforcer
How should reinforcement be delivered? In order to make positive reinforcement an

effective intervention, the following guidelines can help:
Reinforcement should be consistently delivered
Use a planned reinforcement schedule. If it is not, no connection will develop between

appropriate behaviour and the reinforcement and the behaviour will not change.
Reinforcement should be delivered immediately
Learners should know when they can expect reinforcement. If the teacher waits until
the end of the day to reinforce a learners for remaining in her seat during second period,
the effect of reinforcement is reduced if not lost.
Improvement should be reinforced
Do not wait until the learner’s behaviour is perfect to deliver reinforcement. A teachers
should recognize improvement and let the learner know that the effort is recognized.
Pair any reinforcement with social reinforcement
If your reinforcement plan is letting learners participate in preferred activities, make

sure to give some sort of social reinforcement, such as telling the learner, “You really
did an excellent job today. You should be really proud of yourself” or let the learner
choose another leaners for the activity.
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3 LESSON PLANNING
A well-managed classroom starts with a good preparation prior to teaching. As

classroom management and classroom organization are part of lesson planning, many
problems related to classroom management occur due to lack of adequate planning.
Lesson planning is also the only way to ensure that your educational objectives are
achieved. Therefore, it is important to think about how you would like your learners to
behave in order to achieve educational objectives. Planning begins with thinking about
how you would like your learners to approach their learning in your subject, and what
you would like them to understand, know or be able to do by the end of the session.
This subtopic provides insight in how teachers can design a lesson plan and apply
appropriate procedures that support learning of target concepts.
Definition of a lesson plan
An order to understand what a lesson plan is, it is important to fully understand the
concept of a lesson. A lesson is a single activity or a series of activities designed by the
teacher so as to achieve one or more instructional objectives determined, or desired in
promoting positive change in the learner. A lesson is thus a period of instruction or
contact between the teacher and the learners which is totally devoted to a prior
identified, specified and single limited title, skill, content or idea.
Lesson planning is the activity which the teacher performs before the actual lesson
takes place. A lesson plan is a detailed description of the instructional strategies and
learning activities to be performed during the teaching/learning process. This important
preparation involves the following:
• Identification of learning as well as teaching objectives, activities and tasks to

be undertaken by both the learners and the instructor.
• Sequencing of these activities and tasks.
• Determining appropriate instruction aids, methods and references.
• Deciding the proper organisation and or management of the learning resource
available, environment and activities.
• Determining evaluation process i.e. how the learner shall be deemed to have
acquired the desired chance of behaviour or mastery of content and/or skills.
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The importance of a lesson plan is that it enables the teacher to read ahead in order to
enrich the content area and skill to be taught, to have confidence during the actual
teaching/learning process and to logically present the content standards for effective
learning.
Components of a lesson plan
A lesson plan is a step-by-step guide on what students need to learn and how it will be
done effectively during the class time. A teacher’s lesson plan includes many
components, watch this video to discover the key components of a lesson plan:
Link to the video: https://bit.ly/3oqpGFM
Overview of key components:
General information
The course subject, class and the topic.
Learning outcomes
What should be achieved at the end of the lesson.
Learning materials
The materials needed to deliver the lesson.
Lesson phases
A lesson has a middle, beginning and end.
Learning activities
Types of activities learners will need to engage in.
Active Teaching and Learning

Methods, techniques and tools to make learning meaningful and interactive.
Timeline
Estimation of how much time each of the activities will take.
Differentiation
Differentiation in instruction to address different learning styles.
Lesson plan template
View the lesson plan template for lower secondary education and get an overview of all
its necessary components to be considered prior to teaching. Note that the structure of
a lesson plan is determined by the demands of the curriculum of a specific context. It is
therefore necessary to observe that this lesson plan can be modified to suit a context.
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04
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

OF THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS
CONTENT
1 INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 3

Definition of assessment 3
Formative vs. summative assessment 4
Assessment for learning 5
Assessment vs. Evaluation 5
2 CLASS ASSESSMENT TOOLS 7
Assessment rubrics 7
Student portfolio 8
Self - assessment 9
Peer - assessment 10
3 REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 11
Definition of reflective practice 11
The reflective cycle 11
2
1 INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
As we teach, it is important to assess and evaluate the teaching and learning process to
ensure learning objectives are achieved. Assessment plays an enormous role in the
teaching-learning process. It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and
learning, this is a continuous process and a periodic exercise.
Definition of assessment
Assessment in teaching and learning has been defined in various ways by different
authors. In general, assessment is defined as any systematic procedures for collecting,
reviewing and using information about learners, so as to make improvement where
necessary. This means that assessment is the process of identifying, gathering and
interpreting information about learners’ learning. In general, assessment is an ongoing
interactive process, in which the teacher and learner are involved.
All definitions of assessment point to the fact that assessment is a process by which the
teacher gather information about the effectiveness of teaching and learning and the
appropriateness of the course or curriculum being implemented. It is more than simply
giving marks or grades although that may be a part of it. Assessment plays a crucial role
in the education process because it guides teachers on the choice of learning tasks and
the approaches to such tasks. Assessment also guides on which aspects of the
curriculum need reviewing.
Function and purpose of assessment
The central purpose of assessment is to provide information on learners’ achievement

and progress and set the direction for an on-going improvement in the
teaching/learning process. Some key functions of assessment include the following:
• to identify learners’ current performance

• to aid learning
• for review, transfer and certification
• to check on the overall efficacy of the teaching/learning program
• to determine any particular learners’ stage of development
• to gain information about learners’ specific instructional needs
• to identify any concepts or procedures which may need to be re-taught or
reviewed
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• to motivate and direct learning
• to provide feedback to learners on their performance
Formative vs. summative assessment
It is important that teachers use different types of assessment in their classroom in

order to promote learning. There is so much more to assessments than delivering an
end-of-unit exam or preparing for any other test. Assessments helps shape the learning
process at all points and gives insights into a learner’s learning. In light of this, it is
important for teachers to understand the difference between two types of assessment:
formative assessment and summative assessment.
Formative assessment
Formative assessment is carried out throughout a course or project to aid learning. Only
because learners made it to the end of a unit test, does not mean they have mastered
the skills, so formative assessment is not about assigning grades to learners.
Formative assessments helps teachers understand a learner’s learning while they teach
and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly. It helps teachers to track how
knowledge is growing and changing in learners in real-time. Some examples of
formative assessment include:
• student portfolios;
• class discussions;
• regular quizzes;
• virtual classroom tools as Mentimeter (www.mentimeter.com).
Summative assessment
Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of the course or project,
semester or unit. It is evaluative and primarily used to assign learners a course grade.
Typically summative assessment occurs at the end of an educational activity and is
designed to judge the learner’s overall performance.
Summative assessment can also be engaging for learners and useful for your teaching.
Try creating assessments that differ from the standard tests, like recording a podcast,
writing a script or short play or develop an independent study project. No matter what
type of summative assessment you give your students, keep some best practices in
mind:
• keep it real-world and relevant;
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• make questions clear and instructions easy to follow;
• give a rubric so learners know what is expected of them.
Assessment for learning
Since the turn of the 21st century, emphasis is on ‘Assessment for learning. Assessment
for learning focusses on the learners and emphasizes assessment as a process of
metacognition (knowledge of one’s own thought processes) for learners. It emerges
from the idea that learning is not just a matter of transferring ideas from someone who
is knowledgeable to someone who is not, but is an active process of cognitive
restructuring that occurs when individuals interact with new ideas. Within this view of
learning, learners are the critical connectors between assessment and learning.
For learners to be actively engaged in creating their own understanding, they must learn
to be critical assessors who make sense of information, relate it to prior knowledge, and
use it for new learning. Assessment for learning focusses on the explicit fostering of
learners’ capacity over time to be their own best assessors. Teachers need to start by
presenting and modelling external, structured opportunities for learners to assess
themselves.
The five principles for 'Assessment for Learning' include:
• The active involvement of learners in their own learning

• The provision of effective feedback to learners
• Adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment
• Recognition of the profound influence assessment has on learner’s motivation
and self-esteem
• The need for learners to be able to assess themselves and understand how to
improve
Assessment vs. Evaluation
While assessment focuses on the learning and teaching processes and outcomes, and
provides information for improving them, evaluation focuses on grading the quality of
learner’s outputs. Evaluation is therefore described as the structured interpretation and
giving of meaning to results. It looks at original objectives and makes a comparison with
what was accomplished. An evaluation can be used as a final review to gauge the quality
of instruction. It is always product-oriented. This means that the main question is:
“What’s been learned?”
5
Following are a few steps involved in the process of evaluation:
1. Identifying and defining general objectives
In the evaluation process, the first step is to determine what to evaluation and so to
set down educational objectives.
2. Selecting teaching points
The next step in the process of evaluation is to select teaching points through which
the objectives can be realised. Once the objectives are set up, the next step is to
decide the content (curriculum, syllabus, course) to help in the realisation of
objectives.
3. Planning suitable teaching and learning activities
Thirdly, the teacher will have to plan the learning activities to be provided to the
learners and, at the same time, bear in mind the objectives as well as teaching points.
4. Evaluating
The teacher observes and measures the changes in the behaviour of learners through
testing.
5. Using the results as feedback
The last, but not the least, important step in the evaluation process is the use of
results as feedback. If the teacher, after testing the learners, finds that the objectives
have not been realized to a great extent, she/he will use the results in reconsidering
the objectives and in organizing the learning activities.
6
2 CLASS ASSESSMENT TOOLS
There is no shortage of class assessment tools for teachers to make use of. Many
assessment tools are available to help teachers design classroom instruction and enable
their learners to improve the process of learning.
Assessment rubrics
A rubric is an assessment tool used to clearly state what is expected from the learner.
It contains a coherent set of criteria (dimensions on which performance is rated),
matched with descriptors (tasks or skills being measured) and levels of performance
expected (rating scale).
Rubrics can be used for pre-assessment to clarify expectations and grading methods,
for assessment to help evaluators focused and objectively assess the learners on the
pre-defined expectations and for post-assessment to give learners a clear explanation
of their results. Assessment becomes more objective, consistent, defendable and
efficient. Rubrics support learners’ self-reflection and self-assessment as well as
communication between teacher and learners.
Steps and resources
1. Define the assessment criteria and levels of quality, preferably with the
learners.
2. Give time to learners to practice and understand the use of the rubric.
3. Once learners are familiar with the tool, use it for self, peer or teacher
assessment.
4. Based on the results of self, peer or teacher assessment, teacher gives
feedback and guides the learners to improve their work.
Tips
• Use few criteria to keep the rubric user-friendly.

• Rubrics developed in cooperation with learners, increase their acceptance of
assessment
7
Student portfolio
A student portfolio is a systematic collection of learner work and related material that
depicts a learner's activities, accomplishments and achievements in one or more
subjects. Portfolios allow for competence-based assessment by measuring the learner’s
growth and development. Learners develop a sense of ownership about their portfolios
and understand where they made progress and where improvement is
needed. Contents of a learner's portfolio may vary with the level of the learner and the
types of assignments given in class. Some examples are:
• Learner’s work (assignments, assessments, evaluations, score sheets, sample

products, attendance sheets).
• Reflections, teacher observations, conference records, progress reports,
worksheets, artefacts (poems, letter, reading logs and audio /videotape
recordings, photos, sketches).
Steps and resources
1. Decide together on the portfolio content, such as samples of learner's work,

reflections, teacher observations and conference records, and agree on
timelines.
2. Develop assessment criteria and procedures to keep track of the learners’
progress.
3. Plan for formal learner-teacher conferences as well as informal meetings in
which progress is reviewed and discussed, and reflection encouraged.
Tip
Ask your learners to develop their portfolio online (E-portfolio) using Padlet
(www.padlet.com) . Padlet is an application where learners can easily create a virtual
pin board to hold resources and to showcase their work.
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Self - assessment
Learners become better learners when they deliberately think about what they are
learning and how they are learning it. In this kind of reflection, learners step back from
the learning process to reflect on their learning strategies and their progress as learners.
This encourages learners to become independent learners and increases their
motivation.
Self-assessment is a meaningful exercise that helps learners to critique their own work
and form judgments about their strengths and weaknesses. It also informs the teacher
about learners’ thoughts on their progress, and gives the teacher feedback on how
learners are internalising the course material.
Execution
• Provide clear targets and criteria against which learners can measure their own
performance.
• Guide learners in defining their own personal and achievable short-term
learning goals.
• Guide the learners to ensure they provide sufficient evidence to support their
self-assessment, in line with the set criteria or rubric.
• Allow time for learners to share their self-assessments with a peer or in a small
group.
• Repeat the self-assessment exercise several times until learners are familiarised
with it.
Tips
Weaker learners tend to mark themselves up with the self-assessment technique. To

tackle this issue self-assessment can be accompanied by a form of peer-assessment.
9
Peer - assessment
One way for learners to internalise the characteristics of quality work is by evaluating
the work of their peers. Peer-assessment involves learners reciprocally evaluating each
other’s work. To do this, they must have a clear understanding of what they are looking
for in their peers’ work. Evaluating peers’ work enhances the evaluators’ own learning
and self-confidence. Peer-assessment empowers learners to take responsibility and
manage their own learning and develop life-long assessment skills. It also enhances
learners’ learning through knowledge sharing and encourages them to engage with
course material more deeply.
Execution
• Identify activities for which learners might benefit from peer feedback.
• Design guidelines or rubrics with clearly defined tasks for the reviewer.
• During in-class peer review sessions, give directions and time limits and
discuss with learners the rubrics’ criteria.
Tip
Consider having learners evaluate anonymous assignments for more objective

feedback.
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3 REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
Reflection is about critically examining oneself, and it is a facet of effective teachers. It

is a critical element of professional growth. Reflective practice involves the teacher
asking questions about the teaching and learning process like. This topic will provide
insights in the essential elements of reflective practice.
Definition of reflective practice
Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on your own actions in order to engage in a
process of continuous learning. It is a way of studying your own experiences to improve
the way you teach. It is very useful for teachers who want to carry on professional
learning throughout their teaching career. The act of reflection is a great way to
increase confidence and become a more proactive and qualified professional.
All teachers, just as any other professional, have a duty of care to enhance their skills
and knowledge via a process of continuous reflective practice, as it is an integral part of
maintaining professional status.
A teacher should be able to observe her/his behaviour, feelings, thoughts, skills,

attitudes, biases from an objective viewpoint. It offers teachers a more thorough
understanding of dilemmas in their classroom and promotes new ways of thinking.
Some of the functionalities of reflective practice are the following:
• It can help teachers recognize and continue good practices.

• It can make teachers become aware of aspects of current practices that could
be improved.
• It can help teachers identify areas that require considerable attention.
The reflective cycle

Graham Gibbs, a sociologist and psychologist, developed a tool for reflective practice,
called ‘Reflective Cycle’. It is a circle model which is structured in phases and breaks
down the experience, allowing you to reflect upon an experiences as it happened. This
tool allows you to better your performance as it is happening, as well as improving it for
the future.
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Figure: Gibbs' Reflective Cycle
1. Description
The first step of the Reflective Cycle is to describe the learning process in detail. It is
important to ask yourself the questions:
• What happened and who was there?

• What did you do?
• What was the result?
2. Feelings
Reflect upon what was thought and felt during the process. It is important to ask the
questions:
• How did you feel before the process?

• What did you feel while it was taking place?
• How were you feeling afterwards?
• How do you think the other participants felt?
3. Evaluation
Thirdly, it is important to evaluate the experience. Ask yourself the following

questions:
• What was successful during the activity and why?

• What didn’t go well?
• What did you contribute?
• How did others contribute?
4. Conclusion
Once the experience has been evaluated, you can start drawing conclusion about
what happened. Ask yourself the following questions:
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• If you were faced with the same situation again, what would you do
differently.
• What skills do you need to develop, so that you can handle this type of
situation better?
5. Action
You should now have some possible actions to deal with similar situations more
effectively in the future. Once you have a plan and identified the areas you will work on,
commit to taking action and make sure to review progress.
13
05
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
CONTENT
1 CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 3

Introduction to teaching and learning materials 3
Purpose of teaching and learning materials 4
2 TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 5
Traditional and innovative resources 5
Podcasts 5
Screencast 6
Educational videos 7
Educational posters 7
Open Educational Resources (OERs) 8
3 CHOOSING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 10
Integrating instructional materials 10
Factors to consider when selecting instructional materials 11
2
1 CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Instructional materials, also known as Teaching and Learning Materials (TLM), are a
vital component of the teaching and learning process. When used well, they can support
learning and aid a learner in concretizing a learning experience and make learning more
exciting, interesting and interactive. This subtopic will introduce you the concept of
instructional materials and its importance in teaching and learning.
Introduction to teaching and learning materials
Instructional Materials or Teaching and Learning Materials are resources that a teacher
may use in teaching and learning situations to help achieve desired learning objectives
and to facilitate the teaching and learning process. Broadly, the term refers to a
spectrum of educational materials that teachers use in the classroom to achieve specific
learning objectives. These include the lectures, readings, textbooks, multimedia
components, and other resources.
The best instructional materials are aligned with all other elements in the course,
including the learning objectives, assessments, and activities. Ideally, the teaching and
learning materials will be tailored to the content in which they are being used, to the
learners in whose class they are being used, and the teacher.
Instructional materials can be classified by type; including audio, visual and audio-visual
resources.
Audio media
These are teaching and learning materials that appeal to the auditory sense. For
example: podcasts, telephones, radios, records and record players, storytelling, etc.
3
Visual media
These are materials that appeal to the sense of sight (eyes). For example: images, real
objects, charts, flip charts, chalk boards and whiteboard, projected aids, etc.
Audio-visual media
These are teaching and learning materials that have the capacity to appeal to both
auditory and sight senses. For example: television, educational videos, etc.
Purpose of teaching and learning materials
Teaching materials come in many shapes and sizes, but they all have in common the
ability to support learning. The purpose and importance of teaching and learning
materials is to make lessons interesting, learning easy and enable teachers to easily
express concepts.
Learning support
Learning materials can significantly increase learners’ achievement by supporting

learning. For example, an educational video may provide a learner with new insights
and an appealing worksheet may provide the learner with new opportunities to practice
a new skill gained in class. This process aids in the learning process by allowing the
learner to explore the knowledge independently as well as providing repetition.
Learning materials, regardless of what kind, all have some function in student learning.
Lesson structure
Teaching and learning materials can also add important structure to lesson planning
and the delivery of instruction. Learning materials act as a guide for both the teacher
and the learner. They can provide a valuable routine in the teaching and learning
process. For example, by providing a summarizing poster or video after each topic.
Differentiation of instruction
In addition to supporting learning more generally, teaching and learning materials can
assist teachers in the differentiation of instruction. Differentiation of instruction is the
tailoring of lessons and instruction to the different learning styles and capacities within
your classroom. Learning materials such as worksheets, videos, group activity
instructions, or any other, all allow teachers to modify them to best activate each
individual learner's needs or learning style, for example by using different media.
4
2 TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
There are many types or categories of resources that teachers can use to support the
teaching and learning process. Some resources or more traditional, others are more
innovative. This subtopic reviews and introduces different types of teaching and learning
materials which any teacher can start using tomorrow. Because a successful integration
is more than just getting the tools into your classroom, every tool is accompanied
with suggestions on how to engage your learners and enrich your lessons.
Traditional and innovative resources
There is endless list of Teaching and Learning Materials. The once we are most familiar
with are traditional resources. These may include any textbooks and workbooks used in
the classroom. For example, language arts classrooms almost always have literature
textbooks, writing textbooks, and even vocabulary and spelling workbooks. More
innovative materials may include charts, maps, videos, images, diagrams and flashcards.
These instructional materials where, among others, widely discussed in the subtopic
on Tools for Active Teaching and Learning.
In addition to these resources and to help you find your way in the endless possibilities
of instructional materials, this course provides you with five great and innovative
teaching and learning tools which you can start using tomorrow.
Podcasts
A podcast is a set of audio recordings. Podcasting allows content to be broadcast and

distributed via audio files over the internet. The recordings work a lot like TV or radio
series, except that people listen to them on demand and they are not a real time
broadcast. Users can stream podcasts online or can download them to a personal device
for easy listening offline.
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Good practice
Go to https://bit.ly/2VFC34h and listen to a good practice of a podcasts.
Tips to integrate podcasting in teaching and learning
• Create podcasts for learners and step them through assignments and projects
or explain challenging concepts.
• Let learners collaborate on a class wide podcast that offers a living record of
class activities, with every learner contributing reports over the year.
• Have learners create podcasts to debate topics, interview guest speakers or
record collaborative conversations.
Get into action
Go to www.anchor.fm and start creating your own podcasts using the tool ‘Anchor’
Screencast
A screencast is a digital video recording of what’s happening on the teacher's computer

monitor, usually containing audio narration. Common examples of screencasts are:
tutorials, training videos, video lessons and recorded presentations. Screen casting is
one of the most useful tools to use for digital storytelling.
Features of a screencast
Tips to use screen casting in teaching and learning
• Deliver attractive audio-visual learning resources to learners

• Provide audio-visual feedback to learners
6
Get into action
Go to https://atomisystems.com/download/ and start creating your own screencasts

using the tool ‘Active Presenter’.
Educational videos
An Educational Video is a video which presents educational material for a topic which
is to be learned. The format may vary, but it always consists of moving visual media.
Good practice
Watch the below good practice of an educational video:

Link to the video: https://bit.ly/36Hbsdm
Tips to use educational videos in teaching and learning
• Create educational animated videos to provide visual learning resources to

learners
• Let learners create their own videos summarizing a topic, project, book report
Get into action
Go to www.powtoon.com and start creating your own educational videos using the
tool ‘Powtoon’.
Educational posters
An educational poster is a tool that enable visualization in the classroom to foster

student learning. A great example is an educational poster in the format of an
infographic. An infographic is a collection of imagery, charts, and minimal text that gives
an easy-to-understand overview of a topic. As in the example below, infographics use
striking, engaging visuals to communicate information quickly and clearly.
7
View the below good practice of an infographic
Tips to use educational posters in teaching and learning
• Create appealing learning resources and assignments

• Create infographics to explain and illustrate difficult concepts
• Create classroom poster on essential learning content to decorate the
classroom
• Create newsletters to share class information with learners, the school and
parents
Get into action
Go to www.canva.com and start creating your own educational posters using the
tool ‘Canva’. Other similar great tools to create your own educational posters
are ‘Piktochart’ www.piktochart.com and ‘Infogram’ www.infogram
Open Educational Resources (OERs)
Open Educational Resources (OERs) are a fantastic type of instructional material

because they are free to reuse, adapt, and share. Moreover, they have been created
and curated by educational professionals. OERs might take the form of lesson plans,
quizzes, online articles, digital media, databases, simulations, and much more. OERs can
be found in large collections or through search engines and may range from individual
images to entire courses.
8
Key points of OERs
• Adaptation and redistribution of learning resources is allowed

• Learning materials are open to all
• Learning materials are released in an open license
• Learning materials available in any format (video, text, etc.)
Tips for integrating OERs in teaching and learning
• Find an OER that will help support course or unit-level objectives

• Assess the quality of the OER
• Eliminate extraneous content within the OER
• Remix the OER with other educational materials, if applicable
Overview of the best OER platforms
• TTE Sandbox: One Stop Portal for Distance Learning:

https://padlet.com/teachertraininguganda/Sandbox
• Khan Academy
https://www.khanacademy.org/
• TED
https://www.ted.com/
• OpenLearn Create
https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/
• OER Commons
https://www.oercommons.org/
• TeacherTube
https://www.teachertube.com/
9
3 CHOOSING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
As reflected in the previous subtopic, there are many types of resources that teachers
can use to support the teaching and learning process. Teaching and learning materials
can come in many different shapes, sizes and formats. No one tool is better than another
in enhancing learning, as there are different factors to consider when selecting
appropriate teaching and learning materials. This subtopic introduces you to the main
factors to consider when selecting instructional materials.
Integrating instructional materials
As teachers, it is essential that we become familiar with the type of instructional

materials, which can be used in any teaching/ learning situation; from podcasting to
screencasting and from infographics to engaging videos, among others.
As teachers, it is essential that we become familiar with the type of instructional

materials, which can be used in any teaching/ learning situation; from podcasting to
screencasting and from infographics to engaging videos, among others.
10
Factors to consider when selecting instructional materials
Instructional materials provide the basis for what learners will experience and learn.
They hold the power to either engage or demotivate learners. Therefore, instructional
materials must be carefully planned, selected, organized, refined, and used.
Key factors to consider when selecting instructional materials:
Take into consideration individual needs and learning styles:

Choose materials that present information in a variety of ways. Using mixed media (text,
video, images, real world examples, graphs, etc.) make information more interesting
and address learners’ different learning styles.
Make sure the materials support learning objectives:

Provide a wide range of materials that will enrich and support the curriculum and course
objectives. The instructional materials should reinforce and supplement, not substitute
for, the teacher’s teaching efforts.
Make the materials clear and accessible:

Make sure learners have sufficient background knowledge to comprehend the learning
materials.
11

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GENERAL TEACHING

Learning and Active Teaching Assessment and Classroom Instructional

This course is also available online

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01 LEARNING AND COGNITION

02 ACTIVE TEACHING AND

04 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

LEARNING AND COGNITION

Learners experience the curriculum in very different ways depending on their

• Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skill through study,

Regardless of which theory of learning is being applied, it is essential that teachers

Types and processes of learning

If a learner shows desirable behaviour in class, the concepts op Behaviourism tells us to

Link to the video: https://bit.ly/36KrQKh

The main principles underpinning the behaviouristic learning theory are:

Learning, according to the constructivist theory, occurs when knowledge is constructed

• Sensorimotor (birth - 2 years): experiencing the world through senses and

Key principles and classroom implications

The main principles underpinning the constructivist learning theory are:

• Learners come to the classroom with prior understandings and experiences.

The social-constructivist learning theory claims that learning is dependent on socio-

The development of Social-Constructivism roots in the work of Russian Psychologist Lev

The main principles underpinning the social-constructivist learning theory are:

• Learning is collaborative in nature and the social context is a major factor.

Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received, organized,

Cognitivist theory developed as a reaction to Behaviorism and gained credence in the

Key principles and classroom implications

The main principles underpinning the cognitive learning theory are:

• Learning is a process of organizing information into conceptualized models.

Link to the video: https://bit.ly/3qy8tfd

Introduction to learning styles

Watch the below video and get an introduction to learning styles:

Link to the video: https://bit.ly/3orQ9mk

Suitable teaching and learning activities

Suitable teaching and learning activities

Kinesthetic learners absorb information best by doing, experiencing, touching, moving,

Suitable teaching and learning activities

• Learning by doing: hands on learning methods, using manipulatives, imitations

Suitable teaching and learning activities

• Activities to verbally express themselves: presentations, speeches

Suitable teaching and learning activities

• Visual aids: charts, diagrams, images, mind mapping, use of whiteboard

Some auditory learners learn best when participating in speaking activities in

Suitable teaching and learning activities

One size does not fit all

• Having a variety of learning aids on display in the class as diagrams and

Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification of cognitive skills into hierarchical levels of

Example: recall country capitals, memorize a poem

Comprehension: demonstrate an understanding of the facts.

Application: apply knowledge to actual situations, use of a concept or method.

Example: use a formula to solve a problem

Evaluation: make and defend judgments based on internal evidence or external

Example: make a judgment regarding an ethical dilemma

Creation: Compile component ideas into a new whole or propose alternatives.

Example: design a new solution to a problem that acknowledges the previous

How Bloom’s Taxonomy is useful for teachers

The framework can be used to state lesson objectives in preparing to teach.

ACTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING