Microsoft Official Course

RDBMS
Topics (Module 1)

• Database Fundamentals and RDBMS Concepts

• Database & DBMS

• Relational Databases and associated concepts

• Normalization and different Normal forms

(Module 2)

• Introduction to SQL
To explain the basic DDL ,DML commands, the concept of sub queries
(independent and correlated), views, set operations (union, intersect, minus)
(Module 3)

• Advanced SQL queries

• Multi-Table Database Architecture

• SQL Joins and Multi-table Operations

• Subqueries
 Database Fundamentals and RDBMS Concepts

MODULE 1
What is RDBMS?

RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
Introduction

• All software is divided into two general categories: data

and programs.
• Programs are collections of instructions for manipulating data.
• Data can exist in a variety of forms ( number , text ,symbols, images
etc..)
EmployeeName Age Image Total Salary

Shiv 40 $25.000
Database management System

What is Database ?
A Database is a collection of related data

What is DBMS?
Application where the following operations can be performed on
data:
• Storing
• Modifying
• Retrieving
Traditionally the data was stored in form of File System.

• In traditional
approach, information
is stored in flat files
which are maintained
by the file system
under the operating
system’s control.

• Application programs
go through the file
system in order to
access these flat files
How data is stored in flat files

• Data is stored in flat files as records.

• Records consist of various fields which are delimited by a space,

comma, pipe, any special character etc.

• End of records and end of files will be marked using any

predetermined character set or special characters in order to

identify them
Storing employee data in flat files
Problems with traditional approach for storing data

• Data Redundancy

• Difficulty Accessing data

• Data Isolation

• Atomicity problem

• Program/Data Dependence

• Concurrent Access Anomalies

• Data Security
Data Redundancy and Inconsistency

Name Address AccNo Name Address

ABC Bhiwani 1002 ABC Bhiwani
DEF Delhi 1005 DEF Jaipur

Customer Information Saving Account

Difficulty in accessing data

Manager

Requirement

Application
Programs
File System
(Programs Database
Written in C (Data Structure (Information Storage
Pascal etc.) File Handling) in Files Format)
Data Isolation and Integrity Problems

Program in C Program in COBOL

#include <stdio.h>
01 Reserve-rec.
Main()
03 saving
{
05 accno PIC A(2)
-----
--------
}

New Document
Atomicity Problems

Bank
Data Transmission
Concurrent-access anomalies
Security Problems

Employee
Information
Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

DBMS RDBMS

DBMS applications store data as file. RDBMS applications store data in a tabular form.

DBMS does not apply any security with regards to data RDBMS defines the integrity constraint for the purpose
manipulation of ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability)
property.

DBMS does not support distributed database. RDBMS supports distributed database.

Normalization is not present in DBMS. Normalization is present in RDBMS

Data redundancy is common in DBMS. Keys and indexes are used to avoid redundancy.
Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

DBMS RDBMS

DBMS is meant to be for small organization and deal RDBMS is designed to handle large amount of data. it
with small data. it supports single user supports multiple users

In dbms relationship between two tables or files are In Rdbms relationship between two tables or files can
maintained programmatically be specified at the time of table creation.

Transaction management is not possible ,insecure. Efficient Transaction management and secure.

Examples of DBMS are file systems, xml etc. Example of RDBMS are mysql, postgre, sql server,
oracle etc.
View of DATA

View Level (External Level)

View 1 View 2 View n

Logical Data
Independent

Logical Level Conceptual View

Physical Data
Independent

Physical Level Internal View

Tier Architecture of DBMS (Database Architecture)

1. External Schema (View Level)

2. Conceptual schema (logical Level)

3. Internal schema (Storage Level)

External Schema

• Provides a separate view for different groups of users, where each

view represents only a part of database

• It allows user to access data in customized manner based on their

requirement

• It allows use a security mechanism by hiding part of data from a

group of users
Conceptual schema

• Provides a logical structure of entire database

• However it does not define how data is stored in database

• It defines what type of data can be stored by specifying the type

and size

• What type of data cannot be stored , by specifying constraints

• And what is the relationship among the data by specifying

referential integrity
Internal schema

Physical storage (the number bytes required , and the data storage
location)
E.F CODD’S 12 RULES OF RELATIONAL
DATABASE
OVERVIEW OF CODD’s RULE

• A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database

management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as
introduced by E. F. Codd.
• A short definition of an RDBMS may be a DBMS in which data is
stored in the form of tables and the relationship among the data is also
stored in the form of tables.
• E.F. Codd, the famous mathematician has introduced 12 rules (0-12)for
the relational model for databases commonly known as Codd's rules.
The rules mainly define what is required for a DBMS for it to be
considered relational, i.e., an RDBMS.
Rule 1: INFORMATION RULE

• All information in the database is to be represented in one and

only one way.
• All information in an RDBMS is represented as values in the
tables.
• This is achieved by values in column and rows of tables.

• All information including table names, column names and column

data types should be available in same table within the database.
• The basic requirement of the relational model.
Rule 2: GUARANTEED ACCESS RULE (No Ambiguity)

• Each unique piece of data should be accessible by:table name+primary

key(row) + attribute(column).

• All data are uniquely identified and accessible via this identity.

• Most RDBMS do not make the definition of the primary key mandatory

and are deficient to that extent .

Rule 3 : Systematic treatment of null values

• "Null values (distinct from the empty character string or a string of

blank characters and distinct from zero or any other number) are
supported in fully relational DBMS for representing missing
information and inapplicable information in a systematic way,
independent of data type."
Null

• NULLs may mean: Missing data, Not applicable

• Should be handled consistently - Not Zero or Blank

• Primary keys — Not NULL

• This is distinct to zero or empty strings

Rule 4:DATABASE DESCRIPTION RULE

• The data base description is represented at the logical level in the

same way as-ordinary data, so that authorized users can apply the
same relational language to its interrogation as they apply to the
regular data.

• The authorized users can access the database structure by using

common language i.e. SQL

Rule 5: COMPREHENSIVE DATA SUBLANGUAGE

A relational system may support several languages and various modes of

terminal use .However, there must be at least one language whose
statements are expressible, per some well-defined syntax, as character
strings and that is comprehensive in supporting all the following items :
• Every RDBMS should provide a language to allow the user to query the contents of the RDBMS and also
manipulate the contents of the RDBMS

• Data Definition (create,insert,update)

• View Definition

• Data Manipulation (alter,delete,truncate)

• Integrity Constraints (primary key,foreign key,null values)

• Authorization (GRANT , REVOKE)

• Transaction boundaries (begin,commit,rollbacketc)

.
Rule 6: VIEW UPDATING RULE

• View = ”Virtual table”, temporarily derived from base tables.

Example: If a view is formed as join of 3 tables, changes to view

should be reflected in base tables.
BELOW IS A TABLE NAMED ‘STUDENT‘.
RDBMS GIVES US THE FACILITY TO VIEW ONLY SOME PARTICULAR
FIELDS ACCORDING TO OUR NEED WHICH ARE DIRECTLY ACCESSED
FROM BASE TABLES WHEN REQUIRED.

name class Marks PUPIN

NUMBER
SONALI BCA-2 95 17231
TAMANNA BCA-2 90 17236
RAJWINDER BCA-2 90 17267
SAKSHI BCA-2 86 17893
SADHANA BCA-2 82 17453
TO VIEW ONLY THE NAME AND MARKS OF THE
STUDENT TABLE WE CAN WRITE THE FOLLOWING
SYNTAX:

CREATE VIEW RECORD

name Marks
AS SELECT NAME,MARKS FROM STUDENT;

VIEW IS CREATED. SONALI 95

TAMANNA 90
SELECT * FROM RECORD; RAJWINDER 90
SAKSHI 86
SADHANA 82
RULE 7 : HIGH-LEVEL INSERT , UPDATE AND DELETE

This rule states that insert, update, and delete operations should be supported for
any retrievable set rather than just for a single row in a single table.
It also perform the operation on multiple row simultaneously .
There must be delete, updating and insertion at the each level of operation. Set
operation like union, all union , insertion and minus should also supported.

EXAMPLE:
Suppose if we need to change ID then it will reflect everywhere automatically.
EXAMPLE

• Create table:
SQL>CREATE TABLE STUDENT_DATA
{ NAME ROLL_NO CLASS
NAME VARCHAR 2(20),
ROLL_NO VARCHAR 2(10 NAME ROLL_NO CLASS
),
KIRAN 4566 BCA
CLASS VARCHAR 2(20);
};
RAHUL 3455 BCA
INSERT ION:
SQL>INSERT INTO STUDENT_DATA(‘&NAME’,&ROLL_NO,’&CLASS’);
SQL>ENTER VALUE FOR NAME:KIRAN
SQL>ENTER VALUE FOR ROLL_NO:4556
SQL>ENTER VALUE FOR CLASS:BCA
SQL>/
RULE 8 :LOGICAL DATA INDEPENDENCE RULE

• What is independence?

The ability to modify schema definition in on level without affecting schema definition in the next higher
level is called data independence

• The ability to change the logical (conceptual) schema without changing the External schema (User View)
is called logical data independence.

• EXAMPLE:

The addition or removal of new entities, attributes, or relationships to the conceptual schema should be
possible without having to change existing external schemas or having to rewrite existing application
programs.
RULE 9:PHYSICAL DATA INDEPENDENCE

• The ability to change the physical schema without changing the logical schema is called physical
data independence.

• This is saying that users shouldn’t be concerned about how the data is stored or how it’s accessed.
In fact, users of the data need only be able to get the basic definition of the data they need.

• EXAMPLE:
A change to the internal schema, such as using different file organization or storage structures,
storage devices, or indexing strategy, should be possible without having to change the conceptual
or external schemas.
 RULE 10 : INTEGRITY INDEPENDENCE RULE
• Data integrity refers to maintaining assuring the accuracy and
consistency of data over its entire life cycle.

1. First insure that correct data type is used.

2. Check constraints: these allow column value to be checked agenized

other column before insertion is allowed.

RULE 11 : DISTRIBUTION INDEPENDECE RULE

• “THE RELATION DATA BASE MANAGEMENT HAS DISTRIBUTION INDEPENDENCE”

• Distribution independence implies that user should not have to be aware of whether a database is

distributed at different sites or not.

• Application program and adhoc request are not affected by the change in distribution of physical

data. Application program will work even if the programs and data are moved on different site

• The RDBMS may spread across the more one system or several networks
RULE 12 : NON-SUBVERSION RULE

• There should be no way to modify to database structure other then through the
multiple row data base language(SQL).

Example:

A relational system has a low-level (single-record-at-a-time) language, that low level cannot be used
to subvert or bypass the integrity Rules and constraints expressed in the higher level relational
language (multiple-records-at-a-time).”
Question 1

What is true regarding NULL value requirements confirming to Codd rule?

a. Null value should be zero.

b. Null value should be space.
c. Null value should represent missing information.
d. Either a or b.
Answer :
• c. Null value should represent missing information. According to Codd
rule, Null value should not be any regular data like zero, spaces etc, but
should represent that data is not available.
Question 2

According to Codd rule, how one should be able to access information about data structures like
databases, tables etc.

• a. Should be directly accessible via all programming languages.

b. Should be directly accessible via same query language used for data manipulation (e.g. select,
update statements etc)
c. Should be directly accessible via XML
d. All of the above
Answer :

• b. Should be directly accessible via same query language used for data

manipulation. For example, SQL can be used to retrieve information

about the tables, the column types etc.
Question 3

Which is true regarding multi row update?

• a. Multiple row updates should be prohibited.

b. Multiple row updates should be allowed only on tables without null values.
c. Multiple row updates should be possible.
d. Multiple row updates should be allowed only on integer data types
Answer :
• c. Multiple row updates should be possible.
 Normalization
NORMALIZATION
Normalization

• Normalization is a Process of Organizing Data to minimize data

redundancy (Duplicate data)

There are 2 Major Goals of normalization

1. Eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data in
more than one table) ensuring data dependencies make sense (only
storing related data in a table)

2. Normalization reduce the amount of space a database consumes

Types of normalization

• 1NF (First Normalization Form)

• 2NF (Second Normalization Form)

• 3NF (Third Normalization Form)

1NF (First Normalization Form)

• The table is said to first normal form if the data in each column is
automic (no mutiple value or comma seperated)
• No repeating column groups
unnormalized and normalized

Course Student
Database Ajay,
Raj,
Vijay
Math Kumar,
Kiran

Course Student
Database Ajay
Database Raj
Database Vijay
Math Kumar
Math Kiran
2NF (Second Normalization Form)

The table is said to be second normal form :-

1. it should be in 1NF
2. no redundant data
3. create a relationship using foreign key
1NF

Customerid custname age address phone ordered orderdate productid product price qty total

C001 Ajay 12 bangalore 11 1 1-1-2000 p1 books 400 4 1600

C001 Ajay 12 bangalore 11 1 3-4-2000 p2 Toys 400 2 800

2NF (Second Normalization Form)

Customer
Customerid custname age address phone

Orders
Customerid orderid orderdate product price qty total

• Customer-> Customerid (primary key)

• Orders-> Customerid (foriegn key)
3NF (Third Normalization Form)

The table is said to be third normal form if:-

1. Meet all conditions of 1NF and 2NF

2. does not contain any column which is not fully depend on primary
key.
3NF

Customer
Customerid custname age address phone

Orders
Customerid orderid orderdate product price qty total

1. Total is depends upon price and qty

2. Age is depends upon (DOB)
3. Remove price it depends on product(instead replace with pid)
DATABASE KEYS
DATABASE KEYS
• A Key is a data item that exclusively identifies a record. In other words,
key is a set of columns that is used to uniquely identify the record in a
table. It is used to fetch or retrieve records or data-rows from data
table according to the condition.
• The different database keys are:
1)Primary key
2)Candidate key
3)Foreign key
4)Alternate key
5)Secondary/Composite key
6)Super key
Primary key:

• A primary key is an attribute which has its own unique identity. A primary key never
repeat itself. The primary key should be chosen such that its attributes are never or
rarely changed.
Eg: Branch_id

• Candidate key:
• The keys which are eligible to be a primary key those set of keys are called as
candidate keys. It can be a attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies
a record. So a table can have multiple candidate key but each table can have
maximum one primary key.
• Eg: Branch_code
 Foreign key:
• Foreign key is used to generate the relationship between the tables.
Foreign key is a field in database table that is primary key in another
table.

• Eg: Branch_Id is a Foreign Key in Student_Information table that primary

key exist in Branch_Info(Branch_Id) table.

• Alternate key:
• Alternate keys are candidate keys that are not selected as primary key.
Alternate key can also work as a primary key. Alternate key is also called
“Secondary Key”.

• Eg: Branch_code
Composite key:

• Composite key is a combination of more than one attributes that

can be used to uniquely identity each record. It is also known as
“Compound” key. A composite key may be a candidate or primary
key.

• Eg: Branch_name & Branch_code together acts as Primary key.

• Super key:
• Super key is a set of on e or more than one keys that can be used
to uniquely identify the record in table. A super key is a combine
form of Primary Key, Alternate key and Unique key and Primary Key,
Unique Key and Alternate Key are subset of super key.
• Eg: { Branch_Name , Branch_Code }
ENTITY RELATION MODEL AND
ATTRIBUTE TYPES
ER DIAGRAM

An entity relationship diagram (ERD), also known as an entity relationship

model, is a graphical representation of an information system that depicts the
relationships among people, objects, places, concepts or events within that
system.

An ERD is a data modeling technique that can help define business processes
and be used as the foundation for a relational database.
COMPONENTS OF ER DIAGRAM

• Entity
• Weak entity
• Weak entity relationship
• Attributes
• Relationships
ENTITY

Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are named

with entity set that they represent.
WEAK ENTITY

• A weak entity is simply an entity where it’s existence depends on

another entity.
• We can’t logically have dependent(son, daughter, ..etc.) with the
absence of the employee table.
• It is sketched same as a normal entity but wit double lines.
ATTRIBUTE

• Attributes are the properties of entities.

• Attributes are represented by means of ellipses.
• Every ellipse represents one attribute and is directly connected to its
entity (rectangle).
Types of Attributes

• Simple Attribute

• Compound Attribute

• Derived Attribute

• Multi-valued Attribute
Simple Attribute

Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided further.

For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.
Compound Attribute

Composite attributes are made of more than one simple attribute.

For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and
last_name.
Derived Attribute

Derived attributes are the attributes that do not exist in the physical
database, but their values are derived from other attributes present in the
database.
For example, age can be derived from data_of_birth.
Multi-valued Attribute

Multi-value attributes may contain more than one values.

For example, a person can have more than one phone number,
email_address, etc.
RELATIONSHIP

A Relationship describes relation between entities.

Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box.
Name of the relationship is written inside the diamond-box.
All the entities (rectangles) participating in a relationship, are connected
to it by a line.
One to One Relationship

When only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, it

is marked as '1:1'.
The following image reflects that only one instance of each entity should
be associated with the relationship.
It depicts one-to-one relationship.
ONE TO MANY RELATIONSHIP

When more than one instance of an entity is associated with a

relationship, it is marked as '1:N'.
The following image reflects that only one instance of entity on the left
and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated
with the relationship.
It depicts one-to-many relationship.
MANY TO ONE RELATIONSHIP

When more than one instance of entity is associated with the relationship, it
is marked as 'N:1'.
The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity on the
left and only one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with
the relationship.
It depicts many-to-one relationship.
MANY TO MANY RELATIONSHIP

The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity on
the left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be
associated with the relationship.
It depicts many-to-many relationship.
ER Diagram of bank database scheme Addr
Branch_
no
1 BRANCH N BANK_BRAN
BANK CH
ES

1 1
Code Name Addr ACCTS LOANS

Acct_ N Balanc N Amou

Loan_n
no e nt
o
ACCOUN
Type LOAN Type
T
M
M
A_C L_C

Ssn N Name N

CUSTOME
Phone Addr
R
Why DBMS?

• Database systems are basically developed for dealing with large amount of
data.

• There are two main things in DBMS: Storing and Retrieval of Data
• Storage:
• According to the principles of database systems, the data is stored in
such a way that it acquires lot less space as the redundant data has been
removed before storage.
• Retrieval:
• Along with storing the data in an optimized and systematic manner, it is
also important that we retrieve the data quickly when needed. Database
systems ensure that the data is retrieved as quickly as possible.
 DBMS Database Models

• A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and defines how
data will be stored, accessed and updated in a database management system. While the
Relational Model is the most widely used database model, there are other models too:

• Hierarchical Model
• Network Model
• Entity-relationship Model
• Relational Model
Hierarchical Model

• this type of structure is also called as inverted tree with the

• top referred as ROOT
• In this model , data is organized like an organization chart
• each node in a chart represents an entity and its subordinate
• entity describes the next level of hierarchical tree