Basics of Env SC

Basics of Environmental Studies Junaid Jazib
Dedicated
To
YOU
Page | 1
Preface
Declining natural resources, vanishing biodiversity, receding glaciers, rising sea levels,
degrading soils, warming earth, depleting ozone layer, extreme weathers and
unprecedendented climatic changes are the indicators as well as the consequences of a
chaotic situation on the earth. Man‘s excessive encroachment on the natural environmental
domains is mainly responsible for this messy ecological state of affairs in his surroundings.
Need has strongly been felt worldwide to do something in order to stop or lessen, if not
reverse, these unfavorable changes in the environmental components of the planet. United
Nation‘s first ever conference on world‘s environmental problems held at Stockholm in 1972
followed by a large number of such events thereafter is a reflection of this realization. India is
an important signatory to most of the international conventions and agreements which aims at
environmental protection and has framed policies and laws to pave the way for
implementation of the decisions taken at international fora. There are many a laws, acts and
rules aiming to control environmental pollution, save forests and protect biodiversity. Public
awareness, however, is equally important in dealing with environmental issues.
Acknowledging its importance, the UGC has made teaching of Environmental Studies
mandatory at undergraduate level.
This book, more or less in accordance with the course designed by the UGC, is an attempt to
present basic and indispensable information on environment and environmental crises in a
simple capsulated form to be equally useful for students, environmental activists and
commoners.
Book is structured in a format consisting of various sections viz. Abstract, Introduction,

Details and Discussions and Recaps and Practices. Care has been taken to present every bit
of relevant information about the topics under discussion in a simpler manner. Repetition has
been avoided as far as possible. Every attempt has been made to make the book interesting
and attractive not only for the college students but also for a common reader.
Originality in academic writings is often an elusive and dubious claim particularly when it‘s
about the writings/books meant for students of a particular subject. Authorship, here, largely
entails editing and compiling. Various works on the subject have been consulted for the
preparation of this book and I, humbly and respectfully, acknowledge the help and facilitation
I have received from them all irrespective of whether they are listed or not in the
text/bibliography.
Your positive criticism and suggestions are warmly welcomed.
Junaid Jazib
Page | 2
Environmental Calendar
In order to make global community aware about various environmental issues and to work for
environmental protection different events are organized at local, national and international
levels. Some of the important days are:
World Wetland day 2nd Feb
International Polar bear day 27th Feb
World wildlife day 3rd March
International day for actions for rivers 14th March
World Forestry Day 21st March
Water day 22nd March
Earth Day 22 April
Green day 4th May
World Biodiversity day 22nd of May
World Environment Day 5th June
World Population day 11th July
Tiger Day 29th July
Ozone Day 16th September
Zero emissions Day 21st September
World Soil Day 5th December
Page | 3
Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgement
3. Environmental Calendar 8
4. Chapter-1 Understanding the Environment 9-41
1.1. Environment: Definition and Concept
1.2. Components of Environment
1.3. Concept of ecological balance in nature
1.4. Environment and human health
1.5. Overexploitation of environment and Sustainable development
1.6. Environmental Science
1.7. Need for public awareness
5. Chapter-2 Life and Ecosystem 42-84
2.1 Origin and Characteristics of Life
2.2 Ecosystem
 Structural aspects of ecosystem
 Functional aspects of ecosystem
2.5. Ecological succession
2.6. Ecosystem: examples
2.7. ecosystem services
6. Chapter-3 Natural Resources 85-122
3.1. Natural resources: definition, concept and types
3.2. Land resources
3.3. Forest resources
3.4. Water resources
3.5. Food resources
3.6. Energy resources
7. Chapter-4 Biodiversity and Its Conservation 123-153
4.1. Biodiversity: Definition, meaning, levels and values
4.2. Biodiversity at global and regional levels
4.3. Endemic and Exotic Species
4.4. Hotspots of Biodiversity
4.5. Threats to Biodiversity
4.6. Conservation of Biodiversity
8. Chapter-5 Environmental Pollution 154-196
5.1. Concept of pollution and pollutants
5.2. Air pollution, causes, effects and control measures.
5.3. Water pollution, causes, effects and control measures.
5.4. Soil pollution, causes, effects and control measures.
5.5. Solid waste: Municipal and industrial wastes
9. Chapter-6 Socioenvironmental Issues 197-219
6.1. Human population growth and environment
6.2. Environmental education-goals and objectives
6.3 Role of mass media and environmental organizations
6.4. Concepts of eco mark and eco-friendly products
6.5. Environmental movements in India
10. Chapter-7 Environmental Ethics and Laws 220-242
7.1. Environmental ethics, issues and possible solutions
7.2. Environmental laws
7.3. Salient features of some environmental acts of India
 Wildlife protection Act, 1972.
 Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1974.
 Forest conservation Act, 1980
 Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981.
 Environmental Protection Act, 1986.
7.4. Important statues and legislations related to environment
7.5. International treaties and conventions
11. Chapter-8 Natural Disasters and Their Management 243-265
8.1. Disaster and its management
 Earthquakes
 Floods
 Cyclones
 Landslides
8.2. Resettlement and rehabilitation of people, its problems and concerns
8.3. Wasteland reclamation
12. Addendum and Appendices 266-275
13. Glossary 276-285
14. Bibliography and suggested readings 286
Page | 4
Understanding
Chapter 1 the Environment
Understanding the Environment
Man is the product of his environment

Man is the product of his environment
Page | 5
CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT
“We won’t have a society if we destroy the environment"
Margaret Mead
........................................................................................................................................................................................................
The environmental complex is the natural integrated whole of all the

physical systems on the earth. It consists of interacting components like air,
water, soil, living organisms and set of various conditions and forces
prevalent on the earth. The environment on the planet earth is believed to
be unique in having a life-support-system which nowhere else in the
universe is known to exist. The quality of environment is extremely
important not only for humans but for the entire spectrum of the life on the
earth. Man, being the supreme creature among all forms of life on the
earth, possesses the capabilities to use and modify his surroundings or
environment to suit his requirements. However overexploitation of
environment by man has resulted in a chaotic situation in it. Irreparable
depletion of natural resources, disturbances in natural ecosystems, loss of
biodiversity and introduction of toxic and harmful pollutants in the
environment have degraded the quality of environment. This state of affairs
is bound to bring about major devastations on the planet. The realisation of
whatOBJECTIVES
man has done to his environment has led to emergence of the concept
of After
sustainable development.
going through this unit,Sustainable development
we will be able aims at attaining
to explain about:
 Concept,
economic progress withoutimportance,
compromisingtypesenvironmental considerations.
and components of
environment
 Ecological balance in nature
 Environment and human health
...........................................................................................................................
 Environmental overexploitation and sustainable development
 Environmental science; its nature, scope and
importance
Page | 6
 Need for Public Awareness
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, we will be able to explain about:
 Concept, importance, types and components of environment

 Ecological balance in nature
 Environment and human health
 Environmental overexploitation and sustainable development
 Environmental science; its nature, scope and importance
 Need for Public Awareness
Page | 7
INTRODUCTION
The earth is the only known place in the universe where life exists. It is believed
to be about 4.5 billion years old. Life originated on it about 3.5 billion years ago
that is about one billion years after the earth came into existence. During this
period there evolved an environment which supported life on it. It is this
environmental complex which allowed and determined the existence, evolution
and survival of innumerable forms of life on the earth. The environment
includes everything that affects life. There are materials which are used by
living organisms, climatic conditions which affect their survival and various
forces which influence their well being. All these factors collectively and
interactively form a life-suiting setup also called as life-support-system on the
earth. Environment is thus a storehouse of various resources which are essential
for life. Different components of environment interact within themselves and
with living organisms present over there. These interactions have great bearing
on organisms‘ survival and health. A good, safe and healthy environment is
always a prerequisite condition for life on the earth. Its importance for human
life is undisputed. Unfavourable changes happening in his environment are not
good for his health.
Air, water, earth and biodiversity are the major parts of our environment. Our
life heavily depends on these interrelated components of environment. Any
disturbance to any of these components will badly affect entire environmental
complex and thus all humanity will have to suffer. Human interventions in the
natural environment have already caused a great deal of detrimental changes in
the environmental complex. Global warming, ozone depletion, climatic change,
etc are some of the problems caused mainly due to man‘s undue interferences in
the environment. In addition to these problems of global scale, there are also
some localised problems which affect particular regions where they originate. It
is now urgently important to design and adopt effective strategies and measures
at local, regional and global levels to save natural environment for our own
survival and sustainable development.
Page | 8
DETAILS AND DISCUSSIONS
1.1. Environment
The term Environment has been derived from a French word ‗environner‘ which means to
encircle or to surround. Everything, living or non-living, which surrounds us, forms our
environment. Thus, the sum total of all the materials, forces and conditions that affect an
individual‘s life is known as environment. All these materials, forces and conditions on the
earth interact with one another and form a complex systems and sub-systems known as
environmental complex. The integrated whole of physical and biological systems on the earth
is called Life-support-system which enables life to exist and flourish.
1.1.1 Definition and Concept
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines environment as ―the whole outer
physical and biological system in which man and other organisms live‖.
P. Gisbert says, ―environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting

a direct influence on it‖.
According to E. J. Ross, ―environment is an external force which influences us‖.
As per Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, environment refers to the ―sum total of air,
water and land and the interrelationships among themselves and also with the human
beings, other living organisms or property.‖
Some other definitions of the term ‗environment‘ given by eminent scientists or important
environmental agencies are:
 ‗A person‘s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he

receives from his conception until his death.‘ It can be concluded from the above
definition that Environment comprises various types of forces such as physical,
intellectual, economic, political, cultural, social, moral and emotional. Environment is
the sum total of all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the
life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturation of living
organisms‘
Boring
 ‗The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the external forces,
influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth,
development and maturity of living organisms.‘
Douglas and Holland
Page | 9
 ‗All of the biotic and abiotic factors that act on an organism, population, or ecological
community and influence its survival and development. Biotic factors include the
organisms themselves, their food, and their interactions. Abiotic factors include such
items as sunlight, soil, air, water, climate, and pollution. Organisms respond to
changes in their environment by evolutionary adaptations in form and behaviour.‘
The American Heritage Science Dictionary
 ‗The aggregate of surrounding things, conditions, or influences‘

dictionary.com
The place where an organism lives is known as the habitat of that organism. The habitat of
an organism actually represents a particular
set of environmental conditions suitable for
its successful growth and survival. In its
habitat an organism or group of organisms In its present form, the earth is like a
is surrounded and affected by other round ball of solid mass with mean
organisms or groups of organisms, radius of 6371 km, equatorial
materials, forces, conditions, etc. This circumference of 40077 km, total mass
whole of the factors which influence an of 5976×1024g, and mean density of
organism is known as its Environment. 5.517 g. cm-3. Life exists on its surface
Man, like any other living organism on the which is covered by landmass and
earth, is also surrounded and affected by his oceans. Its surface is also surrounded
environment. In fact, the main focus of from all sides by an aerial envelope.
environmental studies is man and the Soil, water and air together-with
environment refers to what surrounds and climatic and other natural conditions on
affects man‘s life. But man cannot exist in the surface of the earth form the basic
isolation from other forms of life. These habitat for life.
other forms of life including innumerable species of plants, animals and micro-organisms are
part of man‘s environment and affect his life in many ways.
The air, water, soil, all living and non-living things around us constitute our environment,
which influences our lives. Thus from man‘s perspective, the whole outer physical and
biological system in which man and other organisms live is the Environment. It is from the
environment surrounding us that we get food to eat, water to drink, air to breathe and all other
necessities of our daily lives. The Environment around us, therefore, constitutes a ―Life
Support System‖. We can generalize that everything which surrounds us forms a part of the
‗environment‘.
1.1.2. Importance of Environment
It is the environment which provides us a life support system which is vital for sustaining
life on this planet. Environment is a storehouse of various resources which are essential for
life. Different components of environment interact within themselves and with living
organisms present over there. These interactions have great bearing on organisms‘ survival
and health. A good, safe and healthy environment is always a prerequisite condition for life.
Page | 10
Its importance for human life is undisputed. The unfavourable changes happening in his
environment are not good for his health.
A living organism is a product of its genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype

(environment). Besides an organism‘s genetic make-up, its environment decides what type of
individual it should become. Likewise it is environment which shapes the nature, distribution
and prosperity of a population. A healthier and favourable environment guarantees a better
and longer survival of an individual or a population.
We all share same environment on the earth. Every one irrespective of his age, sex,
profession or place of living is affected by the environment he or she lives in and also affects
his environment by his deeds. Any damage or disturbance caused to or happened in the
environment is bound to affect all human beings equally. Air, water, earth and biodiversity
are the major parts of our environment. Our life heavily depends on these interrelated
components of environment. Any disturbance to any of these components will badly affect
entire environmental complex and thus all humanity will have to suffer. Human interventions
in the natural environment have already caused a great deal of detrimental changes in the
environmental complex. These changes are being seen as a tremendous threat to human
existence itself. Global warming, ozone depletion, climatic change, etc are some of the
problems resulted mainly due to man‘s undue interferences in the environment. These
problems are of global scale. There are also some localised problems which affect particular
regions where they originate. Protection of environment and its invaluable assets is
indispensably important for our survival and sustainable development. Devising and adopting
of effective strategies and measures to save environment at local, regional and global level is
the need of hour.
1.1.3. Types of Environment
Though everything that surrounds a living organism is its environment and affects its life.
However on the basis of proximity or nearness and the nature of the influences exerted on the
organisms by the environment it can be of following types
a. Micro-environment: It refers to the immediate local surroundings of an organism.

b. Macro-environment: It refers to all the physical and biotic conditions that surround
the organism externally. Microenvironment is merely a part of it.
Similarly on the basis of the composition or nature of the environmental components following
types of environment can be enumerated.
a. Terrestrial environment where a major components of environment is land
b. Aquatic environment where water forms the major portion of an individual’s environment
c. Aerial environment where air is the dominant environmental factor
1.2. Components of Environment

Another, more generalised, classification of various components of environment may be
done in the following way.
a. Physical Environment or Physical component of environment
b. Biological environment or Biological component of environment
Page | 11
c. Social environment or Social component of environment
Physical environment refers to all abiotic factors or conditions like soil, minerals,
temperature, light, rainfall, etc. It comprises of atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
Biological environment includes all biotic factors or living forms like plants, animals and
micro-organisms.
Social Environment includes an individual‘s social, economic and political condition

wherein he lives. The moral, cultural and emotional
forces influence the life and nature of individual
behaviour.
Why do we need atmosphere?
Kurt Lewin adds another dimension to the components
of environment. He says that although physical, • All climatic changes occur in
biological and social environment are common to the it.
individuals in a specific situation, yet every individual  Water and other geochemical
has his own psychological environment, in which he cycles need this component
lives. Kurt Lewin has used the term ‗life space‘ for to complete
explaining psychological environment. The  Oxygen and other important
Psychological environment enables us to understand the gases which are required for
personality of an individual. Both the person and his life are present in it.
goals form psychological environment.
 It acts as a sink for pollutants
and other materials.
Environment, however, is not a simple aggregate of the  It protects life on the earth
from harmful radiations.
things surrounding us. It is very complex in its
composition and functioning. It is comprised of the
interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural
elements which are interlinked both individually and collectively. It includes interactive
physical materials, countless interdependent living beings, varying set of conditions and
multitude of operative processes involving matter and energy and set of conditions. General
physical laws govern the flow and fluctuations of matter and energy in the environment. All
of its constituents work interdependently as a whole to provide it the required stability which
is also pivotal for man‘s survival.
1.2.1 Physical Environment
The main physical components of the environment are:
a. The Atmosphere or the air

b. The Hydrosphere or the water
c. The Lithosphere or the rocks and the soil
d. The Biosphere or the living communities taken together. This component is
sometimes studied as a separate type of environment and is known as Biotic
environment.
Page | 12
1.2.1a The Atmosphere (atmos=air; sphere=orbit, area)It refers to the mantle of gases which
surround our planet. It is a complex mixture of a number of gases, water vapours and a variety of
fine particulate material. It consists of about 5.15 x 1015 metric tons of gas which exerts a pressure of
about 1 kg per sq.cm. on earth's crust. Most of these gases are compressed in the lowermost layer.
Pressure decreases due to lowering concentration of gases as we move upward. It also acts as a
blanket that makes life possible on the earth by regulating temperature, absorbing toxic gaseous
wastes, filtering harmful solar rays and facilitating water cycle.
The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by the planet's gravity. Dry air
consists of approximately 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% Argon and other inert gases.
Other gases present in earth‘s atmosphere are referred to as trace gases. Air also contains a
variable amount of water vapor and suspensions of water droplets and ice crystals seen as
clouds. Many natural substances such as dust, pollen, spores, volcanic ash, etc may also be
present in tiny amounts in air. The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important
role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface.
Table 1.1 Composition of earth's atmosphere
Atmospheric gases Relative abundance(in percentage)
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 00.93
Carbon dioxide 00.03
Neon 00.0018
Helium 00.00052
Methane 00.00015
Krypton 00.0001
Hydrogen 00.00005
Nitrous oxide 00.00005
Xenon 00.000009
Ozone 00.000007
Structure or layers of the atmosphere: The Atmosphere is divided into different layers
which show different patterns of temperature.
Troposphere: It is the lower most region of atmosphere which is in contact with earth‘s
surface is called troposphere. It extends upto a height of 20km above the equator and about
8km above the poles. The temperature in this layer drops with height and becomes as lower
as -80°C at its upper limit. It is very important layer of the atmosphere and all weather
changes take place in this layer. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere
and stratosphere.
Stratosphere: This is the layer next to troposphere. It is about 30km in thickness and is very
important zone of atmosphere as it contains the vital ozone layer. Temperature in this zone
rises as with height from-80°C to 0°C at its upper extremity. This rise in temperature is due to
the formation of Ozone from atomic and elemental Oxygen and absorption of the heat by the
Ozone gas. The boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere is called as the stratopause.
Page | 13
Mesosphere: This zone is about 40km in thickness. This region is characterized by a gradual
decline in temperature from 0°C to -90°C at its upper end. It is the layer where most meteors
burn up upon entering the atmosphere.
Thermosphere: The thermosphere extends upwards to a height of several hundred

kilometres till the outermost limits of the earth‘s atmosphere. Temperature in this zone rises
with height. The temperatures in the thermosphere may range from 500°K to 2000°K.
Ionosphere: Most of the constituents in this layer are in ionized form and temperature rises
with height.
Exosphere: the outermost layer of the atmosphere which is very rarefied. It extends even
beyond thermosphere.
Ozonosphere: The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. It is mainly located in
the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi; 49,000–115,000 ft),
though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our
atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
Figure 1.1 Layering and temperature-pressure pattern in atmosphere (source: Teachertech.rice.edu)
1.2.1bThe Hydrosphere (hydro=water; sphere=domain, area)
Hydrosphere refers to the total mass of water on the earth. The hydrosphere includes water
that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air. It, thus, can be liquid, vapour
or ice. Liquid water on the earth exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers.
It also exists below ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water in vapour form is
most visible as clouds and fog. The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is ice that is found in
glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. This frozen part of the hydrosphere is also known as the
cryosphere.
Page | 14
Water is an absolute essentiality of life on our

planet. It is a natural resource of fundamental
importance and its properties are very primarily
useful for sustain life and life support system on the Why do we need Hydrosphere?
earth. Water is the medium in which all the
biochemical process within a living organism occur.  Clean water for drinking (a metabolic
Outwards, it is the availability of water which requirement for living processes).
determines the nature, composition and abundance  Water for washing and cooking.
 Water used in agriculture and
of the terrestrial life. Climatic changes on the planet
industry.
are primarily linked with water.
 Food resources from the sea,
Of the total estimated water about 95% is locked in including fish, crustacean, sea weed,
etc.
the lithosphere and only about 5% is in free
 Food from fresh water sources,
circulation. Out of this free water 99% is in oceans. including fish, crustacea and aquatic
Major portion of the earth‘s crust (about 71%) is plants forms important part of
occupied by water. Oceanic water is saline. Its human food.
salinity average salinity is around 35 parts per  Water flowing down from mountain
thousand (or 3.5%). In fact very meagre amount of ranges is harnessed to generate
fresh water is available for human use. electricity in hydroelectric projects.
Both atmosphere and hydrosphere are always in

motion. Water moves through the hydrosphere in a
cycle known as water or hydrologic cycle. Water collects in clouds, and then falls to Earth in
the form of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it evaporates
into the atmosphere to start the cycle all over again.
Figure 1.2 Hydrospheric component of environment (Source: Wikimedia)
1.2.1c The Lithosphere (lithos=roack;sphere=area, domain)
The earth is divided into various regions or layers from its innermost centre to its outer
surface. The innermost layer is called as Core, whereas middle region is named as Mantle
and the outermost part of the earth is known as Crust.
Page | 15
The lithosphere refers to the solid, outer part of the

earth. It includes the brittle upper portion of the
mantle and the crust. It is bounded by the atmosphere Why do we need Lithosphere?
above and the asthenosphere (a part of the upper  It provides the basic stratum for various
mantle) below. The lithosphere is the most rigid of forms of terrestrial life.
Earth‘s layers and extends from the surface of the  Soil, the basis for agriculture to provide us
earth to a depth of about 70–100 km. There are two with food.
types of lithosphere viz. oceanic lithosphere (which  Stone, sand and gravel, used for construction.
is under oceans) and continental lithosphere (which  Micronutrients in soil, essential for plant
is open or terrestrial landmass). Entire lithosphere is growth.
composed of several crustal plates known as tectonic  Microscopic flora, small soil fauna and fungi
in soil, important living organisms of the
plates which keep floating on the molten material
lithosphere, which break down plant litter as
below them. Movements of these tectonic plates bring well as animal wastes to provide nutrients
about various changes on earth‘s surface such as for plants.
earthquakes, volcanic activity and continental drifts.  A large number of minerals on which we
heavily depend are obtained from the earth.
Generally speaking, by lithosphere we mean the rocks
 Oil, coal and gas, extracted from
and the soil derived from the crustal rocks. There are underground sources. It provides power for
about a dozens of elements which mainly constitute vehicles, agricultural machinery, industry,
the lithosphere i.e earth‘s crust. Rocks form the basis and for our homes.
of the lithosphere and soil is formed by the
disintegration of these rocks. Three types of rocks are
found on the earth‘s surface.
Igneous Rocks (igneous=eruptive, fiery): They are formed by the cooling and
solidification of the molten rock material called Magma. All other types of rocks are
formed from this type. Examples include: Basalts, Diorite, etc.
Sedimentary Rocks (sediment=deposit): They develop as a result of gradual

accumulation and hardening of mineral particles brought together by winds, water or
other agencies. These rocks form distinct layers during the process of their formation.
Examples include: Sandstone, Shale, Limestone, etc.
Metamorphic Rocks (metamorphosis=transformation): These rocks are formed as a

result of metamorphosis of igneous and sedimentary rocks. This transformation occurs
under high pressure and extreme heat. Examples include Schist, Slate, Marble, Quartizite
etc.
1.2.1d Soil
Soil is the most important feature of lithosphere from life‘s point of view. It is the soil which
provides substratum to most of the life forms on the earth. It is the soil that provides support,
home, water and nutrients to living organisms. It forms the topmost layer of earth‘s crust and
is a mixture of many solids, liquids and gaseous substances.
Soil is formed through the interactions among the weathering of underlying rock, the climate,
plants and the activities of millions of insects and earthworms etc. All these physical,
chemical and the biological activities build up the soil layer over a long period of time. As a
Page | 16
result of various processes (i.e. physical, chemical and biological) occurring within the soil of
a particular place, a mature soil develops a definite soil structure which is characteristic of the
environmental conditions of that place. It has both the living and non-living matter like
mineral particles, decaying plant remains and insects living together with countless bacteria
on its organic matter. In addition soil holds water and air in its pore. The combination of all
these nutrients in the body of soil provides the plants food for their growth. When the plants
die, the nutrients absorbed by them again become part of the soil system as they are
decomposed by soil biota into simpler substances.
Soils are structurally and characteristically composed of five major components: mineral
materials, organic matter, water, air, and soil organisms. The composition and proportion of
these components together with the environmental conditions determine the characteristics of
soil.
Soil profile
Starting from the underlying rock which supplies the parent material for the formation of soil,
a series of layers are developed. Each layer is called a soil horizon and the sequence of
horizons is termed as the soil profile. There are five main types of horizons in soil. These are
denoted as O, A, B, C and R horizons
O-horizon is the topmost portion of soil. It
consists of organic matter and is commonly found
in forest soils. It is further subdivided into:
O1: Organic horizon wherein the original forms of
plant and animals residues can be recognized by
naked eye.
O2: Here the original plant and animal forms
cannot be so distinguished.
A-horizon (eluviatial zone): This is mineral
horizon, which lies at or near the surface and is
recognized as zones of maximum leaching or
eluviation. It is further divided into A1, A2 and
A3 components.
B-horizon (illuvial zone): It is the layer below the
A layers. In this layer maximum accumulation of
iron and aluminum oxide and silicate clays
occurs. The B Horizon is sometimes also referred
to as subsoil. It is further divisible in B1, B2 and B3 layers.
C-horizon: It is mineral layer beneath the B-horizon.
Figure 1.2. Soil Profile (Kaushak, 2008)
This layer lacks any of the characteristics of the
horizons above it.
R-horizon: It represents bedrock from which other horizons may have been originated.
Soil texture
It refers to the relative proportion of particles of various sizes in a given soil. Soil texture is,
thus, determined by the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in the soil. For
this purpose, soil particles are classified into different size (diameter in mm) categories:
Name of the particle Diameter range (mm)
Clay Less than 0.002
Silt 0.002-0.02
Fine sand 0.02-0.20
Coarse sand 0.20-2.0
Stones and Gravel Above 2.0
Page | 17
Soil texture directly influences the soil-water relationships, aeration and root penetration
through its relationship with inter-particle pore space. Indirectly it also affects the nutritional
status of soil. Sandy soils are nutrient-deficient due to high porosity.
Other characteristics of soil include its density, porosity, moisture content, temperature, air,
pH, biota, fertility, colour, water retention capacity, ion exchange capacity, etc. These
characteristic features vary from soil to soil.
Soil types
Soils are classified in various groups or orders on the bases of different considerations.
Depending upon the climatic and vegetational considerations, soil can be classified into the
following groups:
 Podzolic soil is found in humid temperate climate, under forest vegetation.
 Latosolic soil develops in humid tropical or semitropical-forested regions.
 Chernozemic soil occurs in humid to semi-arid temperate climatic conditions under
grasses.
 Desertic soil is found in arid climatic conditions.
 Mountain soil occurs in hilly regions under colder climates.
 Tundra soil develops in colder regions and under vegetation such as lichens, mosses,
herbs and shrubs.
 An alluvial soil is formed as a result of deposition by the rivers and streams and lacks
well-developed profile. They support luxuriant growth of vegetation.
 Saline soil occurs in the dry climates where rapid evaporation of water results in
surface deposition.
1.2.2. Biological Environment or Biosphere (bio=life; sphere=area, domain)
It refers to the zone of life on Earth. It, in fact, relates to the living organisms which are part
of an individual‘s environment or surroundings. Every living organism is surrounded by other
living organisms which are part of its environment. Just like physical factors of environment,
the other living organisms present in surroundings also affect the life and survival of an
individual. Man is surrounded by billions of other living organisms which play very
important role in his life. Plants, animals and microorganisms present on the earth affect
man‘s life in innumerable ways.
Biosphere is postulated to have evolved, at least some 3.5 billion years ago. The term
"biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875, which he defined as ‗the place
on Earth's surface where life dwells’. All the living creatures present on the earth are
collectively known as Biosphere. It is the living part of our environment or the zone of life on
earth. It is also known as the sum total of life on the earth. However it cannot exist without a
life support system which is provided by a structural and functional togetherness of the other
three environmental components discussed above. Owing to diverse environmental
conditions on earth, life shows a great deal of variety. There are millions of species of living
organisms belonging to a large number of families and taxonomic groups. Some estimates
say there are 15,95,225 species present in the biosphere. However, estimates of actual
number of species present vary widely due to incomplete data in this regard. Wilson in 1992
put the total number of living species in a range of 10 million to 50 million. Till now only
about 1.5 million living and 300,000 fossil species have been actually described and given
scientific names.
Page | 18
Biological environment can further be classified in various ways. Depending upon the nature
of organisms, they can be classified as plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc. On the
basis of their role and status in the ecosystem, they can be categorised as producers (green
plants), consumers (animals) and decomposers.
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Figure 1.3 All the components of environment are, interlinked, interactive, interdependent and overlapping (jazib, 2016)
1.2.3. Social Environment
Man is said to be a social animal. He lives in a highly advanced form of society. This feature
of social living adds another dimension to his environment. Social environment refers to the
immediate social setting in which people live. It includes the cultural, educational, political
and other social aspects of a society where an individual lives. It also includes the aspects of
social interaction including its products such as beliefs, attitudes, traditions, cultural values,
etc. Various aspects of a man‘s social living affect his individuality, health, perceptions and
overall welfare. Education level, socioeconomic status, awareness level, social interactions
and moral values prevalent in a society collectively form the social environment of an
individual. Various factors of social environment of an individual may be enlisted as below:
• Culture and history

• Standards of living
• Education and awareness
• Socioeconomic conditions
• Social stability
• Moral values in the society
Page | 19
• Political structure
• Economic system
• Technological application
• Availability of basic amenities
All these social factors have great bearing on general personality, individuality, health
and progress of an individual in the society.
A good social environment is always in the benefit of overall well being of the individuals
and the society. A social environment characterised by an educated society will produce good
citizens. An individual living in a morally sound environment is bound to prove a good
human being. On the other hand a society full of crises is less probable to have good impacts
on individuals.
Environment
Atmosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere
Structure Sedimention Animal Micro

Surface water Plants
Earth mantle
Earth core
Earth Crust water s organi

Troposphere 11685 sms
15952
stratosphere Marine 25 00
Freshwater 35000
water known known
Measosphere known
spp spp
spp
Thermospher Soil and rocks
e
rocks: igneous,
ionosphere
Water locked in ice caps, polar region
river, springs, wells, lakes, ponds, etc
sedimentary,
Exosphere metamosphic
rocks
Composition
Gases,
Availble water
Precipitation
Particulate
matter,
water
vapours
Functions:
weather
changes,
temperature
regulation,
protection
from UV rays
Figure 1.4 summarized sketch of various physical components of environment (Jazib, 2012)
Page | 20
1.1. Ecological Balance in Nature
Earth is the only planet known to have life on it. The life exists here due to presence of liquid
water and a favourable environment also called as life-support-system. This life support
system is in a perfectly balanced state. Everything on the earth is related to everything else
on it. Physical and biological components of environment on the earth interact with one
another in a very systematic manner and thus keep the system running smoothly. Any unit
of such a system of interacting and interrelated complex of physical and biological systems
is called as ecological system or simply ecosystem. A pond, a river, a forest, a sea and even
entire earth is an example of an ecosystem. The balance maintained in the nature
(ecosystem) due to a perfect relationship between its various components is called as
ecological balance. It is also defined as,” a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community
of organisms in which genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity remain relatively stable
except gradual changes through succession”.
As in a human society there are various jobs performed by different professionals to keep it
stable and running. A farmer, a doctor, a teacher, a sweeper, etc. everyone has a specific
work to perform. This systematic arrangement of responsibilities keeps the society stable
and it functions properly. Removal of any of these professionals may result in chaotic
situation. In a similar way there are various components of ecosystem in nature. Every
component performs a specific function to keep the ecosystem or nature stable and
functioning. There are hundreds of plants and animal species in nature and every single
species is related with other ones and occupies a special space and status in natural setup.
Predator species keep the population of prey species under control. Some insect species
play pivotal role in pollination of tree species. Decomposers act upon dead and decaying
organisms and keep the environs clean. Thus all forms of life have specific roles to keep the
ecological balance maintained in nature. Removal of even a single species from this
ecological setup or arrangement may cause detrimental effects in natural balance and
normal functioning of ecosystems.
Changes do occur in an ecosystem but in a controlled manner so that the overall balance
does not disturb. Nature has capability to bear and correct minor disturbances caused due
to unwanted changes brought about in ecosystems by man or natural factors. However
when changes or disturbances from external factors exceed restoring capacity of nature the
ecological balance gets hugely disturbed. This disturbance in ecological balance of nature
ultimately leads to devastation in it. For example when due to hunting the population of a
predator species gets reduced to very low number, the population of a prey species will
increase greatly. This will increase the demand of food for prey species whose population
has increased by many times than usual. As there would not be sufficient food available to
prey species, the shortage of food will lead to mass mortality of prey species. This will
disturb the whole balance of nature. Similarly unnatural removal or extinction of any species
Page | 21
from nature will lead to ecological disturbances as no other species will be able to serve the
role of extinct species. This may, in turn, result in a chain reaction of species depletion.
Common causes of disturbance in ecological balance of nature include

 Introduction of new species
 Sudden death of some species
 Natural hazards
 Overexploitation of nature by man
 Man-made disasters which results in unfavourable conditions for certain species
 Environmental pollution leads to biodiversity loss
Ecological balance in nature is maintained through a well knit system of various

environmental or ecological components. All forms of life are arranged in an interdependent
manner on the earth. From a small ecosystem like pond to the biggest ecosystem
comprising of the entire earth (called ecosphere) living organisms are organised in a way
that brings and maintains stability.
James Lovelock proposed a theory known as Gaia hypothesis which explains that living
organisms interact with their abiotic surroundings on the earth to form a self regulating
system.
1.4. Environment and Human Health
A safe and healthy environment is indispensable for human health. It is the environment
from where we, like every living organism, derive all our requirements. Every component of
environment plays role in our survival and development in one way or the other.
World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being”. Human health is, in general, influenced by biological, nutritional,
chemical, psychological and social factors present in the environment where one lives.
These factors may cause harmful effects on human body or mind and the resultant
condition is called a disease.
A healthy environment means an environment which is safer and suitable for human growth
and development. It must be free from any disturbances and pollution which may have
detrimental effects on human health. Generally human health depends upon:
 Genetic factors
 Availability of basic facilities
 Availability of food and nutrient requirements
 Type, extent and utilization pattern of available natural resources
 Hygiene and sanitation system
 Awareness and education about health related issues
 Healthcare system
Page | 22
Most of the health related factors listed above are, directly or indirectly, linked with
environment. Natural resources (such as forest, land, food, water etc) and hygiene belong to
environment which we live. Physical conditions like temperature, rainfall, wind, etc directly
affect human health besides shaping general environmental complex. Biosphere or living
component of our environment is significant in determining our health by fulfilling our basic
requirements of varied nature. Social environment is equally important in shaping our
mental and physical health.
It is environment or its components through which pathogens spread from a place to

another. Pathogens survive in unhygienic conditions and unhealthy environment. Various
toxic substances or pollutants which enter environment cause serious health problems
among population which live in that environment.
Environmental Health is now a popular term recognised to denote a branch of Public Health
that deals with environmental aspects and issues which may directly affect human health. It
is concerned with various aspects of natural or built environment for the benefit of human
health. World Health Organisation (WHO) defines Environmental Health as “those aspects of
human health and disease that are determined by environmental factors”. It covers the
assessment and control of those environmental factors which can potentially affect human
health. According to WHO more than 30% of diseases in children are caused due to
environmental exposures. These diseases can effectively be prevented by keeping the
environment healthier. Better environment management greatly helps in reducing disease
outbreak. Better hygienic conditions, proper storage of food and water, use of
environmentally clean fuels, control of environmental pollution and adoption of preventive
measures surely reduces the risks of health related problems.
Environmental factors that can generally affect human health in one way or the other
include:
A. Physical factors: Various physical characteristics of the environment play crucial role in
general human health and occurrence or spread of diseases. Temperature, humidity,
precipitation, etc affect human health in both positive and negative ways. In tropical
regions where temperature and humidity is higher disease causing organisms flourish
more commonly. Floods and droughts also affect human health. In such stressful
conditions man becomes more susceptible to diseases. The general physic-chemical
setup, housing, urban developmental aspect, land use and transport systems at the
place where one lives and the basic facilities available considerably influence human
health and occurrence of diseases.
B. Biological agents: It refers to the pathogens or disease causing organisms present in the
environment. They survive and reproduce in environmental components such as air,
water and soil and pose great threat to human health. Bacteria, viruses and other
microorganisms cause infectious diseases in humans and other animals. Water and food
borne diseases are particularly common in developing countries and are responsible for
Page | 23
large number of deaths every year. They, particularly bacteria, cause food poisoning by
adding poisonous chemicals in the contaminated food. Gastrointestinal diseases such as
cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, etc and respiratory diseases such as influenza, pneumonia
and tuberculosis are the infectious diseases caused by microorganisms present in our
immediate environment under unhygienic conditions.
C. Chemicals: Human activities have released large number of chemicals in the
environment. These chemicals released from industrial activities, transportation or
domestic appliances are detrimental for health when come into contact with human
body. High levels of these chemicals cause innumerable environmental and health
problems for humans. Many of these pollutants are responsible for global warming
(such as CO2) and ozone depletion (such as CFCs) which indirectly cause human health
problems. Others are toxic in nature and causes serious health problems in humans.
Carcinogenic chemicals cause cancer where as many others cause various types of
allergies in skin and respiratory system. There are chemicals called neurotoxins which
impact nervous system. Pesticides such as DDT, endosulphan, aldrin, etc enter food
chain through which it reaches human body and affects it adversely. Heavy metals like
Lead, Mercury and Arsenic are introduced into the environment by industrial and other
wastes. These substances are toxic and causes various ailments when enter human body
along with food or water. A disease called ‘Minmata disease’ caused deaths and
permanent paralysis of hundreds of people in Japan due to consumption of Methyl
Mercury through fish obtained from Minmata water body. Excess of Flouride consumed
through contaminated water causes Fluorosis –a disease of bones and teeth. Use of
Arsenic contaminated ground water has caused different abnormalities in humans in
some areas of West Bengal and Punjab. Excess consumption of nitrate causes blue baby
syndrome. Toxicology is the branch of pharmacology that deals with the nature, effects
and treatments of poisons or toxic chemicals present in the environment.
D. Radiations: Radiations are the waves of energy that travels and spread all around in our
environment. These radiations are useful as well harmful for us. Examples include visible
light, radio waves, microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet lights, X-rays, and gamma-rays,
etc. Radiation pollution refers to the increase in the natural radiation levels in our
surroundings due to human activities. It is said that in today’s world about 20% of
radiation we are exposed to is due to human activities. The human activities that may
release radiation involve activities with radioactive materials such as mining, handling
and processing of radioactive materials, handling and storage of radioactive waste, as
well as the use of radioactive reactions to generate energy (nuclear power plants), along
the use of radiation in medicine (e.g. X-Rays) and research. Microwaves, cell phones,
radio transmitters, wireless devices, computers, and other common commodities of
today’s life are also the sources of various types of radiations. Radioactive radiations are
however believed to be the most harmful radiations. Radioactive substances are present
in nature. They undergo natural radioactive decay in which unstable isotopes release
high energy radiations such as gamma rays (high energy electromagnetic radiation) or
Page | 24
ionization particles i.e. alpha particles and beta particles. The alpha particles are fast
moving positively charged particles whereas beta particles are high speed negatively
charged electrons. Alpha particles can be interrupted by a sheet of paper while beta
particles can be blocked by a piece of wood or a few millimeters of aluminium sheet. The
gamma rays can pass through paper and wood but can be stopped by concrete wall,
lead slabs or water.
These radiations can affect living organisms by causing harmful changes in the body cells
or genetic makeup.
a. Genetic damage is caused by radiations, which induce mutations in the DNA,
thereby affecting genes and chromosomes. The damage is often seen in the
off springs and may be transmitted up to several generations.
b. Somatic damage includes burns, miscarriages, eye cataract and cancer of
bone, thyroid, breast, lungs and skin. Many scientists are of the view that due
to body’s ability to repair some of the damages, the adverse effects of
radiations are observed beyond a threshold level. However, the other group
believes that even a small dose of radiations over a period of time may cause
adverse effects. They believe that the permissible limits of ionising radiations
should be further reduced.
Damage caused by different types of radiations depends on the penetration power and the
presence of the source inside or outside the body. Alpha particles lack penetration power
but they have more energy than beta. They will be, therefore, dangerous when they enter
the body by inhalation or through food. Alpha particles cannot penetrate the skin to reach
internal organs whereas beta particles can damage the internal organs. Greater threat is
posed by radioisotopes with intermediate half-lives as they have long time to find entry
inside the human body.
Radioisotopes enter the environment during mining of uranium. The radioactivity in the
earth.s crust enters the crops grown there and ultimately in human beings. Radionuclides
enter the water bodies or the groundwater coming in contact with the contaminated soil or
rock. Radioactive iodine (I131) accumulates in thyroid gland and causes cancer. Similarly,
strontium-90 accumulates in the bones and causes leukemia or cancer of bone marrow.
E. Noise: Unwanted sound in the environment causes various physiological and

psychological problems. Long-time exposure to high levels of noise results in hearing
loss. It also causes sleeplessness, heart problems and other psychological issues such as
mental fatigue, annoyance, lack of concentration, etc.
1.5. Over-exploitation of Environment and Sustainable Development

Environment is a store house of all the materials and the favourable conditions and forces
vital for life. There are millions of species of living organisms on the earth. Man (Homo
Page | 25
sapiens) has appeared quite late (about 40.000 years ago) during the process of evolution
on this 4.6 billion years old earth. However, after emerging on the scene, this late comer has
captured the key role on the planet. Owing to his unique capabilities, man has become the
master of the show. He possesses the capability to change, modify and exploit his
environment to suit his needs. He has invented the means and tools to control his
environment and use the natural resources present therein.
‘Initially when the human population was small and the level of scientific and technological
development was low, the extent to which human beings could interfere with the
ecosystem was limited and the ecosystem was able to sustain the effect of human
intervention. But with the growth of human population, the demands as well as
interference with the environment have increased many folds. Scientific and technological
advancement and human ingenuity have all been extensively used for exploitation of the
natural resources. The ecological balance has been badly disturbed and the ecosystem is not
able to cope up with the drastic changes caused by the activities of human being.
Anthropogenic activities (caused by human actions) have started polluting and degrading
the environment’ (Kaushak, 2008).
Man’s unjustifiable greed for material progress has ultimately led to a chaotic situation in
the environment. Owing to highly sophisticated technologies available with man and his
ever expanding knowledge of surroundings, man has left nothing untouched in the natural
environment. He has utilised wildlife and biodiversity leading to its depletion. He has cleared
forests to increase agricultural production and to build concrete structures. He has dig earth
to excavate minerals and fossil fuels. He has polluted earth, water and air with toxic
materials.
Declining natural resources, drastically raised levels of green house gases, an unusual
warming of the planet, melting of polar ice caps, rising of sea level, harsher weather
conditions, thinning of ozone shield, deteriorating soils, fresh-water becoming a scarce
commodity and disappearance of species after species, etc are the distressing indicators of
the present environmental situation on our planet.
In crazy race of economic progress man has, inconsiderately, sacrificed what actually formed
the basis for his economic progression and advancements. Acquiring of sophisticated
luxuries has cost him the very basics of life. For these undreamed comforts he has paid in
terms of pure air, pure water and pure land. With aerial and space travelling facilities, air-
conditioned abodes, sky-high crop productivities, fingertip-based technologies, etc we have
also with us toxic water, poisoned air and contaminated land.
Summarisingly, it can be generalised that at present humanity is facing with serious and
innumerable environmental problems. There is:
 Pollution of air, water and land

 Climatic changes and global warming
 Depletion of wildlife and biodiversity
Page | 26
 Waste disposal problem

 Dwindling natural resources
 Shortage of food for humans
 Degradation of land and desertification
 Nuclear hazards
If these eco-crises confronting the humanity are to be reversed or tackled with, every citizen
of the world needs to be alerted. Humanity has to come closer to act rationally and wisely
for the sake of its own survival. The attitudinal change has to be invoked among individuals
and the society. Every individual has to qualify, in his thoughts and actions, for the global
citizenship. He has to act constructively, at his lowest level and in his individual capacity, for
himself and for the humanity. Planting a tree, avoiding wastage, being kind to nature,
sticking to ethics, adopting simplicity, etc. are the simplest but principally the surest eco-
friendly and humanity-saving activities.
Of course there is no escape to industrialization if any state has to grow economically. But it
should be achieved through optimal, judicious and sensible utilization of natural resources
and minimum waste generation. No doubt we have to progress in agricultural sector but
should not attain it by clearing the remaining portions of forests and altering the
biogeochemical cycles. We must make use of biofertilizers and biofriendly techniques in our
agriculture. Install primary infrastructures and power generation plants but compensate be-
fittingly (by planting more trees) for every single tree felled. We need to revise our
developmental approach to make it more responsive and beneficial in real sense.
Environmental Impact Assessment should be carried out well in advance for every proposed
(developmental) project, and the recommendations based on it be followed strictly and
honestly. Environment protection laws need to be formulated and implemented in letter
and spirit. Encouraging environment friendly technologies (at user as well as manufacturer’s
levels), reviving safer traditional technologies and incorporating them in developmental
processes may help reorient present developmental approaches. Adopting safety measures,
following environment ethics, shunning unlimited greed for materialistic gains, etc. are
obligatory for a sustainable development
1.5.1. Sustainable Development
Generally development means economic progress. But this economic progress is often
achived at the cost of long term losses. These losses include environmental implications and
depletion of resources which will not be available for future generations.
Sustainable development is defined as, ‘development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.
Although the fears about such unsustainable growth and development started in 1970s, yet
a clear discussion on sustainable development emerged on an international level in 1992, in
Page | 27
the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), popularly known as The

Earth Summit, held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Rio Declaration aims at “a new and
equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among
states.” Out of its five significant agreements Agenda-21 proposes a global programme of
action on sustainable development in social, economic and political context for the 21st
Century (Kaushak and Kaushak, 2006).
Sustainable development aims at including the environmental or ecological aspects in the

general developmental approach. Sustainable development is described in terms of three
dimensions, which include "economic, environmental and social" aspects. Some expets adds
another fourth dimension to it that is ‘culture or governance.
From environmental point of view development is said to be sustainable if it does not harm
environment and natural ecosystems. There are some general means and indicators of
sustainable development such as:
 Consideration of possible environmental impacts due to developmental projects

 No or minimum damage to environment and natural ecosystems
 Use of appropriate and eco-friendly technology
 Adoption of Reuse, Recycle and Reduce (3Rs) approach
 Minimum or no waste generation
 Raising environmental awareness and education
1.6. Environmental Science
The study which covers different aspects of environment is known as Environmental science.
It is an applied science which seeks practical answers to make human civilization sustainable
on the earth‘s finite resources. Environmental Science adopts a multidisciplinary approach to
study and deal the environmental issues which have direct relevance with mankind. It
involves biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, anthropology,
economics, statistics, computer applications and philosophy which are brought together for a
better and proper understanding of natural environment and human connection with it.
1.6.1. Environmental Sciences: Definition

Environmental Science is defined as the science that deals with different aspects of
environment and emphasise on the maintenance of its quality involving conservation of biotic
and abiotic resources. It deals with all the environmental issues ranging from health and
hygiene to ozone depletion and climatic changes.
The National Center for Education Statistics in the United States defines an academic
program in environmental science as follows:
A program that focuses on the application of biological, chemical, and physical principles to
the study of the physical environment and the solution of environmental problems, including
subjects such as abating or controlling environmental pollution and degradation; the
Page | 28
interaction between human society and the natural environment; and natural resources
management.
1.6.2. Components of Environmental Sciences
A. Ecology
“If you plan for one year,
B. Environmental Studies
plant rice, if you plan for ten
C. Environmental Engineering
years, plant trees and if you
D. Environmental Ethics
plan hundred years, educate
E. Conservation Biology
people”
F. Environmental Chemistry
.......................Chinese proverb
G. Environmental Geography
H. Environmental Sociology
I. Environmental Policy and Law
J. Toxicology
K. Limnology
L. Environmental Hydrology
M. Wildlife
In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often used interchangeably, but
technically, ecology refers only to the study of organisms and their interactions with each
other and their environment. Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental science,
which also could involve purely chemical or public health issues (for example) ecologists
would be unlikely to study. In practice, there is considerable overlap between the work of
ecologists and other environmental scientists. Related areas of study include environmental
studies and environmental engineering. Environmental studies incorporates more of the social
sciences for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the
environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving
environmental quality in every aspect. Environmental scientists work on subjects like the
understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and
mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global climate change.
Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and
biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of
environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the
ability to relate space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
Coinage of another term, ―Environmentology‖ for what is discussed under
environmental science can be suggested here for a consideration by the academicians.
1.6.3. Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Sciences

Environmental science is a multidisciplinary academic field that integrates physical,
biological and information sciences (including but not limited to ecology, biology, physics,
chemistry, zoology, mineralogy, oceanology, limnology, soil science, geology, atmospheric
science, geography and geology) the study of the environment, and the solution of
environmental problems. The science of environment makes use of the knowledge and the
tools of these physical, social and biological sciences in its investigative domain.
Page | 29
To understand different aspects of our environment we need to study different subjects such
geology, geography, biology, physics. To assess and understand human relationship with
nature we apply the knowledge and skills in various subjects such as economics,
anthropology, sociology etc. To investigate human impacts on his environment knowledge
and techniques of yet some other disciplines are to be employed.
In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often used interchangeably, but
technically, ecology refers only to the study of organisms and their interactions with each
other and with their environment. Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental
science, which also could involve purely chemical or public health issues (for example)
ecologists would be unlikely to study. In practice, there is considerable overlap between the
work of ecologists and other environmental scientists.
1.6.4 Scope of Environmental Science

Environmental Sciences is concerned with human welfare. Its main objectives are
sustainability and better future. It deals with a varied array of issues facing mankind at local,
regional and global levels. It attempts to understand the global environmental problems and
suggest corrective measures at local and global levels. It prepares people for global
citizenship as the same environment on the earth is shared by the all; and the same stands true
for global issues related to environment as the entire humanity has to face them. It can be put
as:
o Environmental Science is global in its scope of studies as it deals with issues at global
level.
o It deals with every general problem that mankind confronts and thus covers entire
domain of human activities. Its scope, therefore, encompasses the whole humanity.
o Environmental issues are not of a particular single type. They are varied in their
origin, nature and extent. This necessitates the introduction of environmental science
into the curricula of other subjects of studies so that the knowledge and information
can be used in constructive manner for the betterment of the humanity.
Environmental Science has enough scope to be taught with any stream of sciences
In other words environmental science includes and attempts to deal with almost all the issues
relevant to general welfare of humanity at local, national or international level. Some of the
major issues encompassed under environmental science include:
o Global warming
o Biodiversity decline
o Pollutions
o Population explosion
o Natural resources decline
o Soil degradation
o Natural disasters
o Ozone depletion
1.6.4. Importance of Environmental Science
The importance of Environmental Studies cannot be disputed. The need for sustainable
development is a key to the future of mankind. The degradation of our environment is linked
Page | 30
to continuing problems of pollution, loss of forest, solid waste disposal, issues related to
economic productivity and national as well as ecological security. The increasing levels of
global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer and a serious loss of biodiversity have also
made everyone aware of growing environmental concerns. The United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development held in Rio De Janero in 1992, and the World Summit on
Sustainable Development at Zoharbex in 2002 have drawn the attention of people around the
globe to the developing condition of our environment. It is clear that no citizen of the earth
can afford to be ignorant of environmental issues. Environmental management has become a
part of the health care sector. Managing environmental hazards and preventing possible
disasters has become an urgent need.
Human beings have been interested in ecology since the beginning of civilization. Even our
ancient scriptures have included practices and values related with environmental
conservation. It is now even more critical than ever before for mankind as a whole to have a
clear understanding of environmental concerns and to follow sustainable development
practices.
India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people. It is also the basis
for biotechnological development. Only about 1.8 million living organisms have been
described and named globally. Still many more remain to be identified and described.
Attempts are made to conserve them in ex-situ and in-situ situation. Intellectual Property
Rights (IPRs) have become important in a biodiversity rich country like India to protect
microbes, plants and animals that have useful genetic properties. Destruction of habitats, over
use of energy resources and environmental pollution have been found to be responsible for
the loss of a large number of life forms. It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth
may get wiped out in the near future.
In spite of the developing status of the environment, the formal study of environment has so
far not received adequate attention in our academic performances. Recognisation thus the
Hon‘ble Supreme Court directed the UGC to introduce a basic course on environment for
every student. Accordingly the matter was considered by the UGC and it was decided that a
six months compulsory core module course in environmental studies may be prepared and
compulsorily implemented in all the Universities/ Colleges in India. (Erach Bharucha, Env
std., 2006, UGC New Delhi).
1.6.5. Nature of Environmental Science: Art or Science?
Environmental science is an art as well as a science. Art is the doing of the things in a
beautiful and proper manner and science is the understanding of the things in their proper
context. A painter for example who paints beautiful pictures is an artist. He may not be aware
of the chemical nature of the colours and their chemical reactions. A physicist or chemist who
studies the nature and reactions of various colors is scientist. An environment scientist studies
the environmental phenomenon in their originality and in analytical ways. But he
simultaneously applies this knowledge in artistic manner for the improvement of degrading
environment.
1.7. Need for Public Awareness

The contemporary era is characterized by the high degree of general awareness among the
citizens. The ever expanding knowledge in any domain of sciences, no more remains an
Page | 31
entity restricted to the few elites. Be it any realm of knowledge, today it is readily available to
everyone across the globe beyond any geographic or social boundaries. Modern lifestyle too,
by and large, stands shaped and ushered under the influences of the information technology.
Awareness, in its simplest manifestation, symbolizes a better understanding of the things
around. For a commoner it pertains to a normal comprehension of ‗what, why and how‘ of
the happenings and occurrences in his socio-cultural and physical world. It, thus, adds to the
general wellbeing of a citizen by keeping him, in the latest jargon, updated. Every episode
and event in the surroundings casts some impacts, expectedly and unexpectedly, on
individuals‘ life. Having an appropriate understanding of the things and the happenings in
one‘s surroundings places one in somewhat advantageous position in tackling with the
situation. It helps one strategize the best possible and the fruitful line-of-action.
Modern society in general, is a knowledge society where facts and their information form the
basis for the decisions and the actions. The levels of consciousness present in a societal group
determine its collective behavior, responsiveness and handling of various issues facing the
society. Environmental issues are among the gravest challenges of our time. The warming
planet, melting ices, rising sea levels, disappearing life-forms species after species, thinning
atmosphere, degrading lands, spreading deserts, changing climatic regimes, etc. pose great
threats to the spectrum of life on the planet. Directly and indirectly all this disruption and
chaotic state of affairs in the natural environment has been created by the man himself and,
accordingly, with him only lies the solution, if any. He has removed the trees, poisoned the
land, polluted his ambiance, contaminated the waters, killed the fellow living beings, and has
emptied the resource-treasuries lying under and over the ground. Every citizen of the world
irrespective of his location or nation is bound to suffer on account of it. Scientists and
environmentalists, world over, are concerned about the future of mankind on the earth. What
they opine and stresses for is the urgency of creating awareness and thereby mobilization of
the individuals, the societies and the political regimes so that something substantial can be
done for the sake of our own survival. Ecologists and climatologists are busy doing strenuous
research in their respective fields in order to explore the possible remedies. Various
environmental agencies and organizations are active at local and global levels. Governments,
world over, are concerned to make policies, frame laws, ratify acts and adopt rules and
regulations to tackle the situation in this regard. But the common man, by and large, remains
untouched and uninvolved in the entire process-the process which requires his pivotal
participation for the implementation part. Corrective measures for each and every
environmental crisis, be it local or global, are bound to be initiated at local and individual
level.
There are major stakeholders-ranging from industrialists to politicians-responsible for

destroying environmental equilibrium for huge materialistic gains but alongside are the
ordinary individuals who too play a considerable role in the destructive direction. They,
knowingly or as mostly unknowingly, get involved in the environmental destruction merely
for the lack of proper awareness. This is a universal observation that the populaces, more
often than not, become unreceptive and defensive against any governmental efforts aiming at
environmental protection. Environmental protection attempts fail or do not achieve the
Page | 32
desired results mostly due to non cooperation by the public. Regrettably in our context even
the literate class is not as aware about the actual environmental scenario as it ought to be, let
alone the general masses. Politicians in our part of the world hardly have any idea about
ecological crises. Despite lot of hue and cry, the level of environmental consciousness among
masses is too low to enable them realize the nature and the magnitude of the environmental
crises. Elites in the society talk everything at social events except our ethical responsibilities
with regard to our environmental assets. Moulvis and pundits never venture to preach about
saving environment. Teachers in colleges and universities do involve in organizing debates
and conferences on environmental issues but rarely think beyond the showcases to protect
natural environment.
To tackle with the environmental

challenges requires a behavioral change in Suggested Activities for the Students/Readers:
the society. It requires an awakening in the • Make discussion on environmental issues a habit.
public and this awakening must assume Do talk to your friends, teachers and elders, whenever
the form of a strong movement-a and wherever you feel suitable, about current local and
movement not confined to the elites but global environmental problems. Tell them what you
one which is started and carried by the know and learn from what they say.
masses. Launch and success of such a •Join groups and organisations who work in the field
movement relies entirely on its reception of environment and nature such as WWF-I or BNHS
and perception by the general masses. A or any other such organisation in your area.
proper system requires to be in place to • Begin reading newspaper articles and periodicals
aware the masses about the alarming such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I newsletter, BNHS
environmental scenario they are caught in Hornbill, Sanctuary magazine, etc. that will tell you
and to educate them of their role and more about our environment.
responsibility towards the Mother Nature. • Do visit environmental websites and groups or pages
Public needs to be informed accurately on social networking sites such Facebook, etc.
and effectively so as to make individuals • keep watch on changes in your surroundings. Try to
think and act, at the grass root level, record the changes and find the causes behind them.
towards the sustainability. The scientific • Help to conserve resources by taking part in
and realistic information about various discussions on environmental issues. Organise and
aspects of ecological crises must be support Tree Talks, plantation campaigns and
diffused through the masses in convincing awareness programmes in your area.
ways to equip them with clarity of •Practice and promote reusing of resources, recycling
concepts and productive ideas. The present of wastes, reducing the waste generation and buying
situation where everybody, as a trendy, eco-friendly products.
talks of environment and ecology but lacks • Avoid and discourage use of tobacco, spitting in
the concrete information must be open, creating noise, throwing garbage on roads and
soils, etc.
converted into a situation where everyone perceives the ecological threats as real ones and
looks resolved and determined to do something for a part
• Take betterwarmly in events
tomorrow. organised
Introduction of aon World
module course on environmental awareness at Environment
graduate level isDay,
a goodWildlife
omen butWeek, international
not enough
in any way. Wetland Day, Forestry day, Earth Hour, etc.
• Visit a forest, a water body, a grassland, a National
Park or a Wildlife Sanctuary and spend some time
there. Watch and think about beautiful forms of life
there. Page | 33
RECAPS AND PRACTICES
Walk and Talk

(Facts in brief)
 Environmental complex on the earth formed the basis of origin and evolution of life
 Air, water and soil including different forms of life contained in them are the essential
components of environment of man and everything else that lives on the earth.
 It is the environmental factors after genetics that determine the characteristics of
individuals, populations and communities of living organisms
 Different sciences come together to understand and study various aspects of
environment and is called as Environmental science
 Environmental studies is, generally, an awareness or specifically focused course that
deals current environmental issues more from a social perspective
 E. P. Odum is regarded as the most prominent scientist in the fields of ecology and
environmental science. He has written a famous book on ecology-Fundamentals of
Ecology.
 Man has realized about his excesses in his surroundings which has suffered a lot due
to man‘s greed.
 Various organizations have come up to work for environmental protection and
sustainable approach of economic progress.
 Some international organizations involved with various aspects of environmental
protection include:
 Earth System Governance Project (ESGP)

 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
 World Nature Organization (WNO)
 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
 Plant A Tree Today Foundation (PATT)
 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Page | 34
Practice and Prepare

(Self Tests)
Choose the correct answer
1. Term ‗environment‘ is derived from a
a. German word
b. Latin word
c. English word
d. None of the above
Ans. d. None of the above
2. In troposphere, temperature
a. Rises with height
b. Remains unchanged
c. Declines with height
d. First declines than rises with height
Ans. c. Declines with height
3. Troposphere is
a. Up to 50km at poles
b. Up to 20km at equator and 8km at the poles
c. Up to 8km at equator and 20km at the poles
d. Up to 60km at equator
Ans. b. Up to 20km at equator and 8km at the poles
4. Which is the innermost layer of atmosphere?
a. Ionosphere
b. Troposphere
c. Mesosphere
Ans. b. Troposphere
5. Temperature rises while moving upward in
a. Troposphere
b. Stratosphere
c. Hydrosphere
d. Mesosphere
Ans. a. Troposphere
6. Fauna means
a. Animals
b. Plants
c. Micro organisms
d. Flowers
Ans. b Animals
7. ‘Centre for Science and Environment’ is located at
a. Los Angelis
b. Delhi
c. New York
d. Jammu
Ans. b. New Delhi
8. MAB stands for
a. Man and Biosphere
b. Mechanical and biological
c. Major association of biologists
Page | 35

Ans. a. Man and Biosphere
9. Temperature is
a. A biotic factor
b. Biotic factor
c. Not an Environmental factor
Ans. a. Abiotic factor
10. WWF stands for
a. World wrestling federation.
b. Worldwide fund for nature
c. Worldwide food.
d. World wasteland functionary
Ans. b. Worldwide fund for nature
11. Ionosphere is, sometimes, also called as
a. Thermosphere
b. Troposphere
c. Exosphere
d. Tropopause
Ans a. Thermosphere
12. Ozone is
a. Mono atomic gas
b. Di- atomic gas
c. Tri-atomic gas
d. Tri-atomic vapours
Ans. c. Tri-atomic gas (O₃)
13. Which is the most common gas found in THE atmosphere?
a. CO₂
b. Neon
c. Oxygen
d. Nitrogen
Ans. d. Nitrogen (78.08%)
14. Water has maximum density at
a. 100⁰C
b. 10⁰C
c. 4⁰C
d. O⁰C
Ans. c. 4⁰C
15. Oceans contain........% of total water on THE earth’s surface
a. 97%
b. 70%
c. 3%
d. 75%
Ans. a. 97% (97.60%)
16. Which element is the most abundant one in the earth’s crust
a. Oxygen
b. Silicon
Page | 36
c. Iron
d. Calcium
Ans .a. Oxygen( 49.85%)
17. Which is the most common mineral compound on the earth?
a. Feldspar
b. Mica
c. Quartz
d. Pyroxene
Ans. a Feldspar(58.2%)
18. Disintegration of rocks and formation of soil is called
a. Soil formation
b. Weathering
c. Climate
d. Pedogenesis
Ans. b weathering
19. Word ‘environment’ is derived from another word ‘envirron’ which is a
a. Latin word
b. French word
c. Greek word
d. English word
Ans. b. French word
20. Term ‘ecology’ is derived from word “oikos” which means
a. Household
b. Economics
c. Oxygen
Ans. a. household
Page | 37
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Life and Ecosystem
Life and Ecosystem
To halt the decline of an ecosystem, it is necessary to think

Deep interconnectedness
like an ecosystem of all life forms on earth, from the tiniest organisms
to the largest ecosystems.
Douglas Wheeler
Page | 38
CHAPTER 2 LIFE AND ECOSYSTEM
The first law of ecology is that everything is related to everything else
Barry Commoner, 1971
......................................................................................................................................
Life originated in water as a single celled organism and evolved, over billions of
years, into a web of diverse forms. All life forms are interlinked and
interdependent. The complex of life together with abiotic components of the
environment forms an ecological system in which transformation of energy and
materials takes place. Sun is the only source of energy to run the ecosystems on
the earth. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic
components of an ecosystem. Energy generally enters the system through
photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. Green
plants, thus, harvest solar energy and make it available to other life-forms. By
feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the
movement of matter and energy through the system. By breaking down dead
organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and
facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a
form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes
......................................................................................................................................
Page | 39
OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we will discuss:
OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we will discuss:
 Origin and characteristics of life
 Ecosystem and Ecology
 Structure
 Origin and andoffunctions
characteristics life of ecosystem
 Ecosystem andoEcologyFunctional aspects of an ecosystem
 Structure and functions
o Material/nutrient
of ecosystemcycling in ecosystem
o Functional o aspects
Ecosystem productivity
of an ecosystem
 Ecological succession
o Material/nutrient cycling in ecosystem
o Ecosystem productivity
 Ecosystem-examples
 Ecological succession
 Ecosystem-examples
Page | 40
INTRODUCTION
Life is a characteristic combination of physical entities having biological

processes (such as signaling and self-sustaining processes). Various forms of
life exist such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. Human
beings stand at the top in the hierarchy of life. Biology is the primary science
concerned with the study of life, although many other sciences are also
involved.
Imagine a cat sitting on a table in your room and staring at you, or a flower
fresh and fragrant in a gamla. You know that the cat and the flower are alive
where as the table and the gamla aren‘t. But if you examine the cat and the table
or the flower and the gamla at atomic and molecular levels, you will find that
the differences between them blur. Cats, tables and all other things are made of
atoms and molecules which behave according to the same physical laws. There
is something that differentiates living organisms from non living things though
both are composed of atomic and molecular assemblages. This something is
‗life‘. Cell is the basic unit of life. It is composed of biochemical molecules.
However an organism is taken as the first living system. Living organisms must
gather energy and materials from their surroundings to build new molecules,
grow in size, maintain and repair their parts and produce offsprings. Some
living organisms such as bacteria and protozoan consist of a single cell(they are
unicellular) whereas others such as fungi, plants and animals, consist of large
number of cells(they are multicellular. A group of similar organisms (i.e
belonging to the same species) in a particular area at a particular time is called
Population. Number of populations (organisms of different species taken
collectively) in an area are called a community. An identical or distinguishable
portion of the earth containing several communities is called a biome. Entire
zone on earth consisting of living organisms is known as Biosphere (discussed
in unit 1). Biosphere along with its environment is called Ecosphere.
Page | 41
DETAILS AND DISCUSSIONS
2.1. Origin and Characteristics of Life
Owing to its unique environment, the earth is the only planet to harbor life. on the earth we
can find living organisms from the poles to the equator, from the bottom of the sea to several
miles in the air, from freezing waters to dry valleys Over the last 3.7 billion years or so,
living organisms on the Earth have diversified and adopted to diverse environmental
conditions. The diversity of life is truly amazing, but all living organisms do share certain
similarities. All living organisms can replicate, and the replicator molecule is DNA. Earlier,
living organisms were divided into two kingdoms: animal and vegetable, or the Animalia and
the Plantae. Now the most often used scheme divides all living organisms into five kingdoms:
Monera (bacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. This coexisted with a scheme
dividing life into two main divisions: the
Prokaryotae (bacteria, etc.) and the eukaryotae
(animals, plants, fungi, and protists). Another
Extraterrestrial life
type of biological entities, the viruses, are not
organisms in the same sense as other living Earth is the only known planet to have life. It is
organisms are. However, they are of because of its unique environment which is also
considerable biological importance. No one known as the life-support-system. Other
knows the exact number of species present on locations within our Solar System that may host
the earth. Scientist, however, believe it to be life include subsurface Mars, the atmosphere of
somewhere between 10M to 80M. Only about Venus and subsurface oceans on some of the
1.4M species have so far been enlisted and only moons of the gas giant planets. Astroecology
2.5 to 12% of the total number of spiecies on the experiments with meteorites show that Martian
earth are described. asteroids and cometary materials are rich in
inorganic elements and may be fertile soils for
Levels of organization microbial, algal and plant life, for past and
The entire world around us is made up of future life in our and other solar systems. Some
people believe that the life originated
 Space,
somewhere else and then transferred to Earth in
 Matter, and the form of spores via meteorites, comets, or
 Energy cosmic dust. (source: wikipedia)
Space is expressed in terms of area etc. and is
present everywhere around. Everything around
us is made up of some substances or materials
Page | 42
called matter. This matter is expressed in terms of mass. Energy is present in the universe as
an important ingredient that makes this world functional. Space, matter and energy are the
subject matter of various Physical Sciences.
Atom is the lowest level of organization in the living world and non-living world while
biosphere is the highest level of organization in the living world. Atoms, molecules and
chemical compounds are non living but are very important for life. Life starts at the level of
cells which form tissues and organs. An organism is the first living entity for ecological
studies. Populations, communities, ecosystems and the entire biosphere are the study area of
ecology. Each level in this hierarchy of biological organisation is unique in its structure and
function and shows additional properties than those of its lower level. At every level there
emerge some unique properties, also known as emergent properties, which are always more
than the properties of its constituent parts taken together.
Biosphere
Biomes
Ecosystem
Community
Living
Population
Studied under various biological and
Individuals/living organisms ecological sciences
Organ system
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Organelles or sub-cellular components

Non living
Molecules and compounds Studied under Physical and Chemical sciences
Atoms
Figure 2.1 Life on the earth: Levels of organization (Jazib, 2012)
2.2. Ecosystem
Life does not exist in space or isolation. It needs a substratum which provides space,
necessary substances and favourable conditions for living organisms. In an area, the
community of living organisms interacts with its physical environment to form a definite
structural and functional system. This structural and functional unit of life in nature is called
an Ecological System or simply an Ecosystem.
Page | 43
The term ecology has been derived from a Greek word ‗oikos‘ (Oikos=household/habitat;
logos=study). The word "ecology" ("Ökologie") was coined in 1866 by the German scientist
Ernst Haeckel. It relates to the scientific study of organisms or groups of organisms in their
natural habitat. The science of ecology is often categorized as a branch of biosciences that
studies the interactions among organisms and their environment, such as the interactions
organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment. Earlier , two other terms
viz. ethology and hexicology were also used for such studies but they the newer term
ecology predominated. Different ecologists have defined Ecology in different ways:
Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of animals.

(Andrewartha,1961)
Study of interactions of form, function and factors is ecology.
(R. Mishra, 1967)
Study of structure and function of nature may be defined as ecology.
(Odum, 1971)
The Scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance
of organisms is known as ecology.
(Krebs,1985)
Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms and the totality of the
physical and biological factors affecting them or influenced by them.
(Pianka, 1988)
Ecology can be divided into various subdivisions such as:
On the basis of taxonomic affinities

 Plant Ecology- Study of interrelationships of plants with their environment.
 Animal Ecology- Study of interrelationships of animals with their
environment
Based on habitat:
 Habitat ecology-Study of habitats and their effects upon the organisms.
Based on levels of organization:
 Autecology- ecological study of one species of organisms.
 Synecology-ecological studies of more than one species of organisms.
 Population ecology-Study of interactions between individuals of same
species.
 Community ecology-Study of interactions between individuals of different
species.
 Biome ecology-Study of interaction between different communities of a
biome.
 Eco-system ecology-Study of interactions between the biotic and abiotic
components of an eco-system.
Based on specialised fields of ecology:
 Freshwater ecology: Study of interactions among freshwater organisms.
 Marine ecology: Study of interactions among marine organisms.
Page | 44
 Zoogeography: Geographic distribution of animals.

 Phytogeography: Geographic distribution of plants.
 Statistical ecology-Statistical studies on population, sampling techniques and
community problem.
 Estuarine ecology-Study of interactions among estuarine organisms.
 Terrestrial ecology-Study of interactions among terrestrial (land) organisms.
Now, coming back to the ecosystem.
An ecosystem is a spatial and organizational unit which is formed by the interactions of
living organisms with each other and with their physical environment. Thus, the community
of living organisms (plants, animals and micro-organisms) in any area taken together with
their non-living environmental components (such as soil, air and water) forms an ecosystem. .
A pond, grassland, garden, forest, etc are the common examples of ecosystem. The earth‘s
living organisms interacting with their physical environment (i.e biosphere) may be
considered as a giant and vast ecosystem. On the contrary a small pool of water containing
certain forms of living organisms (such as plants, insects, microorganisms, etc) may also be
regarded as an ecosystem.
Every ecosystem, big or small, has some common characteristics. Structure and function are
the important aspects of an ecosystem. Various living organisms and their non-living
environmental components form the structural aspect of an ecosystem. Sun is the only source
of energy for any ecosystem. When energy flows through an ecosystem, it makes it
functional. There are producers (plants), consumers (animals) and decomposers. These
groups of living organisms are arranged in a definite sequence according to their food habits
in an ecosystem. The relationship among these groups is expressed in food chains, food webs,
ecological pyramids, etc. Various inorganic substances such as C, N, H, P, S, water, etc. are
utilised by living community and are kept exchanged between different components of an
ecosystem.
The term "ecosystem" was first used by a British ecologist Arthur Tansley in 1935. He
explained the concept of eco-system which can be summarised as:
 When both, biotic and abiotic components are considered, the basic structural
and functional units of nature are ecosystems.
 There exist varying degrees of positive or negative or even neutral interactions
among organisms at both interspecific and intraspecific levels (within the
members of same species or between the members of different species).
 Energy is the driving force of this system. Energy flow is unidirectional and
non-cyclic.
 There operate biogeochemical cycles in the ecosystem. This movement of
nutrients within an ecosystem is always cyclic.
 The limiting factors of environment govern the successful growth of
organisms. Under natural conditions, different kinds of populations undergo
succession.
Page | 45
2.2.1 Types of ecosystems

Biosphere is the largest and an all encompassing ecosystem. However it is difficult to handle
this huge system for ecological studies. It is for our convenience that we have divided this big
ecosystem into smaller ecosystems based on our own spatial considerations. Ellenberg (1973)
classified the world into a hierarchy of ecosystems. After biosphere, next lower level is
mega-ecosystem such as marine ecosystems (seas, oceans, lakes, etc.), limnic ecosystems
(fresh water ecosystems) semi terrestrial (ecosystems of wet soil and air), terrestrial and
urban-industrial ecosystems (cropland, city, etc.). Lower to mega-ecosystems is, macro
ecosystems as forest within a mega-ecosystem. Meso-ecosystems (such as a deciduous broad
leaved forest), micro ecosystems and nano-ecosystems are still lower levels of ecosystem.
These lower level ecosystems are spatially contained within another (higher level) ecosystem
but show certain individuality of their own.
Figure 2.2 various types of ecosystems
In a simpler way ecosystems can broadly be categorised as under:
A. Terrestrial ecosystems: all the ecosystems on land such as a forest, a desert,

grassland, a cropland, etc.
B. Aquatic ecosystems: all the ecosystems where the dominant factor is water such as a
pond, a lake, a river, a spring, a lake, a sea, an ocean, etc.
C. Natural ecosystems: all the naturally occurring ecosystems where man‘s interruption
is thought mainly to be unwarranted such as a forest, grassland, river, etc.
D. Artificial ecosystems: all the ecosystems which are created and managed by man
such as a cropland, a garden, a pond, etc.
Page | 46
2.3. Structure and Functions of Ecosystem

A system is a collection of interdependent parts and/or events that make up a whole. A
computer for example has its constituent parts such as CPU, monitor, input devices, etc.
which together make it a system. Similarly a radio set, a mobile phone, a watch, a car or any
other machine are examples of system. A computer works only when all of its constituent
parts are in proper order and function appropriately. Every part has its specific functioning
but all parts function together in the system, say a computer, radio or car to make it a
functional system. The whole system fails to function unless there is some kind of input from
the outside. System having received some input acts to produce some output. For the
computer, radio or car inputs are electric power and petrol and output are a printout, sound
and speed. Like any other system, ecosystem too has its structural and functional attributes. It
too requires input and produces output. Energy from the sun forms the input for an
ecosystem. It works and produces output called ecosystem productivity.
2.3.1. Structural aspects of an ecosystem

The physical components of an ecosystem, their inter-relationships and the resultant
configuration constitute the structure of an ecosystem. This structural framework can be
expressed in simple categorisation (abiotic, biotic, producers, consumers, etc) of various
components or in graphical representations such as food chains, food web, ecological
pyramids, etc.
As an ecosystem is not only a biological entity. It is composed of following types of general

components
 Abiotic Component
 Biotic component
A. Abiotic Components
It is the portion of an ecosystem that is non living. Rocks, soil, gases, water, temperatures,
winds, other forces, etc. are abiotic component of ecosystem. It is, thus, also said to be the
aggregate of environmental factors and includes:
 Climatic factors such as rainfall, humidity, temperature, light.

 Topographic factors such as altitude, slope, direction of mountain ranges etc.
 Edaphic factors such as soil composition, soil texture, soil biota etc.
These abiotic components or, otherwise, environmental factors in an ecosystem are capable
of bringing marked distributional, structural and functional changes in organisms. An
organism requires harmonious relationship with its immediate environment for its proper
growth, reproduction, etc. The difference between the types of vegetation or consumers of a
desert and a rain forest indicates the role of environmental factors on the distribution and
survival of organisms in different ecosystems. These environmental factors exhibit diurnal,
seasonal, annual and cyclic variations to which the organisms are subjected.
Page | 47
B. Biotic Components
These include the living entities in an ecosystem. They include all the microbes, animals,
plants and their products. They can be categorized as:
a) Producers or Autotrophic components: These are the producers which convert simple
inorganic substances into complex organic substances with the help of solar energy. They are
of two types:
(i) Photosynthetic: They manufacture food with the help of chlorophyll in presence
of sunlight so energy utilized is radiant energy. These constitute the major proportion
of autotrophic components. It includes green plants, green algae and photosynthetic
bacteria.
(ii) Chemosynthetic: They manufacture food with the help of chemical energy
evolved during chemical reactions. They contribute to lesser extent to the production
of food in an ecosystem.
In ecosystems we generally consider only green plants as producers as they manufacture their
food by using energy from the sun. In the sea these include tiny algal forms to large
seaweeds.
b) Consumers or Heterotrophic components: They consume the food produced by the

producers. They are of following types.
(i) Macro consumers: These are the consumer organisms which are of larger size and feed
upon the producers. Based upon their position in the food chain they can be categorized in
primary, secondary and tertiary consumers.
 Primary consumers (Herbivores): Eat producers such as green plants eg. Deer, goat,
grasshopper, etc.
 Secondary consumer (Smaller carnivores): eats herbivores (animals) eg. Snake,
eagle, lizard, large fish, etc.
 Tertiary consumers (Larger carnivores): Eats smaller carnivores eg. Lion, hawk,
tiger, man, etc.
(ii) Micro-consumers or Decomposers: Decomposers are a group of organisms consisting
of small animals like worms, insects, bacteria and fungi, which break down dead organic
material into smaller particles and finally into simpler substances that are used by plants as
nutrition. Decomposition thus is a vital function in nature, as without this, all the nutrients
would be tied up in dead matter and no new life could be produced.
In simpler terms biotic component of ecosystem consists of producers (green plants),

consumers (herbivore and carnivore animals) and decomposers (microorganisms).
Trophic structure
The assemblage of various living components of an ecosystem organized in an orderly
manner is called its tophic Structure. In a trophic structure, the producers and consumers are
arranged together in various levels in accordance with their inter-relationships (or simply
Page | 48
their food-relationship) in an ecosystem. Each level in this structure is known as a trophic

level. The structure and functions of an ecosystem are closely related and influence each
other so intimately that they need to be studied together. The flow of energy takes place
through a series of feeding relationships in a definite sequence which is known as Food
Chain. Nutrients too, move along the food chains only. Usually an ecosystem may have two
to six trophic levels through which energy and nutrients flow. In a more simple language all
the green plants which are the primary producers of organic substances constitute one trophic
level in an ecosystem. Similarly, all animals which obtain food or in other words energy by
consuming green plants, such as grasshoppers, cattle, rodents, etc (ie. Primary consumers or
herbivores) shall be at the same trophic level. And all those animals or predators which live
on primary consumers or herbivores (i.e secondary consumers or carnivores) are said to be at
a higher but same trophic level.
A. Food Chain: The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as
food chain. All organisms, living or dead, are potential food for some other organism
and thus, there is essentially no waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem. A
caterpillar eats a plant leaf, a sparrow eats the caterpillar, a hawk eats the sparrow, and
when they all die, they are all consumed by microorganisms like bacteria or fungi.
Food chains usually have two to six links (or trophic levels in an ecosystem). In
nature, we come across two major types of food chains as below.
(i) Grazing food chain: it starts with green plants and culminates in carnivores.
Some examples are
 grass→grasshopper→frog→snake→hawk(grassland ecosystem)
 grass→rabbit→fox
 phytoplanktons→waterfleas→small fish→tuna(pond ecosystem)
 phytoplanktons→zooplanktons→fish
 lichen→riendeer→man(Arctic region)
(ii) Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivore and
decomposers consume. Partially decomposed organic matter and even the
decomposers are fed upon by the detritivores. Some examples are:
 Leaf litter→algae→ crabs→small carnivorous fish→large fish(mangrove
ecosystem)
 Dead organic matter→fungi→bacteria(forest ecosystem)
 Dead grass→termite→aardvark(grassland)
(iii) Parasitic food chain: parasites which derive nutrition from other plants
andanimals also constitute a link in yet another type of food chain which may be
designated as Parastic food chain. It may commence at any level in a trophic
structure and may at times result in heavy losses of energy.
B. Food web
In natural ecosystems food chains rarely operate as isolated linear sequences. They are found
to be interconnected and forming a complex network of several food chains together at the
same time. Food web is, thus, a network of food chains where different types of organisms
are connected at different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and
being eaten at each trophic level. For example in grazing food chain of a grassland, in the
absence of rabbit grass may be eaten by mouse. The mouse in turn may be eaten directly by
Page | 49
hawk or by snake which is then eaten by hawk. In such a food web there may be seen as
many as five linear food chains.
grass→grasshopper→hawk
grass→grasshopper→lizard→hawk
grass→ rabbit→hawk(or vulture or fox or even man , if present)
grass→mouse→hawk
grass→mouse→snake→hawk
Food webs are very important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem in nature.
Figure 2.3 Food web (McComas)
C. Ecological pyramids
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with
producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is known as an
ecological pyramid. The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton after
whose name these pyramids are also known as Eltonian pyramids. There are three types of
ecological pyramids
(i) Pyramid of numbers. It represents the number of individuals at each trophic

level. We may have upright or inverted pyramid depending upon the type of
ecosystem and food chain considered. Ecosystems like a grassland or a pond show
an upright pyramid of numbers. The producers in a grassland are the grasses and
that in a pond are phytoplanktons(algae etc.) which are small in size but very large
in number. So they (producers) form a broad base. The herbivores in grassland are
insects while tertiary carnivores are hawk or other birds which are lesser and
lesser in number and hence the pyramid apex becomes narrower and form an
upright pyramid. Similarly in a pond ecosystem, herbivores, carnivores and top
carnivores decrease in number at higher trophic levels. In a forest ecosystem, big
Page | 50
trees are producers, which are less in number and hence form a narrow base. A
large number of herbivores including birds, insects and several species of animals
feed upon the trees(on leaves, fruits, flowers, bark etc) and form a much broader
middle level. The secondary consumers like fox, snakes, lizards, etc. are less in
number than herbivores while top carnivores (like lion, tiger, etc) are still lesser in
number. So the pyramid is narrow at base, broader at middle and again narrower
upwards.
Parasitic food chains show inverted pyramids. The producers like a few big trees
harbor fruit eater birds which are large in number. A much higher number of lice,
bugs etc grow as parasite on these birds while a still greater number of
hyperparasites like bugs, fleas, microbes, etc feed upon them thus making an
inverted pyramid.
top
carnivores
top lion, tiger
carnivores
carnivores hyperparasites
frogs, birds,
carnivores foxes, lizards,
snakes
frogs, birds parasites
herbiviores
herbiviores insects, birds
insects herbivores
trees
producers producers
producer
grasses
Figure 2.4a Figure 2.4b Figure 2.4c
Figure 2.4a. Upright pyramid of number as in a grassland or pond

Figure 2.4b Pyramid of number in a forest ecosystem
Figure 2.4c Inverted pyramid as shown in parasitic foodchains
(ii) Pyramid of biomass.

It is based upon the total biomass at each trophic level in a food chain. The pyramid of
biomass can also be upright or inverted. The pyramid of biomass in a forest ecosystem is
upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is because the producers accumulate a
huge biomass while the consumer‘s total biomass declines at higher trophic levels. The pond
on the other hand shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. The total biomass of producers is
much less than that of herbivores and it goes on increasing towards higher trophic levels.
(iii) Pyramid of energy

The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid.
This type of pyramid gives the best representation of the trophic relationship and it is always
upright. At every successive level there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of
heat, respiration, etc. thus at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence
there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive trophic level as we move from
producers to top carnivores.
Page | 51
2.3.2. Functional aspects of an ecosystem

An ecosystem works as a unit in an efficient and organized way. It receives energy from the
sun and passes it on through its components and, in fact, all life depends on this flow of
energy. Green plants (including phytoplanktons) alone are able to trap the solar energy in an
ecosystem. They make use of this energy for their growth and maintenance. Energy gets
stored as chemical bonds of large organic molecules in green plants. Heterotrophs or
consumers obtain their energy requirements from this stored energy (in green plants) as food
and use it for their development, growth, maintenance or other life activities. All life forms
in an ecosystem are linked together by the flow of energy. Besides energy, various nutrients
and water, which are also required for life processes, are exchanged by the biotic components
within themselves and with their abiotic components. The flow of energy and nutrients in an
ecosystem keeps it going on. This mechanism can be studied in a simplified manner as
under.
Ecosystem Energetics
As stated above an ecosystem needs energy inputs from outside. Materials are used from
within an ecosystem. Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through food chains and it
is this energy flow which keeps the ecosystem going on. Most important feature of this flow
is that it is unidirectional. Unlike the nutrients which move in a cyclic manner and are reused
by the producers after flowing through the food chain, energy is not reused in the food chain.
Flow of energy follows the laws of thermodynamics.
 First law of thermodynamics states that the energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another. The solar energy
captured by the green plants is converted into biochemical energy of plants and latter
into that of consumers.
 Second law of thermodynamics states that energy dissipates as it is used or in other
words, it gets converted from concentrated to dispersed form. As energy flows
through the food chains, there occurs dissipation of energy at every trophic level. At
each trophic level, about 90% of energy gets lost and only 10% of it gets transferred
to the next level.
Energy Flow in Ecosystem

As mentioned above the sun is the only source of energy for the entire biosphere. Solar
energy travels in electromagnetic waves form. It consists of a wide range of wavelengths and
various types of radiations (infra red, visible, ultra violet, etc.) Only a specific portion of
sun‘s electromagnetic spectrum is utilized by the producers. The amount of solar energy
reaching a surface perpendicular to the sun rays at outer atmosphere is called solar constant.
This is 2.00 calories per per sq cm per minute. Of this quantity about 1.00cal/sq.cm/min
reaches the earth‘s surface. The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an
ecosystem can be explained with the help of various energy flow models.
Universal energy-flow-model: As the energy enters and flows through the ecosystem there
is a gradual loss of it at every level, thereby resulting in less energy available at every next
Page | 52
trophic level. This is indicated by narrower pipes(energy flow) and smaller boxes(stored
energy in biomass) in Figure below. The loss of energy is the energy not utilized (NU). This
is the energy lost in locomotion, excretion, other life activities etc. or it is the energy lost in
respiration(R). The rest of energy is used for production (P).
Figure 2.5 Universal Energy Flow Model (E. P. Odum)
A. Single channel energy-flow-model: This model depicts the flow of energy in ecosystem
an ecosystem through a single channel or linear sequence. Energy enters as sunlight in an
ecosystem and flows from green plants or producers to herbivores and carnivores. During
this energy flow, there is a gradual decline in energy level due to loss of energy at each
successive trophic level in a grazing food chain.
GPP=gross primary production

NU=not utilised
NA= not assimilated R=respiratory
losses
R= respiration losses
Figure 2.6 Single Channel Energy Flow Model
B. Double channel or Y-shaped energy-flow-model: This model is more realistic as it

considers both types of food chains found in natural ecosystems. In nature both grazing
food chain and detritus food chains operate in the same ecosystem. In a forest ecosystem
Page | 53
a huge quantity of biomass produced cannot be all consumed by herbivores. A large

proportion of the live biomass enters into the detritus (dead) component of ecosystem in
the form of litter. Hence the detritus food chain is equally important. In marine
ecosystems, however, a major portion primary production is eaten by the herbivorous
marine animals. Therefore, very little primary production is left to be passed on to the
dead or detritus component. The Y-shaped model of energy flow shows the passage of
energy through ecosystem where both grazing and detritus food chains operate together.
R= respiration
D=dead matter
Figure 2.7. Double Channel Energy Flow Model (Kaushak and kaushak, 2006)
Material/Nutrient Cycling in Ecosystem

Besides energy flow the other important functional attribute of an ecosystem is nutrient
cycling. All organisms require two types of nutrients: Macro-nutrients and Micro-nutrients
(Macro-nutrients: Required in large amounts e.g. C, N, O, H, S, P, Ca, Mg etc.; Micro-
nutrients: required in small amounts e.g. Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Co, Cl, Na, etc.).Nutrients like
carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, etc. move in circular paths through
biotic and abiotic components and are therefore known as biogeochemical cycles. There are
two types of biogeochemical cycles - (i) gaseous; and (ii) sedimentary (Gaseous-Reservoir
lies in atmosphere e.g. C, N, O cycle etc.; and, Sedimentary-Reservoir lies in the earth‘s crust
e.g. P, S, Ca, etc. Water also moves in a cycle known as hydrological cycle. The term
"biogeochemical" indicates that in these cycling of nutrients biological, geological and
chemical factors are all involved in the process. The circulation of chemical nutrients and
water takes place through the biological as well as physical world. In effect, the elements are
recycled, although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the elements
are accumulated or held for a long period of time (such as an ocean or lake for water). The
nutrients move through the food chains and ultimately reach the detritus component
(containing dead organic matter) where various microorganisms carry out the process of
decomposition. Various organically bound nutrients of dead animal and plants are converted
into inorganic substances by microbial decomposition and are again used up by plants and the
Page | 54
cycles start afresh (Kaushak and Kaushak, 2006). Some of the important biogeochemical
cycles are being briefly discussed here.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amount (78%) and it is fixed either by
the physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and/or cyanobacteria (blue
green algae). The nitrogen is taken up by plants and used in metabolism for biosynthesis of
amino acids, proteins, vitamins etc. and passes through the food chain. After death of the
plants and animals, the organic nitrogen the organic nitrogen in dead tissues is decomposed
by several groups of ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria which convert them into ammonia,
nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants. Some bacteria convert nitrates, into
molecular nitrogen or N2 which is released back into the atmosphere and the cycle goes on.
Figure 2.8 Nitrogen cycle (Kaushak and Kaushak, 2004)
Carbon cycle
Carbon is taken up by green plants in the form of carbon dioxide as a raw material for
photosynthesis. In the process a variety of carbohydrates and other organic substances are
produced. So it moves through the food chains and ultimately organic carbon present in the
dead matter is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by microorganisms. Respiration
by all organisms produces carbon dioxide which is released in the atmosphere from where is
used up by plants.
Page | 55
Figure 2.9 Carbon cycle (Kaushak and Kaushak, 2004)
In the recent years carbon dioxide levels have increased in the atmosphere due to burning of
fossil fuels etc. It has caused an imbalance in the natural cycle and the world today is facing
the serious problem of global warming due to enhanced carbon dioxide emissions in the
atmosphere.
Phosphorus Cycle
Reservoir of phosphorus lies in the rocks, fossils etc. which is excavated by man for using it
as a fertilizer. Farmers use the phosphate fertilizers indiscriminately and as a result excess
phosphates are lost as run-off, which causes the problem of eutrophication of lakes leading to
algal blooms. A good proportion of phosphates moving with surface runoff reaches the
oceans and lost into the deep sediments. Our limited supply of phosphorus lying in the
phosphate rocks of this earth are thus over-exploited by man and a large part is taken out of
the normal cycle due to loss into oceans. So human beings are making the phosphorous cycle
acyclic. Sea birds, on the other hand, are playing an important role in phosphorus cycling.
They eat sea-fishes which are phosphorus rich and the droppings or excreta of the birds return
the phosphorus on the land. The Guano deposits on the coasts of Peru are very rich sources of
phosphorus.
Page | 56
Figure 2.10. Phosphorus cycle (Kaushak and Kaushak, 2004)
Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen is taken up by plants and animals from the air during respiration. The plants return
oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis. The main source of atmospheric free
oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and free oxygen from carbon dioxide and
water:
Photosynthesizing organisms include the plant life of the land areas as well as the
phytoplankton of the oceans. The tiny marine Cyanobacterium prochlorococcus accounts for
more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean. An additional source of atmospheric
free oxygen comes from photolysis,
whereby high-energy ultraviolet
radiation breaks down atmospheric
water and nitrous oxide into component
atoms. The free H and N atoms escape
into space, leaving O2 in the atmosphere:
The main way free oxygen is lost from

the atmosphere is via respiration and
decay, mechanisms in which animal life
Figure 2.11 Oxygen cucel (Sayeed, 2018)
and bacteria consume oxygen and
release carbon dioxide.
The lithosphere also consumes free oxygen by chemical weathering and surface reactions. An
example of surface weathering chemistry is formation of iron oxides (rust):
Page | 57
Oxygen is also cycled between the biosphere and lithosphere. Marine organisms in the
biosphere create calcium carbonate shell material (CaCO3) that is rich in oxygen. When the
organism dies, its shell is deposited on the shallow sea floor and buried over time to create
the limestone sedimentary rock of the lithosphere. Weathering processes initiated by
organisms can also free oxygen from the lithosphere. Plants and animals extract nutrient
minerals from rocks and release oxygen in the process.
Hydrological cycle
The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water
into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable
depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to
another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical
processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface
flow. In doing so, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as
water vapour into the air. Ice,rain and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour.
Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air
currents take the vapour up into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to
condense into clouds. Air currents move water vapour around the globe, cloud particles
collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some
precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which
can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto
land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff
enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans.
Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in
lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some
water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for
long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds
openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river valleys and flood-
plains there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in
the hydrospheric zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For
instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the
environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate.
Page | 58
Figure 2.12. Hydrological cycle (USGS)
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also
involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including
erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life
and ecosystems on the planet.
Biogeochemical cycles are also the links between different components of the environment
such as lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. They portray the movements of
substances on the entire globe.
Together in a systematic manner these cycles are responsible for maintaining life on earth. If
man, through his excessive interference, disturbs these cycles beyond the limits that nature
can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to a degraded earth on which man will
not be able to survive.
2.4.1. Ecosystem Productivity

Production, in ecology, is related with the generation of biomass in an ecosystem. The
productivity of an ecosystem thus refers to the rate of production i.e. the amount of organic
matter, which is accumulated in any unit time. It is usually expressed in units of mass per unit
surface (or volume) per unit time, for instance grams per square metre per day (g m−2 d−1).
Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of

heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.
Primary production
Primary production is the synthesis of new organic material from inorganic molecules such as
H2O and CO2. It is dominated by the process of photosynthesis which uses sunlight to
synthesise organic molecules such as sugars, although chemosynthesis represents a small
Page | 59
fraction of primary production. These are the green plants, higher saprophytes as well as
lower forms, the phytoplanktons and some photosynthetic bacteria. We can define Primary
productivity as ―the rate at which radiant energy is stored by photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic activity of producers.‖ Primary production of an ecosystem depends upon the
solar radiations, availability of water and nutrients and upon the type of the plants and their
chlorophyll content. Productivity of tropical forests and estuaries are the highest. This is
because tropical forests have abundant rainfall, warm temperature congenial for growth,
abundant sunlight and a rich diversity of species. Primary productivity is of two types.
A. Gross primary productivity: it is the total rate of photosynthesis including the organic
matter used up in respiration. It is also called as Total assimilation. Primary productivity i
estimated either in terms of chlorophyll content as Chl/g dry weight per unit area or amount
of CO2 fixed /g Chl/hour.
B. Net primary productivity is the rate of storage of organic matter in plant tissues in
excess of the respiratory utilization by plants during the measurement period. This is, thus,
the rate of increases of biomass and is also known as Net Assimilation. In this way, net
primary productivity refers to balance between gross photosynthesis and respiration and other
plant losses as death etc.
Secondary production
Secondary production is the generation of biomass of heterotrophic (consumer) organisms in
a system. This is driven by the transfer of organic material between trophic levels, and
represents the quantity of new tissue created through the use of assimilated food.Organisms
responsible for secondary production include animals, protists, fungi and many bacteria.
Secondary productivity is thus rate of energy storage at consumers‘ level. Since consumers
only utilize food materials (already produced) in their respiration, simply covering the food
matters to different tissues by an overall process. The secondary productivity is not divided
into ‗gross‘ and ‗net‘ amount.
Net Productivity: Net productivity refers to the rate of storage of organic matter not used by
the heterotrophs (consumer) i.e. equivalent to net primary production minus consumption by
the heterotrophs during the unit period. It is thus the rate of increase of biomass of the
primary producers, which has been left over by the consumers.
2.4. Ecological Succession

Succession is a gradual process in which structure of an ecosystem gets changed over time.
Ecosystems are not static in nature. They are always in a state of change and dynamism. It is
actually the structure of biotic community that evolves in the process. They change
themselves in accordance with the prevalent environmental conditions. These changes are
very orderly and predictable. It is seen that at a particular place a particular community of
organisms is totally replaced by another over a period of time. Ecological succession can be
defined as an orderly process of changes in the structure and function of a community in
ecosystem with time mediated by modifications in environmental complex.
Page | 60
Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing and reproducing, the
organisms interact with and affect their environment and gradually change it. Each species is
adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very specific set of
environmental conditions. If these conditions change, then the existing species will be
outcompeted by a different set of species which are better adapted to the new conditions.
Change in the plant species present in an area is one of the driving forces behind changes in
animal species. This is because each plant species will have associated animal species which
feed on it. The presence of these herbivore species will then dictate which particular
carnivores should be present. Likewise the microbial communities are also influenced by the
plant and animal communities present at a particular place. So the ʺengineʺ of succession, the
cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species upon their own environments.
Hence the process of ecological succession is mediated by the interaction between the biotic
communities and their environment.
In very simple terms ecological succession is a natural process by which different groups or
biological communities colonize the same area over a period of time in a sequence. The first
ever living organisms that colonize a place and start the process of succession are known as
pioneers. The communities which follow pioneers are known as the seres or seral
communities and the final community of plants and animals that establishes itself after the
process of succession is known as climax community.
2.4.1 Types of succession

A. Primary succession: It occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is
incapable of sustaining life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly formed sand
dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier.
B. Secondary succession: It occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has
been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life and
nutrients from the environment.
C. Autogenic Succession: If the existing community itself causes its replacement by some
other community it is said to be autogenic succession.
D. Allogenic succession: If the existing community is replaced by another community due to
some external force it is called allogenic succession.
E. Autotrophic succession: Here the early and continued dominants are autotrophs. There is
gradual increase in the organic matter content supported by energy flow.
F. Heterotrophic succession: Here early dominants are heterotrophs. There is progressive
decline in energy content.
Depending upon the environment where the process of succession takes place, it is denoted
with different terms such as:
a) Hydrosere: Succession takes place in water such as in ponds, lakes and stream.
b) Xerosere: Process of succession begins in xerophytic or desert like conditions.
c) Lihosere: Succession starts on rocks or rocky background.
d) Halosere: Succession takes place in saline water or soil
e) Psammosere: Succession, here, takes place in sand.
Page | 61
2.4.2 Causes of Succession

There are three major causes of succession:
A. Initial or initiating causes: These are climatic as well asbiotic. Climatic factors
include erosion and deposits, wind, fire etc caused by lightening or volcanic activity
and biotic include various activities of organisms. These causes produce bare areas or
destroy the existing populations in an area.
B. Ecesis (continuing) causes: These are the processes as migration, ecesis,
aggregation, competition reaction etc which cause successive waves of populations as
a result of changes chiefly in the edaphic features of the area.
C. Stabilizing causes: These cause the stabilization of the community. Climate of the
area is the chief cause of stabilization.
2.4.3 General Mechanism of succession

The whole process of a primary succession is completed through a number of sequential
steps, which follow one another. These steps in sequence are as follows:
A. Nudation: This is the development of a bare area without any form of life due to several
causes such as landslide, erosion, deposition etc. The cause of nudation may be:
i) Topographic: Due to soil erosion by gravity, water or wind, the existing vegetation may
disappear. Other causes may be deposition of sand etc., landslide, volcanic activity and other
factors.
ii) Climatic: Glaciers, dry period, hails and storm, frost, fire etc may also destroy the
vegetation.
iii) Biotic: Man is responsible for destruction of forests, grasslands etc. for industry,
agriculture, housing etc. Other factors are disease epidemics due to fungi, viruses etc which
destroy the whole population.
B. Invasion: It is the successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The process is
completed in following 3 successive stages:
i) Migration (dispersal): The seeds, spores or other propagules of the species reach the bare
area. This process is known as migration, and is generally brought about by air, water etc.
ii) Ecesis (establishment): After reaching to new area, the process of successful
establishment of the species starts and is known as ecesis.
iii) Aggregation: After ecesis, as a result of reproduction, the individuals of the species
increase in number and they come close to each other. This process is known as aggregation.
C. Competition and Co-action: After aggregation of a large number of individuals of the
species at the limited place, there develops competition mainly for space and nutrition.
Individuals of a species affect each other‘s life in various ways and this is called co-action.
D. Reaction: This is the most important stage in succession. The mechanism of modification
of the environment through the influence of living organisms on it is known as reaction. is a
result of reactions, changes take place in the environment and as a result it gets modified,
becoming unsuitable for existing community which sooner or later replaced by another
community. The whole sequence of communities that replaces one another in the given area
is called a sere and various communities constituting the sere are known as seral
communities, seral stages or developmental stages.
Page | 62
E. Stabilization (climax): Finally, there occurs a stage whenthe final terminal community
becomes more or less stabilized for a longer period of time and it can maintain itself in
equilibrium with the climate of the area. This final community is not replaced and is known
as climax community and the stage as climax stage.
Theories about climax

There are three schools of interpretations explaining the climax concept:
Monoclimax or Climatic Climax Theory: It was advanced by Clements (1916) and

recognizes only one climax whose characteristics are determined solely by climate (climatic
climax). The processes of succession and modification of environment overcome the effects
of differences in topography, parent material of the soil, and other factors. The whole area
would be covered with uniform plant community. Communities other than the climax are
related to it, and are recognized as subclimax, postclimax and disclimax.
Polyclimax Theory: It was advanced by Tansley (1935). It proposes that the climax
vegetation of a region consists of more than one vegetation climaxes controlled by soil
moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity.
Climax Pattern Theory. It was proposed by Whittaker (1953). The climax pattern theory
recognizes a variety of climaxes governed by responses of species populations to biotic and
abiotic conditions. According to this theory the total environment of the ecosystem
determines the composition, species structure, and balance of a climax community. The
environment includes the species responses to moisture, temperature, and nutrients, their
biotic relationships, availability of flora and fauna to colonize the area, chance dispersal of
seeds and animals, soils, climate, and disturbance such as fire and wind. The nature of climax
vegetation will change as the environment changes. The climax community represents a
pattern of populations that corresponds to and changes with the pattern of environment. The
central and most widespread community is the climatic climax.
2.5 Ecosystem-Examples
Owing to the great diversity in the physical environment of the earth there is also a great
diversity in the ecosystems of the world. There are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems ranging
from lakes and oceans to forests and deserts. All ecosystems, however, exhibit similar general
structural and functional framework. Some examples of the main ecosystems are briefly
illustrated here.
Terrestrial ecosystems include forests, grasslands, deserts, etc.
2.5.1. Forest Ecosystem

A forest is a natural terrestrial ecosystem where the trees, shrubs, climbers and ground flora
in plants and several groups of mammals, birds, reptiles and microorganisms in animals
predominantly form the structure the biotic community. Each forest type forms a habitat for a
Page | 63
specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it. The types of forests present in a
particular geographic region are determined by the environmental conditions prevalent in that
region. Forests on the mountains and hills differ from those along the river valleys. Similarly
in the type of vegetation and the animal communities vary from forest to forest. In India, for
instance, the coniferous tree specis occur in the Himalayas, mangrove trees in river deltas and
the thorn trees and bushes grow in the arid regions. Likewise among animals, the snow
leopard, wild sheep and goats live in the Himalayas while the leopard and tiger are found in
the forests of the rest of India.
Like any other ecosystem a forest ecosystem consists structurally of two components.
a. Abiotic component: it consists of the physical environment of a forest including

climatic and edaphic (soil) conditions. Climatic conditions such as precipitation,
temperature, etc. differ from place to place and so do the forest types. Forest soil is
very rich in humus or organic matter and it differs from other types of soil.
b. Biotic component: It includes various groups of plants, animals and microorganisms.
Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses, and herbs in the forest. These
include species that flower (angiosperms), and non-flowering species (gymnosperms)
such as ferns, bryophytes, fungi and algae. Trees are the dominant vegetation group in
a forest. The animals include species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects
and other invertebrates.
Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of various types:
(a) Tropical Rain Forests: They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator.
They are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which
favour the growth of trees. They are the richest in biodiversity. Different forms of life occupy
specialized areas (niches) within different layers and spaces of the ecosystem depending
upon their needs for food, sunlight, water, nutrient etc. We come across different types and
layers of plants and animalsin the tropical rain forests. e.g. the emergent layer is the topmost
layer of the tallest broad-leaf evergreen trees, below which lies the canopy where top
branches of shorter trees form an umbrella like cover. Below this is present the understory of
still smaller trees. On the tree trunks some woody climbers are found to grow which are
known as Lianas.
There are some other plants like Orchids which are epiphytes i.e. they are attached to the
trunks or branches of big trees and they take up water and nutrients falling from above. The
orchids have special type of leaves to capture and hold the water. Some large epiphytes can
hold as much as 4 litres of water, equivalent to a small bucket! Thus, these epiphytes almost
act like mini-ponds suspended up in the air, in the forest crown. That is the reason why a
large variety of birds, insects and animals like monkeys have made their natural homes
(habitats) in these forests. The under storey trees usually receive very dim sunlight. They
usually develop dark green leaves with high chlorophyll content so that they can use the
diffused sunlight for photosynthesis. The shrub layer receives even less sunlight and the
ground layer commonly known as forest floor receives almost no sunlight and is a dark layer.
Most of the animals like bats, birds, insects etc. occupy the bright canopy layer while
Page | 64
monkeys, toads, snakes, chameleons etc. keep on moving up and down in sunny and darker
layers. Termites, fungi, mushrooms etc. grow on the ground layer. Warm temperature and
high availability of moisture facilitate rapid breakdown (decomposition) of the dropped
leaves, twigs etc releasing the nutrients rapidly.
The Silent Valley in Kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in India which is the natural
habitat for a wide variety of species. Being the store-house of biodiversity, the forests provide
us with an array of commercial goods like timber, fuel wood, drugs, resins, gums etc.
(b) Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator and are
characterized by a warm climate the year round. Rain occurs only during monsoon. A large
part of the year remains dry and therefore different types of deciduous trees are found here,
which lose their leaves during dry season.
(c) Tropical scrub forests: They are found in areas where the dry season is even longer.
Here there are small deciduous trees and shrubs.
(d) Temperate rain forests: They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These
are dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc. They also consist of some
evergreen broad-leaf trees.
(e) Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with moderate temperatures.
There is a marked seasonality with long summers, cold but not too severe winter and
abundant rainfall throughout the year. The major trees include broad leaf deciduous trees like
oak, hickory, poplar etc.
(f ) Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests): They are found just south of arctic
tundra. Here winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is available for a few hours only. In
summer the temperature is mild, sun-shines for long hours but the season is quite short. The
major trees include pines, spruce, fir, cedar etc. which have tiny, needle-shaped leaves having
a waxy coating so that they can withstand severe cold and drought. The soil is found to get
frozen during winter when few species can survive. The leaves, also known as needles, fall
on the forest floor and cover the nutrient poor soil. These soils are acidic and prevent other
plants from growing. Species diversity is rather low in these forests.
Forest types in India

Forests in India can broadly be divided into two main categories viz., Coniferous forests and
Broadleaved forests. They can also be classified according to the nature of their tree species –
evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn trees, mangroves, etc.
They, sometimes, may also be classified according to the most abundant species of trees such
as Sal, Teak, Oak, Pine, Deodar or Chinar forests.
Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the temperatures are low.
These forests have tall stately trees with needle like leaves and downward sloping branches
so that the snow can slip off the branches.
Page | 65
Broadleaved forests have several types, such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn
forests, and mangrove forests. Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes.
2.5.2 Grassland ecosystem

Grassland ecosystem the grasses and shrubs form the dominant part of vegetation. It grows
in areas where rainfall is usually low and the soil depth and quality is poor.
A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds and mammals have evolved
so that they are adapted to these wide-open grass covered areas. Three types of grasslands are
found to occur in different climatic regions:
(a) Tropical grasslands: They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of
high average temperature and low to moderate rainfall. In Africa, these are typically known
as Savannas, which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees. The Savannas
have a wide diversity of animals including zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc. Fires are
quite common during dry season. Termite mounds are very common here. Tropical savannas
have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis. Most of the carbon assimilated by them
in the form of carbohydrates is in the perennating bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc. which are
present underground. Deliberate burning of these grasslands can relase huge quantities of
carbon dioxide, a green house gas, responsible for global warming.
(b) Temperate grasslands: They are usually found on flat, gentle sloped hills, winters are
very cold but summers are hot and dry. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs
or trees to grow. In the United States and Canada these grasslands are known as prairies,
in South America as Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe and Asia they are
known as Steppes. Winds keep blowing and evaporation rate is very high. It also favours
rapid fires in summer. The soils are quite fertile and therefore, very often these grasslands are
cleared for agriculture.
(c) Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra): They are found in arctic polar region where severe
cold and strong, frigid winds along with ice and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to
grow. In summers the sun-shines almost round the clock and hence several small annual
plants grow in the summer. The animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arcticfox, reindeer etc.
A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year and is known
as permafrost. In summer, the tundra shows the appearance of shallow lakes, bogs etc.
where mosquitoes, different type of insects and migratory birds appear.
Grassland Types in India
Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems that are located in different climatic conditions
ranging from near desert conditions to moist conditions.
The Himalayan pasture belt extends up to the snowline. These Himalayan pastures have a
large variety of grasses and herbs. Himalayan hill slopes are covered with thousands of
colourful flowering plants. There are also a large number of medicinal plants. The patches of
tall elephant grass, which grows to a height of about five meters, are located in the low-lying
waterlogged areas.
Page | 66
Himalayan wildlife requires both the forest and the grassland ecosystem as important parts of
their habitat. The animals migrate up into the high altitude grasslands in summer and move
down into the forest in winter when the snow covers the grassland.
The Semi-arid plains of Western India, Central India and the Deccan are covered by
grassland tracts with patches of thorn forest. Several mammals such as the wolf, the
blackbuck, the chinkara, and birds such as the bustards and floricans are adapted to these arid
conditions.
The Scrublands of the Deccan Plateau are covered with seasonal grasses and herbs on which
its fauna is dependent. It is teaming with insect life on which the insectivorous birds feed.
The grasses are the major producers of biomass in these regions. Each grassland ecosystem
has a wide variety of species of grasses and herbs.
2.5.3 Desert ecosystem

A desert is an arid or semi arid area with very low annual rainfall and sparse patches of
vegetation. Desert ecosystems witness very extreme climatic conditions, either too hot as in
Thar desert or too cold as in Ladakh. Deserts occupy one-fifth of the Earth's land surface.
These ecosystems occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation (rainfall, snow
etc.). The precipitation is less than 25 cm per year. Deserts have little species diversity and
consist of drought resistant or drought avoiding plants. The atmosphere is very dry and hence
it is a poor insulator. That is why in deserts the soil gets cooled up quickly, making the nights
cool.
Deserts are of three major types, based on climatic conditions:
(a) Tropical deserts like Sahara and Namib in Africa and Thar desert, Rajasthan, India are
the driest of all with only a few species.
(b) Temperate deserts like Mojave in Southern California where day time temperatures are
very hot in summer but cool in winters.
(c) Cold deserts like the Gobi desert in China and High altitude cold desert in ladakh have
cold winters and warm summers.
Desert plants and animals show most typical adaptations for conservation of water. Many
desert plants are found to have reduced, scaly leaves so as to cut down loss of water due to
transpiration or have succulent leaves to store water. Many a times their stems get flattened
and develop chlorophyll so that they can take up the function of photosynthesis. Some
plants show very deep roots to tap the groundwater. Many plants have a waxy, thick
cuticle over the leaf to reduce loss of water through transpiration.
Desert animals like insects and reptiles have thick outer coverings to minimize loss of water.
They usually live inside burrows where humidity is better and heat is less. Desert and semi
arid regions have a number of highly specialized insects and reptiles. The rare animals
include the Indian wolf, desert cat, desert fox and birds such as the Great Indian Bustard and
the Florican. Some of the commoner birds include partridges, quails and sand grouse.
Page | 67
Desert soil is rich in nutrients but deficient in water. Due to low species diversity, shortage of
water and slow growth rate, the desert plant communities, if faced with a severe stress take a
long time to recover.
The Thar Desert in Rajasthan is most typical desert landscape in india. This has sand dunes.
There are also areas covered with sparse grasses and a few shrubs, which grow if it rains.
In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty and sporadic. In an area it may rain only once
every few years.
Aquatic ecosystems
Ecosystems where water is the dominant environmental factor in controlling abiotic
characteristics and the floral and faunal makeup are known as the aquatic ecosystems. They
include oceans, seas, estuaries, rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.
Abiotic characteristics
Some of the important abiotic environmental factors of aquatic ecosystems include substrate
type, water depth, nutrient levels, temperature, salinity, and flow. It is often difficult to
determine the relative importance of these factors without rather large experiments. The
amount of dissolved oxygen in a water body is frequently the key substance in determining
the extent and kinds of organic life in the water body. Fish need dissolved oxygen to survive,
although their tolerance to low oxygen varies among species; in extreme cases of low oxygen
some fish even resort to air gulping. Plants often have to produce aerenchyma, while the
shape and size of leaves may also be altered. Conversely, oxygen is fatal to many kinds of
anaerobic bacteria.
Nutrient levels are important in controlling the abundance of many species of algae. The
relative abundance of nitrogen and phosphorus can in effect determine which species of algae
come to dominate. Algae are a very important source of food for aquatic life, but at the same
time, if they become over-abundant, they can cause declines in fish when they decay.
The salinity of the water body is also a determining factor in the kinds of species found in the
water body. Organisms in marine ecosystems tolerate salinity, while many freshwater
organisms are intolerant of salt. The degree of salinity in an estuary or delta is an important
control upon the type of wetland (fresh, intermediate, or brackish), and the associated animal
species. Dams built upstream may reduce spring flooding, and reduce sediment accretion, and
may therefore lead to saltwater intrusion in coastal wetlands.
Biotic characteristics
The biotic characteristics are mainly determined by the organisms that occur. For example,
wetland plants may produce dense canopies that cover large areas of sediment—or snails or
geese may graze the vegetation leaving large mud flats. Aquatic environments have relatively
low oxygen levels, forcing adaptation by the organisms found there. For example, many
wetland plants must produce aerenchyma to carry oxygen to roots. Other biotic
characteristics are more subtle and difficult to measure, such as the relative importance of
competition, mutualism or predation. There are a growing number of cases where predation
Page | 68
by coastal herbivores including snails, geese and mammals appears to be a dominant biotic
factor.
Autotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms are producers that generate organic compounds from inorganic
material. Algae use solar energy to generate biomass from carbon dioxide and are possibly
the most important autotrophic organisms in aquatic environments. in the shallow waters the
biomass contribution from rooted and floating vascular plants is greater. These two sources
combine to produce the extraordinary production of estuaries and wetlands, as this
autotrophic biomass is converted into fish, birds, amphibians and other aquatic species.
Chemosynthetic bacteria are found in benthic marine ecosystems. These organisms are able
to feed on hydrogen sulfide in water that comes from volcanic vents. Great concentrations of
animals that feed on these bacteria are found around volcanic vents.
Heterotrophic organisms
Heterotrophic organisms consume autotrophic organisms and use the organic compounds in
their bodies as energy sources and as raw materials to create their own biomass. Euryhaline
organisms are salt tolerant and can survive in marine ecosystems, while stenohaline or salt
intolerant species can only live in freshwater environments.
The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.
These major types can further be divided into many categories depending upon various
environmental factors.
2.5.4 Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain
approximately 97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the world's net primary
production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems due to the presence of
dissolved compounds, especially salts in the water in high concentrations. Approximately
85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine.thoiugh the salinity varies
among different marine ecosystems, seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand
(ppt) of water. Various classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown
algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fishes caught in marine
ecosystems are the biggest source of commercial foods obtained from wild populations
Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and
shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as
whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where
many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides; in this
figure it is termed the littoral zone. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include estuaries, salt
marshes, coral reefs, lagoons and mangrove swamps. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents
may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.
Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide and play an important role in
regulating many biogeochemical cycles and hydrological cycle, thereby regulating the
earth‘s climate.
The oceans have two major life zones:
Page | 69
Coastal zone: this is relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. Due to high nutrients and
ample sunlight this is the zone of high primary productivity.
Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean, away from the continental shelf (The
submerged part of the continent). It is vertically divided into three regions:
(i) Euphotic zone which receives abundant light and shows high photosynthetic activity.
(ii) Bathyal zone receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
(iii) Abyssal zone is the dark zone, 2000 to 5000 metres deep. The abyssal zone has no
primary source of energy i.e. solar energy. It is the world‘s largest ecological unit but it is an
incomplete ecosystem.
Environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of

marine resources (for example overfishing of certain species), marine pollution, climate
change, and building on coastal areas.
2.5.5 Freshwater Ecosystem.
Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.80% of the Earth's surface and consist 0.009% of its total
water. They generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. There are three basic types of
freshwater ecosystems:
Lentic: Standing water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.
Lotic: Moving water, for example streams and rivers.
Wetlands: Areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time.
Lentic Water Ecosystems
Lakes
Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones.
The first, the littoral zone, is the shallow zone
near the shore where rooted wetland plants
occur. The offshore is divided into two further
zones, an open water zone and a deep water
zone. In the open water zone (or photic zone) Figure 2.14.The three primary zones of a lake (actforlibraries.org)
sunlight supports photosynthetic algae, and the
species that feed upon them. In the deep water
zone(aphotic), sunlight is not available and the
food web is based on detritus entering from the
littoral and photic zones. Some systems use other names. The off shore areas may be called
the pelagic zone, and the aphotic zone may be called the profundal zone. Towards inland
from the littoral zone one can also frequently identify a riparian zone which has plants still
affected by the presence of the lake—this can include effects from windfalls, spring flooding,
and winter ice damage. The production of the lake as a whole is the result of production from
plants growing in the littoral zone, combined with production from plankton growing in the
open water. Lakes have several types of organisms:
Page | 70
(a) Planktons that float on the surface of waters e.g. phytoplanktons like algae and
zooplanktons like rotifers.
(b) Nektons that swim e.g. fishes.

(c) Neustons that rest or swim on the surface.
(d) Benthos that are attached to bottom sediments e.g. snails.
(e) Periphytons that are attached or clinging to other plants or any other surface e.g.
crustaceans.
Stratification: this is an important feature of temperate region lakes which show vertical
zonation of its water based on temperature differences. During summer, the top waters
become warmer than the bottom waters. Therefore, only the warm top layer circulates
without mixing with the colder layers below. Different layers exhibit different physical,
chemical and biological characteristics. Following zones are generally described in lakes
which show stratification or zonation.
Epilimnion : Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer
Hypolimnion : Cold, viscous, non-circulating bottom layer.
Thermocline: In between the two -warmer and colder- layers lies the region of sharp drop in
temperature which is known as thermocline.
Types of Lakes: Some important types of lakes are:
1. On the basis of nutrient status
(a) Oligotrophic lakes which have low nutrient concentrations.
(b) Eutrophic lakes which are overnourished by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus,
usually as a result of agricultural run-off or municipal sewage discharge. They are covered
with algal blooms. e.g. Dal Lake.
(c) Dystrophic lakes that have low pH, high humic acid content and brown waters e.g. bog
lakes.
2. On the basis of origin
(d) Volcanic lakes that receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions e.g. many lakes in
Japan. They have highly restricted biota.
(e) Artificial lakes or impoundments that are created due to construction of dams e.g. Govind
sagar lake at Bhakra-Nangal, Bagliar lake near Ramban.
3. On the basis of salt content
(f) Fresh water lakes such as Wular lake in Kashmir
(g) Saltwater lakes eg Pangong lake in Leh
(h) Meromictic lakes that are rich in salts and are permanently stratified e.g. lake Nevada.
(i) Desert salt lakes that occur in arid regions and have developed high salt concentrations as
a result of high evaporation. e.g. Sambhar lake in Rajasthan.
Others
(j) Endemic lakes that are very ancient, deep and have endemic fauna which are restricted
only to that lake e.g. the Lake Baikal in Russia; the deepest lake, which is now suffering a
threat due to industrial pollution.
Page | 71
Ponds
Ponds are small bodies of freshwater with shallow and still water, marsh, and aquatic plants.
They can be further divided into four zones: vegetation zone, open water, bottom mud and
surface film. The size and depth of ponds often varies greatly with the time of year; many
ponds are produced by spring flooding from rivers. Food webs are based both on free-floating
algae and upon aquatic plants. There is usually a diverse array of aquatic life, with a few
examples including algae, snails, fish, beetles, water bugs, frogs, turtles, otters and muskrats.
Top predators may include large fish, herons, or alligators. Since fish are a major predator
upon amphibian larvae, ponds that dry up each year, thereby killing resident fish, provide
important refugia for amphibian breeding. Ponds that dry up completely each year are often
known as vernal pools. Some ponds are produced by animal activity, including alligator holes
and beaver ponds, and these add important diversity to landscapes.
Lotic Water Ecosystems

River ecosystem
The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the
velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater
concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow
moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland
and lowland rivers. The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from
the trees, but wider streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food
base from algae. Environmental threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical
pollution and introduced species.
2.5.6 Wetland Ecosystems

Wetlands are dominated by vascular plants that have adapted to saturated soil. There are four
main types of wetlands: swamp, marsh, fen and bog (both fens and bogs are types of mire).
Wetlands are the most productive natural ecosystems in the world because of the proximity of
water and soil. Hence they support large numbers of plant and animal species. Due to their
productivity, wetlands are often converted into dry land with dykes and drains and used for
agricultural purposes.
2.5.7 Estuarine ecosystem

Though a type aquatic ecosystem, an estuary is a transitional zone between marine and fresh
water ecosystems and hence exhibits some unique characteristics in addition to those
common with marine or fresh waters. Estuaries are places where rivers meet the sea and may
be defined as areas where salt water is measurably diluted with fresh water. On average,
estuaries are biologically more productive than either the adjacent river or the sea because
they have a special kind of water circulation that traps plant nutrients and stimulates primary
production. Fresh water, being lighter than salt water, tends to form a distinct layer that floats
at the surface of the estuary. At the boundary between fresh and salt water, there is a certain
amount of mixing caused by the flow of fresh water over salt and by the ebb and flow of
tides. Additional mixing may be caused from time to time by strong winds and by internal
Page | 72
waves that are propagated along the interface between fresh and salt water. Three types of
estuary are recognized according to the degree of mixing: salt wedge estuaries, partially
mixed estuaries and vertically homogeneous estuaries.
A salt wedge estuary has minimal mixing and the salt water forms a wedge, thickest at the
seaward end, tapering to a very thin layer at the landward limit.
Organic and inorganic particles carried by rivers tend to flocculate (aggregate into a mass)
and sediment out when they encounter salt water. When the organic matter decomposes, it
adds still more nutrients to the estuary. The inorganic matter settles on the bottom and
provides enriched sediment for flowering plants adapted to salt water. Between the tide
marks, mangrove forests flourish in tropical conditions, while salt marshes form in temperate
and subarctic conditions. Below low tide, sea grasses form dense beds on muddy substrates.
In a partially mixed estuary, the vigorous rise and fall of the tide generates strong turbulence
and causes partial mixing between the fresh water above and the salt water below.
In a vertically homogeneous estuary the river flow is weak and the tidal flow is strong.
Consequently, all stratification is broken down and salinity is almost the same from top to
bottom at any given place. The salinity is lowest where the river enters the estuary and
highest near the sea.
The high level of plant production in estuaries supports a correspondingly high level of
production of invertebrate animals and fish. Estuaries often contain beds of shellfish such as
mussels and oysters and large populations of shrimps and crabs. Fish such as plaice and
flounders are common. Other species use the estuaries as nursery grounds. Organisms in
early stages of development enter the salt wedge at the seaward end and are carried up the
estuary by the bottom currents. Juveniles find abundant food as well as protection from
predators in the mangrove forests, salt marshes, or sea-grass beds that line the estuary. Later,
they may migrate to the open ocean to continue their growth and development. Other species
pass through the estuaries in the course of their migrations. For example, salmon migrate
from the sea to the rivers to spawn, while the young fish later migrate back to the sea. Eels
migrate in the opposite direction, breeding in the sea but returning to fresh water as juveniles.
2.6. Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem services refer to the benefits mankind obtains from natural ecosystems present on the
earth. There is a multitude of ways in which humans get benefitted from ecosystems. These benefits
are collectively known as ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are classified into four categories
viz. provisioning services, supporting services, regulating services and cultural services.
Provisioning services
It refers the material products obtained from ecosystems such as:
• Food including seafood, crops, wild foods, and spices
Page | 73
• Raw materials including lumber, skins, fuel wood, organic matter, fodder, and fertilizer.
• Genetic resources including crop improvement genes, and health care
• Water resources
• Minerals resources
• Medicinal resources including pharmaceuticals, chemical models, and test and assay
organisms
• Energy resources including hydropower, biomass fuels, etc.
Supporting Services
It refers to the benefits which we get due to supportive role of ecosystems that are necessary for the
production of all other ecosystem services. These include services such as nutrient recycling, primary
production and soil formation.
Regulating services
It refers to those benefits which are there due to the regulation of ecosystem processes such as:
• Carbon sequestration and climate regulation

• Waste decomposition and detoxification
• Purification of water and air
• Pest and disease control
Cultural services
It refers to the nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment,
cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences. Cultural services include:
• Spiritual and historical (including use of nature for religious or heritage value or natural)
• Recreational experiences (including ecotourism, outdoor sports, and recreation)
• Science and education (including use of natural systems for school excursions, and scientific
discovery)
Page | 74
RECAPS AND PRACTICES
Walk and Talk

(Facts in brief)
 Our solar system and the earth is believed to have came into existence about four and
a half billion years ago. Life started on the earth about three and a half billion years
ago on the earth in a reducing environment devoid of free Oxygen.
 Bacteria and some blue green algal forms were the primitive living organisms which
appeared first on the planet. The remains of the earliest forms of life have been
preserved in rocks known as Srtomatolites.
 Life evolved from simpler forms to present day‘s highly complex forms. Speciation
is the process of origin of new species from the existing ones.
 There is immense variety of life on the earth.
 Hexicology and ethology were some other terms used prior to ecology for the similar
studies.
 Green plants trap solar energy and pass it through other forms of life viz. consumers
and decomposers in an ecosystem.
 Flow of energy is always unidirectional in ecosystems whereas flow of materials is
cyclic.
 Efficiency of production tends to be higher at higher trophic levels. Amount of
energy, however, being transferred from lower to higher trophic levels decreases
successively. Out of1500 kcal of solar energy, 15kcal appears at primary producers‘
level, 1.5kcal at primary consumers level and only 0.3kcal is fixed at secondary
consumers (carnivores) level. Production efficiency, however, rises from 1% to 10%
to 20% at higher levels respectively.
 Energy quality improves where as its quantity declines with each higher level of
trophic structure in an ecosystem. The energy quality is 100 times better at secondary
consumers‘ (carnivores) level than that at primary consumers‘ (herbivores) level. So
fats and carbohydrates are better than cellulose (grasses) and cellulose is better than
the solar energy (sunlight) harvested by the primary producers.
 Ecological efficiency is the ratio of net productivity at one trophic level to net
productivity at the trophic level below it.
 Net primary productivity =Grass primary productivity–plant respiration.
 Tropical rain forest ecosystem is the richest ecosystem from biodiversity as well as
Net primary productivity point of views
 Different materials move in the ecosystem from one environmental component to
another and from one trophic level to other. They move in a cyclic way which is
known as biogeochemical cycle. They include all major essential elements such as C,
H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S and water. Water (H2O) is the most important compound
Page | 75
and its movement through various ecosystem components is called hydrological

cycle.
 The primary constituents of living matter i.e. carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
move through gaseous biogeochemical cycles.
 Weathering plays primary role in sedimentary geochemical cycles
 When materials are in the forms and places easily accessible to life process for living
organisms it is known as active pools of those materials
 When materials are not easily available to living organism for direct uses to life
process that is known to be storage pools of those materials.
 Forest ecosystem are the most important among all the terrestrial ecosystem
 Temperature and precipitation are the two dominant a biotic factors of environment
,that determine the nature ,composition and extent of a particular community or
ecosystem type.
 Arctic and alpine (or tundra) forest ecosystem extends from permanently frozen ice
caps of northern pole to 45⁰N latitude. life is most difficult in this region.
 Temperate coniferous forest is also known as taiga biome or boreal coniferous forest
and are found in south of the tundra biome between 45⁰Nto 57⁰N latitude in the
northern hemisphere. this kind of forest is found in north America, Europe and
northern Asia‘
 Deciduous forests are found in moderate climatic condition with 75-200cm/year
rainfall and 10-25⁰C average annual temperature.
 Tropical rain forests occur in a broad belt on either side of the equator.
 More energy is available at various levels in shorter food chains.
 Lindsman described the 80-90% energy losses at each level in a food chain.
 Aquatic ecosystems show great degree of variation in their physicochemical
properties and biotic communities.
 Estuaries are the transition zone between fresh water and marine water ecosystems.
 Different groups of organisms live in aquatic ecosystems. They include planktons
(zoo-and phytoplanktons) which float, nektons which swim, neustons which rest or
swim on surface and benthos which live at bottom. Seaweeds form forests or kelpbeds
in the seas where brown algae, green algae and red algae are also important forms of
producers.
 Ecological succession is an orderly sequence of communities in an area over a period
of time.
 Odium (1971) preferred to call ecological succession as ecosystem development.
 Succession results or starts due to modifications in physical environment of a
community. it ends in stabilization of community with its physical environment.
 Ecological equivalents are organisms living in different regions but occupying same
ecological niches or roles.
 Mivast described the term ‗Hexicology‘ as the study of relations bet organisms and
environment.
 IGS Hillaire, a French Zoologist, proposed term ethology for ecology.
Page | 76
 Decomposers are also called as reducers.
Practise and Prepare

Self Tests
(Multiple choice objective type questions)
1. Succulents is the plants group associated with which ecosystem type

a. Forest b. River c.Desert d.Estuary
Ans. c. Desert
2. Mangrove forests are associated with
a. Desert b. Estuary c. River d.Ocean
Ans. b. Estuary
3. Zone of ocean which is completely dark is called
a. Abyssal zone b. Photic zone c. Aphotic zone d. Coastal region
Ans. a. Abyssal zone (although in very little amounts but light can penetrate in
Aphotic zone)
4. Sahara, Kalahari and Thar are the examples of
a. Desert ecosystem b. Marine ecosystem c. Forest ecosystem d. None of the
above
Ans. a. Desert ecosystem
5. Gharana in Jammu and Hokarsar in Kashmir are
a. Wetlands
b. Lakes
c. Rivers
d. Forests
Ans. a. Wetlands
6. In Parasitic Food Chain in a forest ecosystem(Oak forest), pyramid of numbers will
be
a. Upright
b. Spindle shaped
c. Straight
d. Inverted
Ans. d. Inverted
7. Detritivores are...........in a Detritus Food Chain
a. Primary producers
b. Primary consumers
c. Secondary consumers
Ans. b. Primary consumers
8. In India, Tropical Rain Forests are found in
a. The Himalayas
b. Western Ghats
c. Assam
d. Gujarat
Ans. b. Western Ghats
9. Oceans.....
a. Are the main sinks of CO2
b. Play role in water cycle
c. Neither (a) nor (b)
d. Both (a) and (b)
Page | 77
Ans. d. Both (a) and (b)

10. Only ....% of energy at a trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level in a
food chain
a. 10%
b. 20%
c. 25%
d. 80-90%
Ans. a. 10% (10%in herbivores and 20% in carnivores
11. Srtatification or layering of plants is found in
a. Temperate forests
b. Tropical rain forest
c. Coniferous forests
d. Mangrove forest
Ans. b. Tropical rain forests
12. ‗Pamas‘ are.....
a. Grassland
b. Desert
c. Forest
d. Lake
Ans. a. Grassland (in South America).
13. Prairies of Canada are
a. Forests
b. Zoo
c. Botanical garden
d. Grasslands
Ans. d. Grasslands
14. Average salinity of marine water is
a. 3.5%
b. 15%
c. 1%
d. 23%
Ans. a. 3.5%
15. Which among the following is a transitional zone
a. Littoral ecosystem
b. Pelagic ecosystem
c. Eustrine ecosystem
d. Benthic ecosystem
Ans. c. Esturine ecosystem
16. Standing water bodies are known as
a. Lentic
b. Lotic
c. Stagnant
Ans. a. Lentic
17. Thermocline is associated with
a. Ponds
b. Oceans
c. Lakes
d. Deserts
Ans. c. Lakes
Page | 78
18. Which among the fallowing is an artificial ecosystem

a. Pond
b. Dam
c. Garden
d. All of the above
Ans. d. All of the above
19. In an ecosystem (Food Chain) energy flow is
a. Multidirectional
b. Cyclic
c. Unidirectional
d. Stagnant
Ans. c. Unidirectional
20. Energy is maximum at
a. Lowest trophic level
b. Highest trophic level
c. In the middle
Ans. a. Lowest trophic level
21. Raw material in photosynthesis are
a. CO₂ and H₂O
b. CO and H₂O
c. O₂ and CO₂
d. O₂ and C₆H₁₂O₆
Ans. a. CO₂ and H₂O
22. Who gave the idia of ‗ecological pyramids‘
a. E. P Odum
b. P.D Sharma
c. Charles Elton
d. Hillaaria
Ans. c. Charles Elton
23. The term ‗ecology‘ was given by
a. A. G Tansley b. E. P Odum c. Ernest Haekel d. Sundarla Bahuguna
Ans. c. Ernest Haekel in 1969
24. A ‗pond‘ is
a. Artificial ecosystem
b. Aquatic ecosystem
c. None of the above
d. Both (a) and (b)
Ans. d. Both (a) and (b)
25. Process of ‗succession‘ on a rock is known as
a. Psammosere b. Lithosere c. Halosere d. Hydrosere
Ans. b. Lithosere
26. Pyramid of energy is always
a. Upright b. Inverted c. Bothd. None of these
Ans. a. Upright
27. Life originated under water in a
a. Oxidised environment
b. Reducing environment
c. Cold environment
d. Lightening
Page | 79
Ans. b. Reducig environment

28. Basic unit of life is
a. DNA b. RNA c. Cell d. Organism
Ans. c. Cell
29. Tissues are
a. Non living
b. Living
c. Both (a) and(b)
d. Neither (a) nor (b)
Ans. b. Living
30. Decomposers are also called
a. Macroorganisms
b. Microorganisms
c. Tertiary consumers
d. Digesters
Ans. b. Microorganisms
31. UN Conference on Environment and Development held in
a. 1976 b.1992 c. 2010 d. 1 972
Ans. b. 1992
32. Earth receives.......of solar energy
a. 153 x 10⁸ cal/m²/yr
b. 100 x 10¹⁰ cal/m²/yr
c. 15.3x10⁸ cal/m²/yr
d. 100000 cal/m²/yr
Ans. c. 15.3x10⁸/m² /yr
33. Animals feeding on vegetation as well as herbivores are called

a. Carnivores
b. Herbivores
c. Omnivores
d. Scavengers
Ans. c. Omnivores
34. Zoo planktons are

a. Plants
b. Animals
c. Gardens
d. None of above
Ans. b. Animals (of water bodies).
Page | 80
Chapter 3
Natural Resources
A nation that destroys its soils, destroys itself Picture©Junaid Jazib
Franklin Roosevelt
A nation that destroys its soils, destroys itself
Franklin Roosevelt
Page | 81
Appendices
Glossary
Terms used in environmental and ecological studies

o 5Rs - (sustainability) reduce, remanufacture, reuse, recycle, and
recover.A
o Abiotic - non-living chemical and physical factors of the
environment (see also biotic).
o Absorption - one substance taking in another, either physically or
chemically.
o Acid rain - rain or other forms of precipitation that is unusually
acidic.
o Adaptation - a characteristic of an organism that has been
favoured by natural selection.
o Adsorption - one substance taking up another at its surface.
o Aerobic - requiring air or oxygen; used in reference to
decomposition processes that occur in the presence of oxygen.
o Aerosols - solid or liquid particles suspended within the
atmosphere.
o Afforestation - planting new forests on lands that have not been
recently forested.
o Agroforestry - (sustainability) an ecologically based farming
system, that, through the integration of trees in farms, increases
social, environmental and economic benefits to land users.
o Air pollution - the modification of the natural characteristics of the
atmosphere by a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent.
o Albedo - reflectance; the ratio of light from the Sun that is
reflected by the Earth's surface, to the light received by it.
Unreflected light is converted to infrared radiation (heat), which
causes atmospheric warming (see "radiative forcing"). Thus,
surfaces with a high albedo, like snow and ice, generally contribute
to cooling, whereas surfaces with a low albedo, like forests,
generally contribute to warming. Changes in land use that
significantly alter the characteristics of land surfaces can alter the
albedo.
Page | 82
o Algal bloom - the rapid and excessive growth of algae; generally

caused by high nutrient levels combined with other favourable
conditions. Blooms can deoxygenate the water leading to the loss
of wildlife.
o Anaerobic - not requiring air or oxygen; used in reference to
decomposition processes that occur in the absence of oxygen.
o Anoxic - with abnormally low levels of oxygen.
o Anthropogenic - man-made, not natural.
o Aquaculture - the cultivation of aquatic organisms under
controlled conditions.
o Aquifer – a bed or layer yielding water for wells and springs etc.;
an underground geological formation capable of receiving, storing
and transmitting large quantities of water.
o Arable land - land that can be used for growing crops.
o Atmosphere – general name for the layer of gases around a
material body
o Autotroph - an organism that produces complex organic
compounds from simple inorganic molecules using energy from
light or inorganic chemical reactions.
o Bioaccumulation - the accumulation of a substance, such as a toxic
chemical, in the tissues of a living organism.
o Biodegradable - capable of being decomposed through the action
of organisms, especially bacteria.
o Biodiversity - the variety of life in all its forms, levels and
combinations; includes ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and
genetic diversity.
o Biogas - landfill gas and sewage gas, also called biomass gas.
o Biogeochemical cycles - the movement of chemical elements
between organisms and non-living components of the atmosphere,
aquatic systems and soils.
o Biological oxygen demand (BOD) - a chemical procedure for
determining how fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a
body of water.
o Biological pest control - a method of controlling pests (including
insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) that relies on predation,
parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms.
o Biomass - the quantity of organic material present in unit area at a
particular time; organic matter that can be used as fuel.
o Biome - a climatic and geographically defined area of ecologically
similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often
referred to as ecosystems.
Page | 83
o Biosphere - the part of the Earth, including air, land, surface rocks,
and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in
turn alter or transform.
o Boreal - northern; cold temperate Northern Hemisphere forests that
grow where there is a mean annual temperature < 0°C.
o Calorific value – the energy content of a fuel measured as the heat
released on complete combustion.
o Carbon budget – a measure of carbon inputs and outputs for a
particular activity.
o Carcinogen – a substance, radionuclide or radiation that is an agent
directly involved in the promotion of cancer or in the facilitation of
its propagation.
o Carrying capacity – the maximum population that an ecosystem
can
o Catchment area – the area that is the source of water for a water
supply whether a dam or rainwater tank.
o Cell – (biology) the structural and functional unit of all known
living organisms and is the smallest unit of an organism that is
classified as living
o CFC-chlorofluorocarbons – one of the more widely known
family of haloalkanes.
o Compost – the aerobically decomposed remnants of organic matter.
o Composting – the biological decomposition of organic materials in
the presence of oxygen that yields carbon dioxide, heat, and
stabilised organic residues that may be used as a soil additive.
o Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) – International agreement among 167 governments
aiming to ensure that cross-border trade in wild animals and plants
does not threaten their survival. The species covered by CITES are
listed in three
o Crop rotation (crop sequencing) – the practice of growing a series
of dissimilar types of crops in the same space in sequential seasons
for various benefits such as to avoid the buildup of pathogens and
pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped.
o DDT - a chlorinated hydrocarbon used as a pesticide that is a
persistent organic pollutant.
o Decomposers – consumers, mostly microbial, that change dead
organic matter into minerals and heat.
o Deforestation - the conversion of forested areas to non-forest land
for agriculture, urban use, development, or wasteland.
o Desertification - the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry
sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but
primarily from human activities.
Page | 84
o Detritivore (detritus feeder) - animals and plants that consume

detritus (decomposing organic material), and in doing so contribute
to decomposition and the recycling of nutrients.
o Dioxin - any one of a number of chemical compounds that are
persistent organic pollutants and are carcinogenic.
o Drainage – (water management) that part of irrigation or rainfall
that runs off an area or is lost to deep percolation.
o Ecolabel - seal or logo indicating a product has met a certain
environmental or social standards.
o Ecological succession - the more-or-less predictable and orderly
changes in the composition or structure of an ecological
community with time.
o El Niño - a warm water current which periodically flows
southwards along the coast of Ecuador and Peru in South America,
replacing the usually cold northwards flowing current; occurs once
every five to seven years, usually during the Christmas season (the
name refers to the Christ child); the opposite phase of an El Niño is
called a La Niña.
o Emission standard - a level of emissions that, under law, may not
be exceeded.
o Emissions - substances such as gases or particles discharged into
the atmosphere as a result of natural processes of human activities,
including those from chimneys, elevated point sources, and
tailpipes of motor vehicles.
o Endangered species – a species which is at risk of becoming extinct
because it is either few in number, or threatened by changing
environmental or predation parameters.
o Energetics – the study of how energy flows within an ecosystem:
the routes it takes, rates of flow, where it is stored and how it is
used.
o Geothermal energy – heat emitted from within the Earth‘s crust as
hot water or steam and used to generate electricity after
transformation;
o Enhanced greenhouse effect - the increase in the natural
greenhouse effect resulting from increases in atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases due to emissions from human
activities.
o ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation) a suite of events that occur
at the time of an El Niño; at one extreme of the cycle, when the
central Pacific Ocean is warm and the atmospheric pressure over
Australia is relatively high, the ENSO causes drought conditions
over eastern Australia cf. El Niño, Southern Oscillation.
Page | 85
o Erosion - displacement of solids (sediment, soil, rock and other

particles) usually by the agents of currents such as, wind, water, or
ice by downward or down-slope movement in response to gravity
or by living organisms.
o Escherichia coli (E. coli) – a bacterium used as an indicator of
faecal contamination and potential disease organisms in water.
o Estuary - a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more
rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the
open sea.
o Eutrophication - the enrichment of waterbodies with nutrients,
primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, which stimulates the growth of
aquatic organisms.
o Evaporation – water converted to water vapour.
o Evapotranspiration (ET) – the water evaporating from the soil and
transpired by plants.
o e-waste - electronic waste, especially mobile phones, televisions
and personal computers.
o Extinction - the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa,
reducing biodiversity.
o Forest – land with a canopy cover greater than 30%.
o Fossil fuel - any hydrocarbon deposit that can be burned for heat or
power, such as coal, oil and natural gas (produces carbon dioxide
when burnt);
o Gaia hypothesis - an ecological hypothesis that proposes that living
and nonliving parts of the earth are a complex interacting system
that can be thought of as a single organism.
o Gene pool - the complete set of unique alleles in a species or
population.
o Genetic diversity - one of the three levels of biodiversity that refers
to the total number of genetic characteristics.
o Greenhouse effect - the process in which the emission of infrared
radiation by the atmosphere warms a planet's surface.
o Greenhouse gas - components of the atmosphere that contribute to
the greenhouse effect.
o Green manure - a type of cover crop grown primarily to add
nutrients and organic matter to the soil.
o Green Revolution - the ongoing transformation of agriculture that
led in some places to significant increases in agricultural
production between the 1940s and 1960s.
o Genetic engineering - the use of various experimental techniques to
produce molecules of DNA containing new genes or novel
combinations of genes, usually for insertion into a host cell for
cloning; the technology of preparing recombinant DNA in vitro by
Page | 86
cutting up DNA molecules and splicing together fragments from

more than one organism; the modification of genetic material by
man that would otherwise be subject to the forces of nature only.
o Genome – the total genetic composition of an organism
o Geothermal energy - energy derived from the natural heat of the
earth contained in hot rocks, hot water, hot brine or steam.
o Global warming – the observable increase in global temperatures
considered mainly caused by the human induced enhanced
greenhouse effect trapping the Sun‘s heat in the Earth‘s
atmosphere.
o
o Greenhouse gases - any gas that contributes to the greenhouse
effect
o Greywater – household waste water that has not come into contact
with toilet waste; includes water from baths, showers, bathrooms,
washing machines, laundry and kitchen sinks.
o Habitat - an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a
particular species.
o Herbicide – a chemical the kills or inhibits growth of a plant.
o Heterotroph -- an organism that requires organic substrates to
obtain its carbon for growth and development.
o Humus - organic material in soil lending it a bark brown or black
colouration.
o Hydrocarbons - chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen that
are found in raw materials such as petroleum, coal and natural gas.
o Hydroelectric power - the electrical power generated using the
power of falling water.
o Hydrosphere - all the Earth's water; this would include water found
in the sea, streams, lakes and other waterbodies, the soil,
groundwater, and in the air.
o Incineration - combustion (by chemical oxidation) of waste
material to treat or dispose of that waste material.
o Indicator species - any biological species that defines a trait or
characteristic of the environment.
o Infiltration - the process by which water on the ground surface
enters the soil.
o Insecticide - a pesticide used to control insects in all developmental
forms.
o Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - a pest control strategy that
uses an array of complementary methods: natural predators and
parasites, pest-resistant varieties, cultural practices, biological
controls, various physical techniques, and the strategic use of
pesticides.
Page | 87
o Intercropping - the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more

crops in the same space at the same time.
o Keystone species - a species that has a disproportionate effect on
its environment relative to its abundance, affecting many other
organisms in an ecosystem and help in determine the types and
numbers of various others species in a community.
o Landfill- solid waste disposal in which refuse is buried between
layers of soil, a method often used to reclaim low-lying ground; the
word is sometimes used as a noun to refer to the waste itself.
o Landfill gas – the gas emissions from biodegrading waste in
landfill, including CO2, CH4, and small amounts of nitrogen,
oxygen with traces of toluene, benzene and vinyl chloride.
o Land use planning - a branch of public policy which encompasses
various disciplines which seek to order and regulate the use of land
in an efficient and ethical way.
o Leaching – the movement of chemical in the upper layers of soil
into lower layers or into groundwater by being dissolved in water.
o Lithosphere - the solid outermost shell of a rocky planet considered
ideal for gardening and agricultural uses.
o Leaf area index (LAI) – the ratio of photosynthetic leaf area to
ground area covered.
o Loam - a soil composed of sand, silt, and clay in relatively even
concentration (about 40-40-20% concentration respectively),
*locally existing capacity - the total ecological production that is
found within a country‘s territories. It is usually expressed in
hectares based on world average productivity.
o Magma - molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of
the Earth (or any other terrestrial planet) that often collects in a
magma chamber and is ejected by volcanoes.
o Material flow – the cycling of materials, which is driven by the
flow of energy.
o Megadiverse countries – The 17 countries that are home to the
largest fraction of wild species (Australia is one such)
o Microorganism – an organism visible only through a microscope.
o Monoculture - the practice of producing or growing one single crop
over a wide area.
o Mortality rate – generally understood as the total number of deaths
per 1000 people of a given age group
o Mulch - any composted or non-composted organic material,
excluding plastic, which is suitable for placing on soil surfaces to
restrict moisture loss from the soil and to provide a source of
nutrients to the soil.
Page | 88
o Municipal waste - solid waste generated from domestic premises

(garbage and hard waste) and council activities such as street
sweeping, litter and street tree lopping.
o Natural resources - naturally occurring substances that are
considered valuable in their relatively unmodified form.
o Natural selection - the process by which favorable heritable traits
become more common in successive generations of a population
and unfavorable heritable traits become less common.
o Net primary production - the energy or biomass content of plant
material that has accumulated in an ecosystem over a period of
time through photosynthesis.
o Nonpoint source pollution - water pollution affecting a water body
from diffuse sources, rather than a point source which discharges to
a water body at a single location.
o Nutrients – chemicals required for the growth of organisms
o Oceania - the islands of the southern, western, and central Pacific
Ocean, including Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
o Omnivore - a species of animal that eats both plants and animals as
its primary food source.
o Open-pit mining or opencast mining - a method of extracting rock
or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or
borrow.
o Organic agriculture - a holistic production management system that
avoids the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides and GM
organisms, minimises pollution of air, soil and water, and
optimises the health and productivity of interdependent
communities of plants, animals and people.
o Pesticide - means any substance or mixture of substances intended
for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest.
o Photosynthesis – the transformation of radiant energy to chemical
energy by plants; the manufacture by plants of carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide and water. The reaction is driven by energy from
sunlight, catalysed by chlorophyll and releases oxygen as a
byproduct.
o Photovoltaic - the direct conversion of light into electricity
o Plankton – mostly microscopic animal and plant life suspended in
water and a valuable food source for animals.
o Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) - the principle that producers of
pollution should in some way compensate others for the effects of
their pollution.
o Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - a member of the vinyl family of
plastics. PVC can be clear, flexible or rigid and is used to make
products such as juice bottles, credit cards,
Page | 89
o Precipitation –any liquid or solid water particles that fall from the
atmosphere to the Earth‘s surface; includes drizzle, rain, snow,
snow pellets, ice crystals, ice pellets and hail
o Primary productivity - the fixation rate at which solar energy is
fixed by plants.
o Productivity (ecology) - the rate at which radiant energy is used by
producers to form organic substances as food for consumers.
o Pyrolysis - advanced thermal technology involving the thermal
decomposition of organic compounds in the complete absence of
oxygen under pressure and at elevated temperature.
o Rainwater harvesting – collecting rainwater either in storages or
the soil mostly close to where it falls.
o Rangeland – a region where grazing or browsing livestock is the
main land use.
o Recycling - a wide range of activities, including collection, sorting,
reprocessing and manufacture of products into new goods.
o Reforestation – the direct human conversion of non-forested land
to forested land through planting or seeding on land that was once
forested but no longer so.
o Renewable energy - any source of energy that can be used without
depleting its reserves. These sources include sunlight (solar energy)
and other sources such as, wind, wave, biomass, geothermal and
hydro energy.
o Respiration – uptake by a living organism of oxygen from the air
(or water) which is then used to oxidise organic matter or food. The
outputs of this oxidation are usually CO2 and H2O.
o Salinisation – the process by which land becomes salt-affected.
o Salinity – salt in water and soils; can make soils infertile.
o Sediment – soil or other particles that settle to the bottom of water
bodies.
o Sequestration – the removal of carbon dioxide from the Earth's
atmosphere and storage in a sink as when trees absorb CO2 in
photosynthesis and store it in their tissues.
o Sewage- water and raw effluent disposed through toilets, kitchens
and bathrooms.
o Sewerage - a system of pipes and mechanical appliances for the
collection and transportation of domestic and industrial sewages.
o Sinks - processes or places that store gases, solutes or solids.
o Sludge - waste in a state between liquid and solid.
o Sodification - the build-up in soils of sodium relative to potassium
and magnesium in the composition of the exchangeable cations of
the clay fraction.
Page | 90
o Soil bulk density – the relative density of a soil measured by

dividing the dry weight of a soil by its volume.
o Solar energy - the radiant energy of the Sun, which can be
converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or electricity.
o Solar power - electricity generated from solar radiation.
o Solid waste - non-hazardous, non-prescribed solid waste materials
ranging from municipal garbage to industrial waste.
o Surface runoff – the part of rainfall passing out of an area into the
drainage system.
o Suspended solids (SS) – solid particles suspended in water; used as
an indicator of water quality.
o Sustainability - development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.
o System – a set of parts organised into a whole, usually processing a
flow of energy.
o Technosphere – synthetic and composite components and materials
formed by human activity.
o Threshold –a point that, when crossed, can bring rapid and
sometimes unpredictable change in a trend. An example would be
the sudden altering of ocean currents due to the melting of ice at
the poles.
o United Nations - an international organisation based in New York
and formed to promote international peace, security, and
cooperation under a charter signed by 51 founding countries in San
Francisco in 1945
o Volatile organic compound (VOC) – molecules containing carbon
and differing proportions of other elements such as hydrogen,
oxygen, fluorine and chlorine. With sunlight and heat they form
ground-level ozone.
o Watershed – a water catchment area (North America) or drainage
divide (non-American usage).
o Weather - the hourly/daily change in atmospheric conditions which
over a longer period constitute the climate of a region.
o Wetlands - areas of permanent or intermittent inundation, whether
natural or artificial, with water that is static or flowing, fresh,
brackish or salt.
o Wind energy - the kinetic energy present in the motion of the wind.
Wind energy can be converted to mechanical or electrical energy.
o Zero waste – turning waste into resource; the redesign of resource-
use so that waste can ultimately be reduced to zero.
Page | 91
Bibliography and Suggested Readings
Books and research papers
1. Asthana, D. K., and Asthana, Meera, A Textbook of Environmental studies, 2006, S.

Chand and Company, New Delhi
2. Bharucha, E., Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses, 2004, University
Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi.
3. Enger, D. E. And Smith, B. F., Environmental Science-A Study of interrelationships.
1995, Brown Publishers, New York, USA
4. De, A. K, Environmental Chemistry,
5. Jaswal, P.S., Environmental Laws, 2003, Allahabad Law Agency, Faridabad
6. Jazib, M. J, Forest Dependence and Utilization Patterns of the Locals in the Pir Panjal
Himalayas, Journal of Civil and Environmental Research, 2015, Vol 7, No 1, pp78-
83, IISTE, New York, USA
7. Kaushak, A. and Kaushak, C. P., Perspectives in Environmental studies, 3rd Edition,
2008, New Age international (P) Ltd., Publishers, New Delhi.
8. Odum, E. P., Barret, G.W., Fundamentals of Ecology- Edition 5th, 2005,Cengage
Learning India (Pvt) Ltd, New Delhi.
9. Sharma, P. D., Ecology and Environment, 2003, Rastogi Publications, Meerut.
10. Singh, Y. K., Environmental science, 2006, New Age international (P) Ltd.,
Publishers, New Delhi.
11. Verma and Agarwal, Principles of Ecology, 2006, S. Chand and Company, New
Delhi.
Journals and periodicals

1. Down To Earth, New Delhi, India
2. Indian Forester, ICFREE, India.
3. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, NISCAIR, India.
4. Journal of Environmental Biology, Lucknow.
5. Nature, UK.
Websites
1. www.unep.org
Page | 92
2. www.nature.com
3. www.wikipaedia.org
4. www.jkenvis.nic.in
5. www.ecologyandsociety.org
6. www.ecology.ind.in
7. www.ecology.edu
8. www.greenanswers.com
Page | 93

Basics of Env SC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basics of Env SC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basics of Env SC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basics of Environmental Studies Junaid Jazib

Book is structured in a format consisting of various sections viz. Abstract, Introduction,

Your positive criticism and suggestions are warmly welcomed.

World Wetland day 2nd Feb

International Polar bear day 27th Feb

World wildlife day 3rd March

International day for actions for rivers 14th March

World Forestry Day 21st March

Water day 22nd March

Earth Day 22 April

Green day 4th May

World Biodiversity day 22nd of May

World Environment Day 5th June

World Population day 11th July

Tiger Day 29th July

Ozone Day 16th September

Zero emissions Day 21st September

World Soil Day 5th December

Man is the product of his environment

CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

“We won’t have a society if we destroy the environment"

The environmental complex is the natural integrated whole of all the

 Concept, importance, types and components of environment

DETAILS AND DISCUSSIONS

1.1.1 Definition and Concept

P. Gisbert says, ―environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting

According to E. J. Ross, ―environment is an external force which influences us‖.

 ‗A person‘s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he

 ‗The aggregate of surrounding things, conditions, or influences‘

1.1.2. Importance of Environment

A living organism is a product of its genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype

1.1.3. Types of Environment

a. Micro-environment: It refers to the immediate local surroundings of an organism.

1.2. Components of Environment

c. Social environment or Social component of environment

Social Environment includes an individual‘s social, economic and political condition

1.2.1 Physical Environment

The main physical components of the environment are:

a. The Atmosphere or the air

Table 1.1 Composition of earth's atmosphere

Atmospheric gases Relative abundance(in percentage)

Thermosphere: The thermosphere extends upwards to a height of several hundred

Figure 1.1 Layering and temperature-pressure pattern in atmosphere (source: Teachertech.rice.edu)

1.2.1bThe Hydrosphere (hydro=water; sphere=domain, area)

Water is an absolute essentiality of life on our

Both atmosphere and hydrosphere are always in

Figure 1.2 Hydrospheric component of environment (Source: Wikimedia)

1.2.1c The Lithosphere (lithos=roack;sphere=area, domain)

The lithosphere refers to the solid, outer part of the

Sedimentary Rocks (sediment=deposit): They develop as a result of gradual

Metamorphic Rocks (metamorphosis=transformation): These rocks are formed as a

1.2.2. Biological Environment or Biosphere (bio=life; sphere=area, domain)

1.2.3. Social Environment

• Culture and history

Atmosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere

Structure Sedimention Animal Micro

Earth Crust water s organi

river, springs, wells, lakes, ponds, etc

1.1. Ecological Balance in Nature